; a B Draw: w Simple block, diggrom. of ‘an, acho-Sounden. and stale dhe -fimetion at -each component. — Recmedare Pelee— Treamemilter | Troneduce2__ JE a Pulse Generator? TH crea\g olectrical pulses and supply if te comgmiting, amsducer. Oseillator: Oseillator. ane too Aypu — ‘Grams tings osdllatere , Reerivind Oval tor froth are gemtly called -fromsducoz . Hs vibrating sunfate- ig in Contact with the water , ts abeuf 9 xX200m jn aren , late eonvoits tha electeleak osuillaton ints | the. peoensmittin oscil | mechani cad sstitlation and ged im Jo tne anid occillectore | The reativing ovulleton fr aga ontdlt nay | ameckornitat sseiflacion. info obeetrical esciladion i ome Tr amplifies the weak eketial oscillation to a —ampliftert eee one amd fed into the “mdicator or “ Resordng. Tecorder | Scanned by CamScanner| Ai Recorder ore REO ore Indicators Tt indicates the depth on “record time imbenvol betwee he sending Ke receiving. echo, | So, -+he pulse Bemenator. amplifier and recorder ane} normaly eneloca mio one unit and two oscillatons axe emelosd. Im one unit an tomeduterd .what is the principle of navigation? [The principle of navigation refers to the fundamental concepts and techniques used to determine and control the position, direction, and course of movement of a vessel, vehicle, or individual from one location to another. Itis based on three primary elements: posi n, direction, and distance. Below are the key principles: 1. Determining Position + Knowing your current location is crucial for navigation. This can be achieved through: + Celestial navigation: Using the sun, stars, and planets. + Terrestrial navigation: Using landmarks or physical features. + Electronic navigation: Using systems like GPS or radio signals. 2. Establishing Direction + Understanding the direction of travel or bearing is vital. This is done using: + Compass navigation: Magnetic or gyroscopic compasses. + True vs. Magnetic North: Adjusting for the variation between magnetic north and true north + Relative bearings: Using angles relative to the direction of travel. 3. Measuring Distance + Distance traveled or to be traveled is important for estimating time and ensuring you stay on course: + Dead reckoning: Using speed and time to estimate position. + Rangefinding tools: Such as radar or sonar. 4. Planning the Route + Navigation involves plotting a safe and efficient path, avoiding obstacles, hazards, and unfavorable conditions. + Charts and Maps: For land or sea navigation, + Environmental factors: Accounting for winds, currents, or terrain. 5. Monitoring and Adjusting + Continuously observing position and comparing it to the planned route to make adjustments. + Feedback loops: Using navigational aids like buoys, waypoints, or satellite signals,‘Bpain how principle of navigation remain unchanged with the dvancament of technology “The principles of navgston hae emained largely unchange despite the rep svancement of technology because they are rooted in fundamental concepts of spats anreness, postion determination, and movement Here's how these Princiles persist: 1. Position Fixing + Unchanged Principle: Navigation starts with determining your current positon. etry, ths ivoied celestial observations, lidar, or compass bearings, + Modern Technology: GPS and oto satalitosyetoms now provide highly accurate Postion data, butte principle of knowing “where you are remains the same. 2. Direction Finding + Unchanged Principle: Navigation requitesentying the direction of trv traenally done using a compass or celestial odls Ike the North Sta. + Modern Technology: Distal compasses, gyroscopes, and integrated navigation sytersin moder devices sare the same purpose but with improved precision. 3, Dead Reckoning + Unchanged Principle: Estimating «poston based ona known starting pont, rection speed, and tne hasbeen a cove navgstion method for catia, + Modern Technology: Aircraft, sips and vehiclos stil use dead reckoning, now suugmented by sensors, sorts, and data fem GPS when signa are navaiae 4. Charting and Mapping + Unchanged Prinepl: Navision res on understanding the geoaraphy of o 02, sing maps or chars + Modern Technology: Paper maps have largely been repleced by dita maps end {Geographic Information Systems (6S), but the Kea of refering toa spatial representation of the area remains the same, 8. Wayfinding + Unchanged Principle: Pcting scours from ane ponte anather ivaves ldentiyeg waypoints nd routes. + Modern Technology: Automted systems calculate optinal routes, but tho concept of reakng journey into manageable segments timeless. 