GNSS: Introduction

1. History of navigation system

2. U.S. satellite navigation systems
2.1 Transit
2.2 Timation
2.3 NAVSTAR GPS
2.3.1 GPS design objectives
2.3.2 Details
3. NAVSTAR GPS segments
3.1 Space segment
(a) First Generation: Block I Satellites
(b) Second Generation: Block II/IIA Satellites
(c) Third generation: Block IIR Satellites
(d) Fourth Generation: Block IIF Satellites
(e) Fifth Generation: Block III
3.2 Control segment
3.3 User segment
3.4 Present information on GPS
4. Advantages and current limitations of GPS
5. Status of GPS Surveying

1. History of Navigation System

• Stone Age
 Point of reference - Stones, trees and mountains
• Star Age (Celestial Navigation)
 Point of reference - Sun, the Moon and the stars
• Radio Age
 Radio signals
• Satellite Age
 Satellite-based radio navigation
 Point of reference - Satellites

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 Radio navigation systems
Radio Frequency using Developed by Working Principle
navigation
Systems
DECCA Low-frequency UK, Ireland Comparing the phase
hyperbolic difference of radio
navigation system signals
GEE VHF frequencies British system Measurement of the
time difference between
the reception of pulses
from ground
transmitters
LORAN-A 1850 kHz - 1950 kHz MIT, USA during Phase comparison
radio band WW-II

LORAN-C 100 kHz USA Phase comparison

OMEGA Very low frequency United States Hyperbolic navigation

(10 -14 kHz) system operates on
phase comparison
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Satellite Age
• Overcame limitations of radio navigation.
• Improved radio transmitters.
• Wider coverage: Satellite’s orbit at high altitudes.
• Accuracy in computing position depends on the accuracy
in computing the location of reference points (satellites).
• Continuously monitoring of satellite locations and their
orbits.
• 24 hr, all weather, 3-D positioning.

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 Historical development
• High Ranging (HIRAN): developed during World war II
• Inertial Survey System (ISS): requires vehicle (truck or helicopter) to
occupy a point of known coordinates (X,Y, Z) and remain stationary for
zero velocity update.
• Sputnik satellite (USSR): Initiation of satellite position fixing commenced
with the launch of the first by USSR in October 1957.
• Transit system (US Navy): Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS) in
1967, commonly called Transit.
• NAVSTAR (Navigation System with Time and Ranging) or GPS: In mid
1980’s US DoD began to implement a second generation, satellite
positioning system; Fully operational since January 1994.
• GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System): Similar to GPS from
USSR.
• GALILEO from European Commission.
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Various Satellite Navigation Systems

• TRANSIT: US navy
• TIMATION: US navy
• SECOR (Sequential Collation of Range): US army
• NAVSTAR GPS: DoD USA
• GLONASS: Russia
• PARUS (TSIKADA-M) and TSIKADA
• Cospas-Sarsat
• GEO-IK
• Etalon
• GALELIO: European countries
• COMPASS: China
• Michibiki: Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS): Japan
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• GAGAN: India
 2. US Satellite Navigation Systems
Satellite Developed by Number of Satellites launched
navigation satellites
system
TRANSIT Johns Hopkins Seven satellites Launched in 1960,
Applied Physics available to civilian
Laboratory by Dr. users in 1967.
Richard Kirschner in
the 1960s
TIMATION Naval Research Two satellites 1967
Laboratory (NRL)

SECOR US Army satellite Thirteen satellites 1964 and 1969

navigation

NAVSTAR Joint Program Office Block I- 11 1973

(JPO) under DoD
Block II/IIA- 28
Block IIR- 21 7

2.1 TRANSIT
• First US Navy operational satellite navigation system also known as
NAVSAT (Navy Navigation Satellite System) based on the Doppler
effect as observed by researchers at Johns Hopkins for Sputnik in 1957.
• Resulted in TRANSIT and gave basic for future GPS.
• Purpose:
 Locating Ballistic missile and submarines
 Navigation - Sea and air traffic
 Surveying – Hydrographic and geodetic
• Launched on April 13, 1960
 51° inclination orbit in low polar orbits.
 Altitude of 600 nautical miles (1100 km altitude).
 Apogee-745 and a perigee of 373 km.
 Orbital period of about 106 minutes.

