BUGEMA UNIVERSITY

GECH/ 1101 GBIO/ BBIO 101: 111 health principles and HIV/AIDS and human sexuality
Level: 1st Year, 1st Semester
Contact Hours: three hours per week;
Mode of Delivery: Lectures, Discussions
Mode of Assessment: Assignments, Tests & Examination
____________________________________________________________________________

COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course exposes students to the basic principles of health. Many diseases can be prevented if a learner
applies knowledge concerning how to be healthy. Health must be viewed as the harmonious development
of spiritual, physical, mental and social aspects of a human being. Since health is the foundation of
happiness, this course unfolds different approaches on how to be healthy. Emphasis is placed on causes
and effects of Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV), sexually transmitted diseases.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, students should be able to;
 Define health (in varied aspects)
 Become familiar with God’s plan for human health and introduced to natural law of health
 Understand health principles, healthy life styles and ways of basic disease prevention methods
and control methods.
 Understand the role of good nutrition
 Identify causes and effects of HIV
 Develop critical thinking about health.

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Students are expected to describe principles of good health, concepts, and their applications
 To describe the role of nutrition in maintaining human health

COURSE REQUIREMENTS
 Attend all lecturers
 Do and submit all assignments in time
 Be punctual and participate in classroom discussion

COURSE REQUIREMENTS & ASSESSMENT:

 Attendance of all lectures Pass/Fail
 Assignments/ class presentations 10%
 Tests 15%
 Mid-term Examination 25%
 Final examination 50%

Health principles and HIV/AIDS course content and schedule

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Course schedule
Month/ Day week Topic/ activity Assignment
1 Registration
Introduction to the course
2 Definition of health
Need for health education
Natural law of health
3 Dimensions of health
Physical dimension
Mental dimension
Spiritual dimension
Emotional dimension
Social health
Environmental health
4-6 Principles of health (new start)
Nutrition
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats and oils
Vitamins
Minerals

7-8 Exercise
Water
Sunshine
Temperance
Air
Rest
Trust in divine power
9 Mid semester
10 Stress and stress management
11 Life style diseases
Diabetese mellitus
Cardiovascular diseases
Cancer
12 Human immunodeficiency
syndrome
Introduction to HIV
How HIV infection spreads
Symptoms
13 Diagnosis
Treatment
14 Other Sexually transmitted disease
Common STDs
14 How STDs are transmitted

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 15 First aid
Cardiopulmonary arrest
Severe bleeding
Fainting
Seizures and coma
Poisoning, bites and stings
Revision for final examinations
16 Final examinations
Definition of health
Health, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is "a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO 1948). This definition has
been subject to controversy, as it may have limited value for implementation.
Modifications have been made in the definition of health, to include the ability to lead a socially and
economically productive life.
A major criticism of this view of health is that it is idealist rather than realistic, because it ‘leaves most of
us unhealthy most of the time’ (Smith, 2008); few, if any people will have complete physical, mental
and social wellbeing all the time, which can make this approach unhelpful and counterproductive
(Godlee, 2011). It fails to take into account not just temporary spells of ill health, but also the growing
number of people living with chronic illnesses and disabilities. Furthermore, it might be argued that
focusing on ‘complete’ health as a goal contributes to the over-medicalization of society.
Other critiques argue that health cannot be defined as a state but instead a process of
continuous adjustment to the changing demands of living and the changing means we give to life.
Huber et al. (2011) proposed a new definition of health as ‘the ability to adapt and to self-
manage’, which includes the ability of people to adapt to their situation as key to health. Health may be
defined as the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental and social challenges throughout life.
Wellness describes the psychological state of being healthy, but most often used in the field of
medicine to describe one’s state of being. Wellness is an active process of becoming aware of and making
choices towards a healthy and fulfilling life.
VIEWS/ concerns of WHO on health
1. It is a positive state and an essential commodity for a productive life.
2. It is not just an individual responsibility since there are also environmental determinants.
3. Progress depends on achieving equity and removing inequalities.
4. Success depends upon individual and community empowerment.

Public health is the science of protecting and improving the health of families and communities through
the promotion of health lifestyles, research for disease, injury prevention and Detection and control of
infectious diseases (CDC definition).
Public health involves;
 Health promotion
 Prevention of disease
How are public health professionals different from clinical professionals?
Public health professionals: They try to prevent problems from happening or recurring through
implementing educational programs, recommending policies, administering services, conducting
research.
Clinical Professionals: focus primarily on treating individuals after they became ill or injured.