6. Error Checking + Unchanged Principle: Navigators have always cross-checked thet postions and routes to void ears + Modern Technology: Redundancy in navigation systoms(e, using GPS sdongsie inertia navigation) refects the same principle of ensuring accuracy. 7.Environmental Awareness + Unchanged Principle: Factors lke curens, wind, and train must be considered inaction. + Moser Technology: Advanced sensors and rea-ime envrcementl data Improve prediction, but he principle of edpting tothe envronment persists Conelusion| Wri the tots and methods have evolved damatialy the foundational principles of navigationdeterminng posto, direction, and course, whe accountng fr semirmental laters and potential ertrs~remai consistent. Technology enhances accuracy, efieny, ae convenience, butt still adheres to these enduring principles,Whats twilaht? Define various types of twilight. Explain why ‘wight is important for mariners? [Hh Twiightis the period of ime between sunset and complete darkness (evening ‘wilght) or between complete darkness and sunrise (morning twifght). It occurs ‘when the Suni below the horizon butt ight is stil scattered by the Earth's atmosphor,ituminating tho sky partly. ‘Types of Twilight ‘There are teee main types of twlght, defined bythe postion ofthe Sun below the berizon: 1. Chil wight + Definition: The Suns less than 6* below the horizon + Charaetersties: + Sufficient natural ight for most outdoor activites without artificial ‘lumination, + Horizons clearly visible, and brighter stars and planets become vse near the end (evening) or begining (morning) of this period. + Uses: ideal for photography, outdoor aches, and navigation, 2. Nautical Twitght + Definition: The Sun s between 6° and 12" below the horizon. + Characteristics: + The horizon remains distinguishable at sea, + Brighter celestial objects become vsble, enabling mariners to navigate using the stars, + Uses: Critical for sallors and mariners to determin ther pesiton at sea using 2 sextant and visible stars, 3 Astronomical Twilight + Definition: The Suns between 12° and 18° below the horizon, + Characteristics: + The sky is dark enough for astronomers to observe celestial abject without Interference fram sunlight. + End of astronomical twilight marks the beginning of full night Importance of Twilight for Mariners, “Twilight, especially nautical twilight, holds signfcant importance for mariners cue to te folowing reasons: 1. Navigation by Stars: + During nautica tight, the horizon i stil vibe, and stars are bright enough {or celestial navigation + Mariners uso a soxtant to measure the angular distanco of colestal objects trom ‘the horizon, allowing them to determine their position 2. Visibity: + The remaining light during civil tight aids in visual navigation near coasts, harbors, or shallow waters, reducing reliance on artical ihts. 3. Safety: + Twilight provides a transition tine to prepare fr nightime navigation or dayight ‘ling, ensuring proper adjustments to equipment and watch routines. 4, Predictability: + Tight tos ae predictable and vary with latitude and season, Mariners use these times to plan operations and activities ecient In summary, twiight serves aa cftical window for both practical navigation and ‘safe transitions between day and right for marinersDefine 18) GP_b) SHAc) Horizontal Perliax Spring and Neap tide e) (Chart datum 1) Equinoctial g) Stolar Magnitude Definitions: 2) GP (Geographical Position): + The point onthe Eart’s surface directly below a celestial body, where the celestial body is at the zenith (rectly overhead) + tis spectid by its latitude and longitude ') SHA (Sidereal Hour Angle}: + The angular distance measured westward along the celestial equator from the ‘vernal equinox (the Fist Pint of Aris) to the hour cic of a coastal body. + ts used in celestal navigation ta locate stars and ather celestial objects Horizontal Paralax: + The apparent angular shit in the postion of a celestial body when observed from the Earth's surface instead of ts center. «Its largest for objects close to Earth ke the Moon, and is used to caleulate stances to celestial bodies Spring and Neap Tide: + Spring Tide: + Occurs curing new moon and full moon phases, when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are aligned + The combined gravitational pul ofthe Sun and Moon produces higher high tides ‘nd lower ow tes + Neap Tide: + Occurs during frst quarter aclast quarter moon phases, when the