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• Satellites broadcast ephemeris information continuously on 150 and 400
MHz.
• OSCAR and NOVA satellites used in system.
• Final constellation:
 Consisted of six satellites
 Three Ground control stations (GCS) and receivers.
• Last Transit satellite launched in August 1988 and Transit Program ended
navigation service on December 31, 1996.
• Limitation of Transit:
 Incapable of providing continuous navigation data in real time on a
global basis: Limited coverage, unavailability periods of 35-100 min.
 Inherently two dimensional
 Velocity sensitive

2.2 Timation
• Developed in 1972 by Naval Research Laboratory (NRL)
 Kept into a 70° inclination circular orbit
 Altitude 900 km.
• Timation satellites intended to provide time and frequency transfer.
• Original satellite flew with
 Stable quartz crystal oscillators.
 Later models first space-borne atomic clocks.
• Timation program was merged with Transit and GPS Programs

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 2.3 NAVSTAR GPS
2.3.1 GPS design objectives
• Suitable for different platforms: aircraft, ship, land-based and space (missiles and
satellites)
• Able to handle a wide variety of dynamics
• Real-time positioning, velocity and time determination capability to an
appropriate accuracy
• Positioning results available on a single global geodetic datum (reference system)
• Highest accuracy to be restricted to a certain class of authorized users
• Resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional)
• Redundancy provisions to ensure survivability of system
• Passive positioning system that does not require transmission of signals from user
to satellite(s)
• Ability to provide service to an unlimited number of users and world-wide
coverage
• Low cost and low power, therefore, highly complex satellite segment
• Total replacement of Transit satellite and other terrestrial navigation aid systems.
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2.3.2 Details
• US Air Force conducted concept studies for a 3-dimensional navigation
system called 621B.
USN TIMATION + USAF 621B 3-D = NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite
Timing and Ranging)
• Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging; Global Positioning System
(NAVSTAR GPS): a satellite-based, radio-based, radio-positioning and
time positioning and time-transfer system, designed, financed, deployed
and operated by US DoD.
• Designed to take over from existing navigation systems; to be supplied
to each man in field and installed in all military vehicles.
• First and foremost a defense system developed by US DoD as a military
system to provide worldwide coverage, 24 hours per day, low end user
cost, 10-20 m accurate navigation position.

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• First test signals from space were transmitted from Navigation Test
Satellite 2, launched in June 1977.
• First NAVSTAR satellite launched in 1978 and system was declared
fully operational in 1993.
• Most advanced real time positioning technique based on transmitting a
coded satellite message, which could be received by a ground portable
receiving unit (GPS receiver).
• Requires minimum of four satellites - three for 3D position and one to
keep track of time information.
• Typical GPS receiver unit for user consists of:
 antenna (radio receiving unit mounted on tripod),
 power supply source (battery),
 oscillator (usually quartz crystal),
 internal clock,
 mini computer.
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3. NAVSTAR GPS segments

Comprise three major segments:

Space Segment

1) Space Segment
2) Control Segment
3) User Segment
Control Segment

User Segment
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 3.1 Space Segment
Material/photos from: http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/
Satellite constellation which downlinks the following data:
• coded ranging signals
• position information
• atmospheric data and
• almanac

Basic functions of satellites:

• Receive and store information transmitted by control station
• Perform limited data processing by its own computer.
• Maintain very accurate time by means of 2 Cesium and 2 Rubidium
oscillators on board
• Transmit information to user by the signal message (navigational message)
• Maneuver to position in space by thruster controlled by control segment
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• System satellites arranged into different groups or generations:

 Block I
 Block II
 Block IIA (Advanced)
 Block IIR (Replenishment)
 Block IIR-M (Replenishment-Modernized)
 Block IIF (Follow on)
 Block III
• First GPS development satellite (Block I) launched in Feb 1978.
• First launch of operational (Block II) GPS satellite in Feb 1989, marked
beginning of steady progress toward a full constellation of 24 satellites.
This milestone was achieved in June 1993.
• Initial Operational Capability (IOC) was declared later that year.
• Full Operational Capability (FOC) (24 Hr functionality) was declared on 8
Dec, 1993, when there were 24 working Block I, II, and IIA satellites in
orbit.
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 (a) First Generation: Block I
• Block I constellation, predecessor to current GPS Block II constellation,
was transitory and experimental in nature with a focus on military
applications; current constellation has both defense and commercial
application.
• Built by Rockwell International as developmental prototypes, this block
consists of 11 prototype satellites (vehicle nos. 1 to 11), and were
launched between 1978 to 1985 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in
California. Since then a further 10 satellites have been launched.
 One was lost as a result of a launch failure,
 Three have reached end-of-life due to wear-out of their atomic clocks
 Two suffered failures of their three-axis attitude control system
 One Cesium and two Rubidium clocks

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• First four satellites differ in design than others. Satellites are located in
two nearly circular orbits at 63o inclination with respect to equator.
• Any two satellites in same orbits spaced by 60o with orbital period of 12
sidereal hours (any satellite appears 4 minutes earlier each day).
• Satellites had a design life of 4.5 years. All Block I satellites are now
non-operational. Last block I satellite was taken out of service on Nov
18, 1995.
• Main difference between these and later generation satellites: no ability
to degrade the transmitted signals to civilian users of GPS with a
reduction in the achievable positioning accuracy.