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The world is facing multiple health challenges. These range from outbreaks of vaccine-preventable
diseases like measles and diphtheria, increasing reports of drug-resistant pathogens, growing rates of
obesity and physical inactivity to the health impacts of environmental pollution and climate change and
multiple humanitarian crises.

Prerequisites for health

According to WHO, the fundamental conditions and resources for health are: peace, shelter, education,
food, income, a stable eco-system, sustainable resources, social justice, and equity.
How do You apply these prerequisites through your respective discipline or professions to improve and
maintain health?
Discussion: In Groups of 3 discuss the major causes of deaths in Uganda or in your country.
Determinants of Health (The Health Field Concept)
These are factors which influence the health status of an individual or community. These significantly
impact on health of an individual and they include:
 Genetics (the human Biology)
 Environment (such as physical, cultural environment, socioeconomic environment),
Environmental degradation, air and water pollution greatly affect the physical environment in urban
centers, rural communities face problems related to sanitation, hygiene, insecticides, pesticides and
agrochemicals.
Income status and social status: higher income and social status are linked to better health. The greater the
gap between the rich and the poor, the greater the difference in health.
Education: low education levels are linked with poor health, more stress and lower self-confidence.
Physical environment: safe water and clean air, healthy working places, safe houses, all contribute to
good health.
 Lifestyle/ behavior (such as smoking, alcohol consumption etc.)
 Health system (Health care services under health policy). One specific health policy brought into
many countries in recent years was the introduction of the sugar tax and beverage taxes. These
taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar-
sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of
their link to obesity, such as the 1974 Lalonde report and the series of World Health Reports of
the World Health Organization, which focuses on global health issues including access to health
care and improving public health outcomes, especially in developing countries.
Therefore, health can be maintained through the science and practice of medicine but can also be
improved by individual efforts like: Physical activity, weight loss programs, health diet, stress
management, stop smoking and substance abuse.
Why is good health important? Reduces risk of chronic diseases, ensures normal metabolic functioning of
the body, improves natural immunity of the body, develop physical stamina and self-confidence.
Note: metabolism are the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
Primary Health Care
"Essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and
technology, made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community, through their full
participation and at a cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of
their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination“ (WHO, 1978). The importance of
primary health care was emphasized in the Alma Ata declaration of 1978.
Objectives of primary health care

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 • Improvement in the level of health care of the community
• Reduction in the prevalence of preventable, communicable and other disease.
• Reduction in morbidity and mortality rates especially among infants and children.
• Extension of essential health services with priority to the underserved sectors.
• Improvement in Basic Sanitation
• Development of the capability of the community aimed at self- reliance.
• Maximizing the contribution of the other sectors for the social and economic development of the
community
Elements of primary health care
• Health Education
• Treatment of Locally Endemic Diseases
• Expanded Program on Immunization
• Maternal and Child Health
• Provision of Essential Drugs
• Nutrition
• Treatment of communicable and non-communicable diseases
• Safe water and good waste disposal
CW 1: Qu: a) Identify any health policies in Uganda that have influenced change in the health status of
Ugandans.
b) Explain how the knowledge of health education can be used to improve individual and community health.
Some policies include: national medicines policy, early childhood development policy, resettlement
policy, tobacco control act,
More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy
include the following:
 Income and social status  Personal health practices and coping skills
 Social support networks  Healthy child development
 Education and literacy  Biology and genetics
 Employment/working conditions  Health care services
 Social environments  Gender
 Physical environments  Culture
Other Leading Health Indicators are: Physical Activity, Overweight and Obesity, Tobacco Use and
Substance Abuse, Responsible Sexual Behavior, Mental Health, Injury and Violence, Environmental
Quality, Immunization
HEALTH EDUCATION
This comprises of activities involving communication designed to improve health knowledge and
development of life skills to promote and maintain health. This is aimed at positive behavioral
modification towards health promotion.
Education- this involves teaching and learning process. The profession of educating people about health is
health education.
Why should I care about Health education?
Health education builds students' knowledge, skills, and positive attitudes about health. Health education
teaches about physical, mental, emotional and social health. It motivates students to improve and maintain
their health, prevent disease, and reduce risky behaviors.
Health education curricula and instruction help students learn skills they will use to make healthy choices
throughout their lifetime. Effective curricula result in positive changes in behavior that lower student risks