Sun and Moon ae trght angles to each other relative to Earth, + The gravitational forces counteract, resting in lower high tikes and higher tow tides ©) Chart Datum: + reference evel for water depths and tidal heights used in nautical chats, + Usually based on the lowest astronomical tide (LAT), ensuing thatthe dopths ‘shown on charts are conservative and safe for navigation 1) Equinoctiat: + Another name forthe celestial equator, wtichs the projection ofthe Earths ‘equator onto the celta sphere «tie an imaginary great ele that divides the celestial ephara into the northem and southern hemispheres. + The Sun crosses the equinectisl ding the equinoxes (around March 21 and September 23), 9) Stellar Magnitude: + Ameasure ofa star's brightness as seen rom Earth, + Apparent magnitude: Th brightness of a star as observed from Earth, + Absolute magnitude: The brightness a star would have if observed from a standard distance of 10 parsecs. + The scales logarithmic: brighter star have lower or even negative magnitudes, wile dimmer stars have higher magnitudes.What is the International Date Line? Why is it necessary and how is the date on the ship crossing the International Date Line on an Easterly course affected? © The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line that runs roughly along the 180° longitude in the Pacific Ocean, opposite the Prime Meridian. It serves as the boundary where the date changes by one day. The IDL is not straight; it zigzags to avoid splitting countries or islands into different dates. Why is the International Date Line necessary? The Earth is divided into time zones, with each zone generally spanning 15° of longitude and differing by one hour. However, since the Earth is a sphere, traveling east or west around the globe eventually leads to a discrepancy in dates. The IDL ensures that there is a consistent point where the date shifts, maintaining the continuity of the calendar and timekeeping worldwide. Without it, managing dates and times in a global context would be chaotic. Effect of Crossing the IDL on a Ship + When a ship crosses the IDL on an easterly course (from west to east), the date decreases by one day (e.g., if it is Tuesday, it becomes Monday). + Conversely, when traveling westward, the date increases by one day. This adjustment is necessary to synchronize with the global calendar system. For example: + Aship traveling eastward may leave Monday, December 2, and upon crossing the IDL, it becomes Sunday, December 1. + This ensures continuity in global datekeeping as the ship moves through different time zones.‘Compare the differences between GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO stelite navigation system in terms of avalabilty, coverage, preferred area of use. Here's a comparison of the GPS, GLONASS, and GALILEO satelite navigation systems based on availability, coverage, and preferred area of use: 1. Global Positioning System (GPS) + Availabilty (GPS is operational globally and widely available. Managed by the United States government, it is free to use for civilian applications and highly reliable + Coverage: GPS provides near-global coverage with a constellation of at least 24 operational satellites, « Preferred Area of Use: GPS is the most commonly used system worldwide across all applications including navigation, aviation, miltary, and personal devices. itis especially dominant in North, America 2.GLONASS + Availability GLONASS, managed by Russi, is fully operational and fre for civilian use. It can work independently or in conjunction with other systoms. + Coverage: GLONASS provides near-global coverage wit 20-25 operational satelite, butts performance is optimized for high latitudes (e.9., northern regions) + Proferred Area of Use: Itis prefered in Russia and surrounding areas, especially n regions with high latitudes where GPS accuracy might degrade. I's widely used in Russian military and commercial sectors. 