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 (b) Second generation: Block II

• Built by Rockwell International (vehicle nos. 13 to 21)

having 50 Hz navigation message for global use.
• Originally they were to be put into orbit from Space
Shuttle, but due to 1986 disaster, they were reinforced
and were launched using Delta II rocket; a process that
delayed the whole GPS program.
• Characteristics
 capability to degrade the signal (selective availability SA)
and anti-spoofing (AS)
 design life of 7.3 years with two rubidium and two cesium
atomic clocks, and three nickel-cadmium batteries which
provide energy during eclipse periods and weighing 844 kg Delta II rocket

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• Automatic detection of certain error conditions.

• Satellites have a nominal orbital period of 12 sidereal hours such that they
complete 2 orbital revolutions within a 24 hour period while the earth
rotates 360o, resulting in a trace of orbits on earth surface that repeats
twice daily.
• Each satellite is about the size of a large van with each solar panel
covering a surface area of 7.2 m2.
• Original constellation was for 24 satellites, in 3 orbital planes and inclined
to the equator, but these plans have since been changed and the satellites
are currently placed into six different orbital planes, with four satellites in
each plane.

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 Second generation: Block IIA (Advanced)

• Block IIA is an advanced version of block II with increase in navigational

message data storage capability from 14 days for block II to 180 days for
block IIA (vehicle nos. 22 to 40) and were launched during 1990-97.
• Capability to degrade the signal (selective availability SA) and anti-
spoofing (AS)
• Design life of 7.3 years (weighing 844 kg) with two rubidium (Rb) and
two Cesium (Cs) atomic clocks, and three nickel-cadmium batteries
providing power during eclipse periods

Block II A Atomic
satellite clock

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• Weight: 930 kg (in orbit), Size: 5.1

m Travel at 4 km/sec, Design life:
7.5 years
• Transmit L1 + L2 signals (1575.42 +
1227.60 MHz), Receive at 1783.74
MHz
• 2 cesium + 2 rubidium clocks
• Launched by Delta rocket
• Manufacturer: Rockwell Int’l
• Altitude: 20183 km
• Orbital pd: 12 Sidereal hours

Constellation consists of six orbital planes

with four satellites in each plane. Each
satellite is identified with a two-character
code: a letter identifies the orbital plane (A
through F) and a number identifies the
satellite number in the plane (Enge and
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Misra, 1999)
 Simplified representation of Nominal GPS constellation
(Dana, 2000)
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(c) Second generation: Block IIR (Replenishment/Replacement)

• These satellites (vehicle no. 42 to 61; first launch SVN: 42 was

unsuccessful) had a longer life (10 years) with one Cesium and two
Rubidium clocks.
• Capability to autonomously navigate (AUTONAV) themselves and
generate their own 50 Hz navigation message data which enables them to
maintain full signal-in-space (SIS) accuracy for at least 180 days without
Control Segment support (without ground correction or accuracy
degradation). This capability is partly due to mutual satellite
communication.
• Have reprogrammable satellite processors enabling problem fixes and
upgrades in-flight and increased satellite autonomy.

Block IIR and M satellites 24

 • Could be launched into any of required GPS orbits at any time,
assuming a 60-day advanced notice, and required many fewer ground
contacts to maintain constellation. All of these improvements result in
increased accuracy for GPS users.
• Starting from 1996, 13 (one unsuccessful) block IIR successfully
launched till 2005 to maintain full constellation.
• Will be backward compatible to block II/IIA i.e. changes are
transparent to users.
• Predicted ephemeris and clock data for a period of 210 days are
uploaded by ground control segment to support autonomous
navigation

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(d) Second generation: Block IIR-M (Replacement,

modernized)
• In September 2005, the first satellite of a new generation (IIR-M, replacement,
modernized) was successfully launched.
• The satellites of this type has the capacity to implement a second civil signal (L2C)
and a new military signal with a new code (M-code on L1M and L2M).

(e) Second Generation: Block IIF (follow on)

• Block IIF is planned to provide a third frequency for civil use (L5), allowing
position determinations with even higher precision. This Block IIF satellites may be
equipped with hydrogen maser clocks instead of atomic clocks due to their even
higher precision.
• Will consist of 33 satellites with improved capabilities.
• Life span of 15 years.
• Launch started from 28 May 2010, two till 1 Jan 2012.