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around: alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs, injury prevention, mental and emotional health, nutrition,
physical activity, prevention of diseases and sexuality and family life.
Need for health education in the student’s curriculum
A comprehensive health education curriculum involves planned learning experiences which assist
students to achieve desirable understandings, attitudes and practices related to critical health issues
including
 Emotional health and positive self-image, appreciation, respect for and care of the human body
and its vital organs;
 physical fitness;
 health issues of alcohol, tobacco and drug use and abuse
 Health misconceptions
 Effects of exercise on the body system and on general well being
 Nutrition and weight control;
 sexual relationship
 Scientific, social and economic aspects of community and ecological health
 Communicable and degenerative diseases like STDs
 Disaster preparedness
 Safety and choice of health careers.

Principles of Health promotion

 Involves whole population in context of daily life rather than focusing on people at risk of disease
 Is directed at the determinants/ cause of health. This requires a close cooperation between sectors
beyond health care reflecting the diversity of conditions which influence health.
 Combines diverse approaches
 Multisectoral approach,
 Community participation, aims at effective public participation
 Health professionals have an important role in enabling health promotion
Work force for health promotion
Health promotion is multidisciplinary in which trained and specialised individuals need to work with
people in others disciplines and professionals, the work force includes:
• Community health staff e.g. Nurses, Midwives
• General practitioners e.g. Medical doctors
• Public health specialists
• Health education and promotion specialists
• Hospital staff
• Health education Officers
• Others i.e. Teachers, Politicians, religious leaders, Police officers, Housing departments,
Environmental health workers, social workers among others.
Health promotion
The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of
physical, mental, and social well-being, together sometimes referred to as the "health triangle."
Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data suggested
that people can improve their health via exercise, enough sleep, maintaining a healthy body weight,

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limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking. Health and illness can co-exist, as even people with
multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.
Physical exercise enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It
strengthens muscles and improves the cardiovascular system. According to the National Institutes of
Health, there are four types of exercise: endurance, strength, flexibility, and balance.
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and
development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health
problems.
In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to
illness and slower recovery times from illness. In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as
six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to
those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in
regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in
impeding weight loss.
Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer
research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that "shiftwork that
involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans," speaking to the dangers of long-term
nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated
recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age and concluded that "Individuals who
habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems
or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well-being."
Age and condition Sleep Needs
Newborns (0–3 months) 14 to 17 hours
Infants (4–11 months) 12 to 15 hours
Toddlers (1–2 years) 11 to 14 hours
Preschoolers (3–5 years) 10 to 13 hours
School-age children (6–13 years) 9 to 11 hours
Teenagers (14–17 years) 8 to 10 hours
Adults (18–64 years) 7 to 9 hours
Older Adults (65 years and over) 7 to 8 hours
Qu: Explain the role of exercise in the health status of an individual.
The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals.
This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built environment and the social
environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all
have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children. Some
studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads
to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower overall health and
well-being. This suggests that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should
be taken into account in public policy and land use.
Qu: -identify components of the natural environment.
Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of
individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to certain diseases and health
conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families.
For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental,
emotional or physical. For example, obesity is a significant problem in the United States that contributes
to bad mental health and causes stress in the lives of great numbers of people. (One difficulty is the issue

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raised by the debate over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics
and environment may be of particular importance.)
Health services: Availability, accessibility, affordability and acceptability of health services are
considered an important determinant / input to health.

Health indicators
It is somewhat easier to defined health for an individual. But to define “community health” it is somewhat
more difficult. “Community health” parameters are different from health parameters of an individual.
“Community health” can be measured through indicators of economics, (gross national product gross
national income and per capita income), life expectancy, under five mortalities, infant mortality, literacy
level, composite index of human development, maternal mortality etc.
A community is healthy when it enjoys sound health where disease and death rate is acceptably
low, it is not threatened with bad environments and its economy is sound and the health resources are
available, practices are sound and based on scientific evidences.
Its literacy levels are high and demographically it has balanced sex ratio and people live long, quality of
life is good and human development index is high.
A village is said to be healthy if it has: safe sources of improved water supply, safe method of
waste water disposal, paved streets, disposal of garbage refuse and animal excreta by manure pits, people
use sanitary latrines, female literacy is high, girls’ enrolment is universal, deliveries are conducted by
trained persons, birth rate and death rate are within acceptable limits, immunization coverage is high and
housing condition is good.
Health issues around the world.
A number of types of health issues are common around the globe.
Diseases
Disease is one of the most common. Approximately 36 million people die each year from non-
communicable (not contagious) disease including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic
lung disease (Shah, 2014).
Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria are the
most common, causing millions of deaths every year (Shah, 2014).
What is Disease: The meaning of “Disease” is “without ease” (uneasiness). Either a Physiological
/Psychological dysfunction. Any malfunctioning process which interferes with the normal functioning of
the body is called a disease.