3. GALILEO + Availability GALILEO, managed by the European Union, achieved fll operational capability in 2028. tis available for civlfan use and offers some premium services for authorized + Coverage: Like GPS, GALILEO provides global coverage with 24 operational satelites. + Preferred Area of Use: GALILEO is designed for European users and applications, emphasizing Independence from non-European systems. Its high accuracy appesls to precision- ddomanding industries, such as surveying and autonomous vehictes. Key Differences: ‘Operational Authority USA 020) | Russie Rescoumes) EU European Space Aseney) ‘ecuacy (Chi) S-Snetws | Temes lee rou evens er emo! secre) ‘esis Optinizaton Oats Mohini | ape lb fc) Using multiple systems together (mult-GNSS) improves accuracy and reliability, particularly in challenging environments,‘What is the second trace echo of an echo sounder or RADAR? How to get rid ofthis problem? Il The second trace echo in an echo sounder or radar system is @ phenomenon that. ‘occurs when the transmitted pulse reflects off a distant target and returns after the next pulse has already been transmitted. As a result, the system incorrectly interprets the delayed return as a closer object or target, based on the timing of the second pulse rather than the first. This can lead to erroneous readings. How Second Trace Echoes Occur: 1. The radar or echo sounder sends out a pulse and waits for the reflected echo to return. 2, Ifthe reflected signal travels a very long distance (e.g,, due to a distant or highly reflective surface), it may take longer than the pulse repetition interval (PRI) to return. 3. When the echo arrives, the system mistakenly associates it with the next pulse rather than the original pulse, causing it to appear closer than it actually is. How to Get Rid of Second Trace Echoes: 1. Adjust the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): + Lowering the PRF increases the time between transmitted pulses (PRI). This gives longer-distance echoes enough time to return before the next pulse is sent. + However, alower PRF reduces the maximum unambiguous range and may decrease the update rate. 2. Use Pulse Coding or Differentiation: + Modern systems can encode pulses or use frequency shifts to distinguish between echoes from different pulses. This helps the system identity second trace echoes and reject them. 3. Limit the Display Range: + Restricting the display range ensures that only echoes within the unambiguous range (based on the PRI) are shown, effectively hiding second trace echoes. 4, Filter or Process Signals: + Advanced signal processing techniques can identify echoes that do not ft within the expected timing window or have abnormal characteristics (e.g, intensity or shape) and filter them out. 5, Increase Pulse Power or Sensitivity Settings: + Enhancing sensitivity or pulse power can help differentiate between genuine first-return echoes and second trace echoes. 6. Manual Identification: + Operators can be trained to recognize second trace echoes by their irregular positions, movement, or consistency over time. Each mitigation method has trade-offs, such as reducing the maximum range or increasing processing complexity, so the choice depends on the application (e.g., marine navigation, aviation, or ground surveillance).‘What is ECDIS? What is ENC? What are the mandatory sensors of ODIs? What is CATZOC? I ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System): ECDIS is @ computerized navigation system that integrates electronic navigation charts (ENC) with real-time ship data, such as GPS and radar, to assist in safe navigation. t replaces traditional paper charts and enhances situational avareness by providing real-time positioning, route planning, and manitoring capabilties, ECDIS fs mandbatory under the international Martime Organization's (IMO) SOLAS. {Safety of Life at Sea) Convention for certain classes of ships, ensuring compliance with navigation safety standards, ENC (Electronic Navigational Chart): ENCs ae official, vector-based digital charts produced by or on behalf of national hydrographic offices. They contain standardized, layered data about water depths, navigation als, hazards, and coastal features that canbe interpreted by ECDIS. ENCs comply with the International Hydrographic Organization's (IHO) $-67 or $-101, standards. NCS are updated regularly to provide the most accurate and rliable information for safe navigation, Mandatory Sensors of ECDI: To function correctly and comply wth regulations, ECDIS requires input from various sensors. The mandatory sensors include 1. GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) + Provides real-time positioning data, such as fram GPS or other satellite systems 2. Gyrocompass: + Supplies heading information 3. Speed Log: + Moasures the vassals speed over ground or through water 4, Echo Sounder: + Provides water depth information. 