(f) Third Generation: Block III Satellites

In November 2000, Lockheed Martin and Boeing were each awarded a $16-million, 12-
month study contract by Air Force to conceptualize next generation GPS satellite,
which will be known as GPS Block-III.
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 (b) Control Segment
• Responsible for operating GPS and to update navigational message
of the satellites.
• GPS Master Control Station (also known as the Consolidated
Satellite Operations Center - CSOC) is located near Colorado
Springs, Colorado.
• Master Control Station (MCS) has monitoring stations distributed
around world to continuously track satellites in view.
• Information on satellites is then transmitted to MCS where
computations are made and an up-to-date navigation message is
uploaded to satellites; several uploads per day per satellite.

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• MCS can also implement a controlling methodology called as Selective

Availability (SA) to provide limited civilian access - involves
manipulating satellite clock and by altering navigational message
(satellite orbital data). From 1 May 2000, SA was put off.
• Under SA:
 For authorized military users 3D positional accuracy of 16 m with
full access to P-code
 For civilian user 2D accuracy of 100 m with degradation of C/A code
by SA.
• Control segment stations are eyes and ears of GPS and monitor
satellites by measuring distances to them.
• This data is then smoothed using ionospheric and meteorological
information before 15 minute normal points are generated and sent to
MCS at the US Air Force's Space Command facilities at Colorado
Springs.

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 Main source:
http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/control_segment.htm
• Initially, control network had MCS (located on Schriever Air Force
Base, formerly Falcon AFB, about 20 km south of Colorado Springs) and
four additional monitoring stations (on Hawaii, Ascension Islands,
Diego Garcia and Kawajalein)
• During August and September 2005, six more monitor stations of NGA
(National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency; earlier lnown as DMA:
Defense mapping Agency and then NIMA: National Imagery and
mapping Agency) were added to the grid. Now, every satellite can be
seen from at least two monitor stations. This allows to calculate more
precise orbits and ephemeris data and hence a better position precision
for user.
• In the near future, five more NGA stations will be added so that every
satellite can be seen by at least three monitor stations. This improves
integrity monitoring of the satellites and thus the whole system.
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• Control segment estimates:

 Parameters describing satellites' orbit and clock performance
 Health status of satellites
 Requirement for any re-positioning of satellites.
• This information is then returned to three uplink stations (located at
monitoring stations: Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein)
which uplink information to satellites.

Location of monitoring stations

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(http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/control_segment.htm)
 Control sub segments
1. Sub-segment 1: Monitoring station
2. Sub-segment 2: Master control station
3. Sub-segment 3: Transmitting station

Functionality of Control segment (Seeber, 2001) 31

(i) Control Sub-segment I (Monitoring segment)

• It initially consisted of 5 tracking/monitoring stations to collect data based
on observing satellite in their orbits. Locations:
 Kwajalein
 Diego Garcia
 Ascension
 Hawai
 Colorado Springs
• Now 11 stations; will be increased to 21 in future.

Tracking implemented with:

• two frequency receivers
equipped with highly
precise Cesium oscillators
and
• collection of Meteorological
data for accurate evaluation
of tropospheric delay

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(ii) Control Sub-segment II (Master control segment)

• One MCS, at US Air Force's Space Command facilities at Colorado

Springs, takes data from other monitoring stations and consequently
predicts satellites orbits by extrapolation.
• Computes clock correction for satellite time referred to GPS time
frame.
• Satellite time synchronization done by connecting master control
station to US Naval Observatory (USNO) in Washington DC.
• Correction data sent to transmitting station.

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(iii) Control Sub-segment III (Uplinking segment)

• Three transmitting stations (Ascension Island, Diego Garcia

and Kwajalein) for transmitting recent data (including
broadcast message) to satellites.
• Send telemetry commands for repositioning, switching spare
components, etc.

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 (c) User Segment
• Consists of receiving units with capability to obtain real time
positioning.
• GPS receivers are hand-held radio-receivers/computers which
measure the time that the radio signal takes to travel from a GPS
satellite until it arrives at the GPS antenna.
• Using the travel time multiplied by the speed of light provides a
calculation of range to each satellite in view. From this and
additional information on the satellites orbit and velocity, the
internal GPS receiver software calculates its position through a
process of resection.