The environment related to disease: This refers not only to the environment the man lives. Various
environmental factors are categorized as follows.
1. Physical Environment: This is the immediate surrounding of an individual
Physical aspects of environment: Air, water, light, heat, radiation, gravity, pressure, and chemical
agents etc. man tries a great deal to control these factors
2. Biological Environment: Certain diseases do not occur in some areas because agents or
vectors cannot exist in that environment due to biological reasons.
Biological environment includes: Infectious agents of diseases, reservoirs of infective agents, vectors
that transmit diseases, plants and animals.

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 3. Social Environment: The social factors relevant to health include socio-economic status,
social customs, traditional believes, etc.
Qu: explain why prevention of some diseases requires robust government interventions.
any other reason.
Types of Diseases
The diseases may be classified into two broad categories

A. Congenital disease: The disease which is present from birth (e.g. hole in the heart in infants). They
are caused by some genetic abnormality or metabolic disorder or malfunctioning of an organ.
B. Acquired disease: The disease which may occur after birth during one’s lifetime.
Acquired diseases may generally be classified into:
(i) Infectious diseases: The diseases which can be transmitted from diseased healthy person to e.g.
measles.
ii) Degenerative diseases: The diseases caused by the malfunction of some vital organs of the body e.g.
heart failure.
(iii) Deficiency diseases: These are caused due to nutritional deficiency such as that of minerals or
vitamins in the diet e.g. anaemia (Fe), Beri- beri (vitamin B).
(iv) Cancer: This is an abnormal, uncontrolled and unwanted growth of cells. e.g. breast cancer.
Acquired diseases are studied under two categories
Communicable diseases: The diseases which can be transmitted from an infected person to a healthy
person.
Non-communicable diseases: These diseases do not spread from an affected person to a healthy
person.
Differences between communicable and non-communicable diseases
Communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases

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1. Caused by some biological agents or pathogens, such as Caused due to some specific factor, such as malfunctioning of
viruses, bacteria, protozoans and helminths (worms). some vital organ, and deficiency of nutrients.
2. Spread from one person to another through contact, water, Do not spread from one person to another by contact.
air, and food, etc.
3. The concern of the diseases involves the society as these The concern of the disease is restricted to the individual only.
are related to community health.
Modes of Spread of Communicable Diseases
Communicable diseases spread from the infected person to a healthy person in the following ways.
Direct transmission
The pathogens of diseases infect a healthy person directly without an intermediate agent. It can
take place by various means such as,
(i) Direct contact between the infected person and the healthy person: Diseases like small
pox, chicken pox, syphilis, gonorrhoea spread through direct contact.
(ii) Droplet infection: The infected person throws out tiny droplets of mucus by coughing,
sneezing or spitting. These droplets may contain the pathogen. By inhaling the air containing the
droplets, a healthy person may get the infection. Diseases like common cold, pneumonia,
influenza, measles, tuberculosis and whooping cough spread through droplet infection.
(iii) Contact with soil contaminated with disease-causing viruses and bacteria.
(iv) Animal bite: Viruses of rabies are introduced through the wound caused by the bite of
rabid animals, especially dogs. The virus is present in the saliva of the rabid animals.
Indirect transmission
The pathogens of certain diseases reach the human body through some intermediate agents. It can take
place by various means, which are as follows:
(i) By vectors such as houseflies, mosquitoes, and cockroaches. Examples: Houseflies carry the
causative organisms of cholera on their legs and mouth parts from the faeces and sputum of infected
persons to food and drinks and contaminate them. When this contaminated food is taken by a healthy
person, he gets the infection. Similarly, mosquitoes carry malarial parasite which causes malaria.
(ii) Air-borne: The pathogens may reach humans with air and dust. The epidemic typhus spreads by
inhalation of dried faeces of infected fly.
(iii) Object borne (Fomite borne): Many diseases are transmitted through the use of contaminated
articles, such as clothes, utensils, toys, door handles, taps, syringes and surgical instruments.
(iv) Water borne: If potable water (drinking water) is contaminated with pathogens of diseases such as
cholera, diarrhea, hepatitis or jaundice, it reaches a healthy person upon consuming such water.
Terms used in disease description
Pathogen: A living organism which causes a disease.
Parasite: An organism which gets food and shelter from host.
Host: The living body on or inside which the disease-producing organism takes shelter.
Infestation: Presence of a large number of parasitic organisms on the surface of body of the host or on
the clothings.
Vector: It is an organism which harbours a pathogen and may pass it on to another person to cause a
disease (Mosquitoes harbour malarial parasite and transmits it to humans).
Carrier: It is an organism which itself does not harbour the pathogen but physically transmits it to
another person (Housefly is the carrier of cholera germs).