5. Radar/ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Ald): + Enhances situational awareness by integrating radar targets into the ECDIS. splay 6, AIS (Automatic kientitication System): + Displays nearby vessel information to improve collision avotdance CATZOC (Category Zone of Confidenc (CATZ0C isa standardized classification system used in ENCs to indicate the reliability and accuracy of hydroaraphic data for a specific are. Itis represented on the ECDIS as symbols and categorized as follows: = GATZOG At and 2: High confidence in data accuracy, often based on madern surveys. + CATZOC B: Medium confidence, typically from less precise survey methods = CATZOC C and D: Low confidence, indicating older or less reliable data, = CATZOC U: Unsssessed, meaning no quality assurance is provided. CCATZOC values help mariners assess the risks of navigation in specitc areas.Elin now COIS ued and main up ode ab rime I stecvone Chart Dispay anc formation System ECD) a atetcad renting is wil aoed a8 pmay means of avon, aloes Usage of EoDIS +. ert Day ana Navgation CD dps waco rato chart NCS tara th GPS data ‘wprovide are-re poslono tes, ovr ssn avira cata, such 3 ep contour azads, ‘orp 2s ate rg eter mating + Maris ECDS to plan oes by ing waypoint acount tig A ARPA, AS oat eteston Stn), Sept seuss an gota ams cross sft conus, devon fromthe planes toa, posting Sarge 20s, doe al avgnond Ses. 5 Record epi peroancs even ae compliance wih eqs Maintaining CDS Up to Date +. Updating ENC: equ uptes of ENC we madres sect sen Utes se proved by sthorsed hegre oes eg, AO NORA via feoices sue ar eet opdete ie. Uptnte canbe coun ad artees o£ pte a US, CO oF + Manes mutt manage ENC ees one acento eed ‘ar fort rg oe. 5 Syston Malntonance: Sef a trae vets oh EOIS yt ate ce ‘more fates, con ith usr changes. ‘he jt had repeat ante compabty th rer ragstonl nar | Ann Prtormanee Test + Anorunpelrmane testy ie eis estes the ECO (nt arnt arene rican (0) sada 5. row ening ond Fanorzton Al nado must vio anoate ith ue of €or anes ‘secondary ECDS or 2 lat fut paper has regred bey Regulations C0 nandtot unto SOLAS (safety of ie at So) Convention, replig compliance with MO pevlomace sardu rdaaance oo ae fy ein COIS upd red rer maine mors ensre crane sin resone and eance aan sly dicate ak of rounderWhat is Emergency on board ship? What is shipboard emergency contingency plan? IL Emergency on Board Ship ‘An emergency on a ship refers to ary situation that poses an immediate risk to the safety of the vessel, its crew, passengers, or the environment. These emergencies ‘can arise due to various factors, such as equipment failure, human error, weather conditions, or external threats. Examples include: 1. Fire or explosion 2. Man overboard 3. Collision or grounding 4, Flooding or hull breach 5, Piracy or security threats 6. Medical emergencies 7. Machinery failure affecting navigation or propulsion ‘Shipboard Emergency Contingency Plan ‘A shipboard emergency contingency plan isa structured, pre-prepared framework designed to address potential emergencies effectively and minimize risks. Itis a critical part of the Safety Management System (SMS) under the International ‘Safety Management ('SM) Code. The plan includes specitic procedures for various ‘emergencies and outlines roles, responsibilities, and actions to be taken by the crew. Key Components of a Shipboard Emergency Contingency Plan: 1. Emergency Response Procedures: Detailed steps for handling specific emergencies, such as fire-fighting, evacuation, or ol spill response. 2. Roles and Responsibiliti ensure efficient response, Clear assignment of duties to crew members to 3. Training and Drills: Regular drils for scenarios lke abandon ship, man ‘overboard, and firefighting to prepare the crew. 4, Communication Protocols: Guidelines for internal communication and coordination with external enttis, such as maritime authorities, port control, and search and rescue services. 5, Emergency Equipment: Location, maintenance, and operation of life-saving appliances, fire-fighting systems, and communication devices. 