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3.4 Current status on GPS

• Two microwave carrier signals:
 L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz) and C/A Code and P Code modulated
 L2 frequency (1227.60 MHz) and only P-Code modulated.
• Global Coordinate Reference: WGS-84 ECEF.
• Current GPS constellation consists of 22 Block II/IIA and 6 Block IIR
satellites. Boeing is under contract with the US Air Force to build three
GPS IIF satellites with a potential for up to 12 satellites.
• Currently (as of January 1, 2012)
 Satellites from Block II/IIA/IIR/IIR-M/IIF (the most recent Block IIF satellite
was launched on 14 October 2011)
 AS/SA capability, multiple clocks

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 4. Advantages and current Limitations of GPS

(http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/snap/gps/gps_survey/chap2/232.htm)

Advantages
• Intervisibility between stations is not necessary.
• Independent of weather conditions as a result of using radio
frequencies to transmit the signals.
• If the same field and data reduction procedures are used, position
accuracy is largely a function of inter-station distance, and
independent of network shape or geometry.
• Because of the generally homogeneous accuracy of GPS surveying,
geodetic network planning in the classical sense is no longer relevant.
The points are placed where they are required and need not be
located at evenly distributed sites atop mountains to satisfy
intervisibility, or network geometry criteria.

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• Because of the two advantages (no need for intervisibility of stations

and to follow a conventional network design strategy), GPS surveying is
more efficient, more flexible and less time consuming positioning
technique than using terrestrial survey technologies.

• Can be used around-the-clock.

• Provides three-dimensional information.

• High accuracies can be achieved with relatively little effort, unlike

conventional terrestrial techniques. The GPS instrumentation, and to
some extent the data processing software, is similar whether accuracies
at the 1 part in 104 or 1 part in 106 level are sought.

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 Current Limitations of GPS
• High efficiency has its price. Efficient use of GPS requires that travel
times between stations are cut in order to match the savings in on-site
time.
• Because station intervisibility is not necessary GPS is a particularly
attractive technology for use in rugged, inhospitable terrain. However,
the logistical problems of transporting and supporting several field
parties are still formidable.
• GPS requires that there be no obstruction to the signals by
overhanging branches or structures (though the antenna can be raised
above the obstruction). It cannot be used underground and may have
limited application in densely settled urban areas.
• GPS coordinates are provided in the earth-centered, earth-fixed
coordinate (ECEF) system defined by the GPS satellite ephemerides
(the WGS84 system when the broadcast ephemeris is used). Results
may need to be transformed into a local geodetic system before they
can be integrated with results from conventional surveys.
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• GPS results are, in general, more accurate than the surrounding control
marks established by terrestrial techniques over time. Comparison of
GPS and terrestrial results will be the source of confusion, controversy
and conflict for many years to come.

• GPS vertical information is not provided in the height system generally

required. The GPS heights have to be reduced to a sea level datum (more
precisely, the geoid).

• Two intervisible stations would have to established by GPS in order to

satisfy the requirement for azimuth data for use by conventional (line-of-
sight) survey methods.

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 • Because GPS surveys can be optimized (by appropriate selection of
sites) to satisfy the specific needs of the particular survey, these may
not be useful for other applications in the same area. Further, GPS
surveys may need to be carried out, as the need arises, for new
applications. The extreme of this would be to dispense with a
permanently monumented control network altogether, and to require
the re-establishment of coordinates by GPS each time the need arises.
• GPS instrumentation is still comparatively expensive. Although the
price of one receiver is likely to soon match that of a theodolite-EDM
instrument, a minimum of two are required for survey work.
• GPS requires new skills to be learned, and new procedures and
strategies for planning, field operation and data analysis to be
developed. In addition, an understanding of how GPS results can be
integrated with conventional horizontal and vertical networks is
required.

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5. Status of GPS Surveying

10 to 12 years ago
• For specialists only
• National and continental networks
• Observation times not important
• Accuracy important
• Reliable results often required operator intervention
• Software was hardly user friendly
5 years ago
• Post processing only
 Most people used GPS for control surveys
 A few used it for detail and topographic surveys
• Main improvements were in
 Smaller receivers
 Rapid static
 Kinematic, Stop & Go
 User friendly software 42
Today
• All people expected to use it, for a variety of applications.
• Accuracy and reliability almost taken for granted.
• Speed, ease-of-use, user features are key requirements
• Software has to be automated and user friendly.
• Constant demand for additional capabilities.
• GPS surveying to centimeter accuracy is an indirect measurement system.
• Satellites 20,000 km above the earth, code measurements to cm, phase
measurements to mm, atmospheric models, sophisticated processing
algorithms, etc.
• It is all highly complex, yet today we expect it to be a standard surveying
tool, almost like a total station or EDM.

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