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Reservoir: An organism which harbours pathogens in large numbers that do not cause any suffering to
it.
Epidemic: Spreading of a disease among a large number of people causing a huge loss of life in the
same place for some time e.g. plague.
Endemic: A disease which is regularly found among a particular group of people e.g. goitre, restricted to
a certain locality or a country.
Pandemic: A disease which is found all over the world e.g. AIDS.
Vaccination: Injection of a weak strain of a specific bacterium (Vaccine) in order to secure immunity
against the corresponding disease. It is also called immunization.
Incubation period: The period between entry of pathogen inside a healthy body and appearance of the
symptoms of the disease.
Symptoms: Specific morphological or physiological expressions which appear on the diseased organism
and help in the identification of the disease.
NOTE: In 1900, the top 3 causes of death were infectious diseases—pneumonia and flu,
tuberculosis, and gastrointestinal infections (a fourth infectious disease, diphtheria, was the
10th leading cause of death).
Improvements in sanitation, public health (vaccination development and delivery), and medical
treatments, such as antibiotics, led to dramatic declines in deaths from infectious diseases during the
20th century. As the impact of these diseases has been reduced or eliminated, mortality rates from other
causes, especially chronic diseases, such as heart disease and cancer, have increased, and new diseases,
such as noninfectious airways diseases, diabetes, and suicide, are now among the top 10 causes of death.
Malnutrition
Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is malnutrition, especially
among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most is young children.
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients.
The term malnutrition covers 2 broad groups of conditions. One is ‘undernutrition’—which includes
stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height), underweight (low weight for age) and
micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals). The other is
overnutrition causing overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart
disease, stroke, diabetes and cancer).
Many families cannot afford or access enough nutritious foods like fresh fruit and vegetables, legumes,
meat and milk, while foods and drinks high in fat, sugar and salt are cheaper and more readily available,
leading to a rapid rise in the number of children and adults who are overweight and obese, in poor as well
as rich countries. It is quite common to find undernutrition and overweight within the same community,
household or even individual – it is possible to be both overweight and micronutrient deficient.
Undernutrition denotes insufficient intake of energy and nutrients to meet an individual's needs to
maintain good health.
Overnutrition
Overnutrition is defined as the overconsumption of nutrients and food to the point at which
health is adversely affected. Overnutrition can develop into obesity, which increases the risk of
serious health conditions, including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, cancer, and type-2
diabetes.
Until recently, overnutrition had been viewed as a problem that only affected developed nations.
However, overnutrition is a growing problem worldwide. The World Health Organization

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(WHO) describes the problem: “In the poorest countries, even though infectious diseases and
undernutrition dominate their current disease burden, the major risk factors for chronic diseases
are spreading. The prevalence of overweight and obesity is increasing in developing countries,
and even in low-income groups in richer countries.” Problems of overnutrition are increasing
even in countries where hunger is prevalent.