6. Emergency Contacts: A ist of relevant authorities, including the shipowner, charterer, port state control, and local emergency services, 7. Environmental Protection Measures: Procedures to prevent or mitigate environmental damage, such as oil spill response plans. £8, Post-Emergency Recovery: Steps for assessing damage, restoring operations, ‘and conducting investigations. Importance: + Protects lives and the environment. + Enhances preparedness and efficiency during crises. « Ensures compliance with international regulations, such as SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) and MARPOL (Marine Pollution). Each vessel's contingency plans tailored to its specific type, size, and operational requirements, ensuring relevance and practicality.at Ed 2» a BR a EERE DUTIES ;OMMAND & CONTROL TEAM BOE NE ENON EN EE EN BE DUTIES IN OTHER EMERGENCY Master [Overall Command on Bridge (Overall command, 3/011 [Assist Moster in Con Assist master & record keeping. AB-2__|Helmsman on Bridge 'Sieering & assist as required, [ENGINE ROOM CONTROLTEAM ChYEng_|On scene co-ordinator. lin charge of technical team ___ finchargs of Engine Room, close quick closing valves ' : Feng eat othaclvecete Follow orders as instructed by in charge. ETO _ [Starting Emergency Fire Pump Shut Vent in E/R. [Follow orders as instructed by in charge. Erocor |Assistta ETO. IRollow orders as instructed by in change. eno rirtee [Assist Se/Eng in Engine Room Follow orders as instructed by in charge EMERGENCY TEAM - I (LEADING TEAM IN CASE OF DECK FIRE ) CWOMT fincharge of Deck Fite. ln charge of deck team. Pack ChOM and Fire Fighters, FFotiow orders as instructed by in charge. BOSUN [aia Fire Fighter, Wea Fiemars Outt./ Bring Jey grders as instructed by in charge. SCBA, Fireman Outfit Assist Firefighter, AB-L [Rig Fite Hose,Incharge of Boundary Cooling [Follow orders as instructed by in charge. [Fire Fighter, Wear Fireman's Outfit Bring , . OWLER-2 RCA Fircrsan Outfit. Assit Fie Follow orders as instructed by in chars OS-1 [Cary Fire Extinguishers,Fire hose, \Fotlow orders as instructed by in charge. 08-2 [Cary Fire Extinguishers, Fire hose, [Follow orders as instructed by in charge, EMERGENCY TEAM - (BACK UP TEAM FOR DECK FIRE) 2Eng _|incharge of Engine Room Fire. lin charge of engine ‘eam, 4/Eng Assist 2%Eng as required, Bring fire extinguisher [Follow orders as instructed by in charge, [Nain Fire Fighter . Wear Fireman's Ouifit, Bring [Follow orders as instructed by in charge. Oiler-1 SCBA. Fireman Outfit Assist Firefighter. apa [Fre tater ear Prem Out Bring FOO orders as isracted hy charge ISCBA, Fireman Outfit Assist Firefighter. Oiler-3 [Rig Fire Hose, Incharge of Boundary Cooling. Follow orders as instructed by in charge. ENG [Carry Fire Extinguishers. Assist fire fighters to wear |. ; EXSer fer cae ea Fotiow orders as instructed by in charge. SUPPORT TEAM YOM — fincharge of Preparing Rescue Boat & medical team In charge of support team. |Assist nd Officer to prepare Rescue Boat & DIFITTER |Embarkation ladder. [Follow orders as instructed by in ehanze. C. Cook First Aid & Stretcher. Assist Ind Officer. ecilgwr cies ca Sanrested i in chamee: GS First Aid & Stretcher. Assist 2nd Officer. |Follow orders as aGeocentric Latitude: The angle measured at the Earth’s center between the equatorial plane and a line connecting the center of the Earth to a specific point on its surface.It assumes Earth as a perfect sphere. Geographic Latitude (or Geodetic Latitude): The angle between the equatorial plane and the normal to the Earth’s surface (ie., a perpendicular line to the reference ellipsoid at a specific point).This accounts for Earth’ s oblate spheroid shape (flattening at the poles). pole geographic latitude geocentric ‘, latitude (\ EquatorWhy the length of latitude lines decreases as you move away from the equator and towards the G The length of latitude lines decreases as you move away from the equator and toward the poles because of the Earth’s spherical shape. Here's why: 1. Shape of the Earth: The Earth is approximately a sphere (an oblate spheroid, slightly flattened at the poles). Lines of latitude are circular and parallel to the equator, with their centers coinciding with the Earth's center. 2. Circumference at Different Latitudes: + Atthe equator (0° latitude), the circumference of the Earth is at its maximum because it is the widest part of the sphere. + As you move toward the poles (90° latitude), the circles of latitude become smaller because they are farther from the equatorial plane and closer to the axis of rotation, which is a point at the poles. 3. Geometric Reason: + Latitude circles are cross-sections of the Earth perpendicular to its axis. Their radii decrease as you move from the equator to the poles because the circles get closer to the axis. + The formula for the circumference of a circle is C = 2mr, where r is the radius. Since the radius of latitude circles decreases as you approach the poles, their circumference (and thus their length) also decreases. At the poles, the “circle” of latitude becomes a point, so its length is effectively zero.