Factors Contributing to Overnutrition

The United States is now engulfed in an obesogenic environment. The National Center for
Health Statistics at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that in
2015-2016, the prevalence of obesity in the United States was 39.8% in adults and 18.5% in
youth. Obesity and overweight result from a variety of causes included individual behavioral and
genetic causes. While many factors including genetics, drugs, and other medical conditions may
contribute to obesity, behavior is perhaps the most common contributor. Individual level healthy
weight is associated with a healthy diet and regular physical activity. Restaurants are serving
incredibly caloric meals, with some meals containing 2,000 calories. People are becoming more
sedentary in both the home and office.
This obesogenic culture has spread to other nations, including many developing countries. China,
for example, now has more than 5,000 Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) restaurants in 1,100
cities. Similarly, McDonald’s expects to have 4,500 restaurants in China by 2022, up from 2,500
in 2017. Furthermore, a growing number of Chinese households own television sets, personal
vehicles, and other technologies that reduce physical activity and facilitate weight gain.
Economic inequality in these nations is a primary cause of both overnutrition and undernutrition.
Studies conducted in India show that income inequality had the same effect on the risk of being
overweight as it did on the risk of being underweight; specifically, for each standard deviation
increase in income inequality, the odds of being underweight increased by 19% and the odds of
being obese increased by 21%. While some people have the resources to purchase amounts of
food beyond their daily caloric requirements, others cannot meet their recommended caloric
intake. However, increasing numbers of poor people are becoming overweight in more nations,
as these individuals consume affordable, yet highly caloric meals, such as fast food and
processed foods.
Qu: Suggest the causes of malnutrition around the world.
Body injuries
Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including broken bones,
fractures, and burns can reduce a person's quality of life or can cause fatalities including infections that
resulted from the injury or the severity injury in general (Moffett, 2013).
Life style (substance abuse, physical inactivity)
Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes,
and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also
contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral
hygiene (Moffett2013). There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in
how much they affect the person and when they surface (Moffett, 2013).
Health care services

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Though the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the
fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health care systems (Shah, 2014). Arguably, the
most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality
remedies.
Others are; overweight and obesity,

Role of public health

The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health
conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behavior, communities, and
(in aspects relevant to human health) environments. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening
or re-occurring by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services and
conducting research. In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing
it in others, such as during an outbreak. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the
spread of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are
educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance
to such).
Dimensions of health
Physical Health
Maintaining a sound substantial body through regular exercise, proper nutrition, sleeping well
and avoiding harmful habits. Maintaining a consistent well-rounded exercise program is crucial to
physical wellness.
It means adequate body weight, height and circumference as per age and sex with acceptable level of
vision, hearing, locomotion or movements, acceptable levels of pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory
rate, chest circumference, head circumference, waist hip ratio.
It means the body structure and functions confirming to laid down standards within the range of normal
development and functions of all the systems.
Mental health
The positive dimension of mental health is stressed in WHO’s definition of health as contained in
its constitution.
Mental health is defined “as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities,
can cope with normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a
contribution to his or her community” A mentally normal person has the ability to mix up with others,
makes friends, behaves in a balanced manner, observes adequate personal hygiene.
Mental illness interferes with social, emotional well-being and the lives and productivity of people.
Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a
person.
Examples include, schizophrenia (inappropriate feeling and perception), ADHD (attentive deficit
hyperactive disorder), major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress
disorder and autism (difficulty in communicating).
Many teens suffer from mental health issues in response to the pressures of society and social problems
they encounter. Some of the key mental health issues seen in teens are: depression, eating disorders,
and drug abuse. There are many ways to prevent these health issues from occurring such as
communicating well with a teen suffering from mental health issues, be attentive to teens' behavior.
Mental health can be treated.

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Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:
 Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry
 Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
 Family history of mental health problems
 Life style behavior
Emotional health:
Being in touch with your emotional presence and being aware and comfortable with your own
thoughts and feelings. Emotional wellness relies on being able to express one’s thoughts and sensations
and to be able to absorb those of others.
Spiritual health
Spiritual wellness is being connected to something greater than yourself and having a set of values,
principles, morals and beliefs that provide a sense of purpose and meaning to life.
Spiritual: Having a sense that life is meaningful and has a purpose and that we are guided in our
journey. Spiritual Health is one of the dimensions to well-being as defined by the World Health
Organization (WHO).
The complete description of the spiritual dimension as articulated by the Health Assembly is as follows:
The spiritual dimension is understood to imply a phenomenon that is not material in nature, but
belongs to the realm of ideas, beliefs, values and ethics that have arisen in the minds and conscience of
human beings, particularly ennobling ideas. Ennobling ideas have given rise to health ideals, which have
led to a practical strategy for Health for All that aims at attaining a goal that has both a material and non-
material component. If the material component of the strategy can be provided to people, the non-material
or spiritual one is something that has to arise within people and communities in keeping with their social
and cultural patterns. The spiritual dimension plays a great role in motivating people’s achievement in all
aspects of life.
Your journey to spiritual wellness may involve the following:
 Practicing meditation
 Praying or taking part in organized religion
 Spending quiet time alone pondering the meaning of life
 Building awareness through journaling
 Serving your community, spending time in nature, appreciating music and the arts
Social wellbeing
Social wellness is about relating, interacting and communicating well with others. Social wellness
is also about being comfortable in your own skin to be able to contribute and engage in a healthy living
environment. Including people in all aspects of our lives is tantamount to social wellness.
It means ability of a person to adjust with others in his social life, at home, at work place and with people.
Men interact with men and they inter-relate and inter depend on each other and pay their effective role in
accordance with a situation.
Essentially social wellbeing includes inter-relation and interaction of human beings.
Social wellbeing is a composite function of income level, literacy, occupation and working conditions
marital harmony, institution of a family, social groups and have good cultural and behavioral patterns of
the society.
Social wellbeing can be measured on scale by taking in to consideration of indicators like income, literacy
and occupation (as discussed under socio economic status of family).
Environmental health

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 Surrounding yourself with a healthy work and living environment free of hazards and focused on
conservation of all-natural resources and the role we play in bettering the environment. Environmental
wellness is about respecting nature and your surroundings and in gaining personal fulfillment from our
surroundings. The environment is considered to be the most important determinant and input of health.
Health is influenced in the man-made environment or artificial environment too. It included items like
housing, transport, industries and communication.

Natural law of health

The term 'natural law' is derived from the belief that human morality comes from nature. Everything in
nature has a purpose, including humans. Our purpose, according to natural law theorists, is to live a good,
happy life. Therefore, actions that work against that purpose -- that is, actions that would prevent a fellow
human from living a good, happy life -- are considered 'unnatural', or 'immoral'.
Legal positivism is a legal theory that is the opposite of the natural law theory. Legal positivists believe
that a law can be deeply flawed, and yet still be considered a law.
Natural law of health
Is a philosophy asserting that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, endowed by nature,
traditionally by God, and that these can be understood universally through human reason.
Ethics
The concept of morality under the natural law theory is not subjective. This means that the
definition of what is 'right' and what is 'wrong' is the same for everyone, everywhere.
The natural law approach to solving ethical dilemmas begins with the basic belief that everyone has
the right to live their life. From there, natural law theorists draw a line between an innocent life and the
life of an 'unjust aggressor.' The natural law theory recognizes the legal and moral concept of self-
defense, which is often used to justify acts of war.
Natural law theory is not always a simple school of thought. It should come as no surprise that the
ethics associated with natural law are equally complicated. The idea that the definition of what is 'right'
and what is 'wrong' is the same for 'every person' is sometimes difficult to apply to complex ethical
dilemmas.
Example 1:
You are a passenger on a ship sailing across the ocean. Suddenly, your ship is overtaken in a
powerful storm. You escape to a lifeboat with 25 other passengers. You notice that four of the passengers
are badly injured, and unlikely to survive for more than a week. You also know that the lifeboat only has
enough food and water to sustain 22 passengers. Some of the other passengers are considering throwing
the four injured passengers overboard in order to save the other survivors. If you were a natural law
theorist, how would you solve this ethical dilemma?
Acts of violence, like murder, work against our 'humanly purpose' to live a good life. Therefore,
throwing the injured passengers overboard is an unnatural act and contrary to natural law. Even if their
deaths would ensure the survival of the 22 other passengers, the act of murder is against our human
nature. Natural law forbids killing the injured passengers under any circumstances. A law against murder
is a just law under the natural law theory.

The 8 Principles for Good Health

NUTRITION, EXERCISE, WATER, SUNSHINE, TEMPERANCE, AIR, REST, TRUST IN GOD
(NEWSTART)

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1. Eat foods that have strong NUTRITIOUS values
We are literally what we eat. What we eat plays a significant role in the functioning of our body, health,
and well-being. What you decide to eat and how you decide to prepare it will impact your health. The
Bible is also a great source to consider when considering the kind of diet that is useful for our body.
Eating food with little or no nutritious value can, over time, lower the effectiveness of the body’s defense
system and compromise your physical and mental health.
A good rule is: "IF IT GROWS on plants, EAT IT; and EAT IT IN AS NATURAL A STATE AS
POSSIBLE." The more man does with a food the less nutritional value it has left when he is finished.
A balanced diet should have the following;
1. carbohydrates
2. proteins
3. Fats and oils
4 vitamins and minerals
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils are called macro nutrients since they are required in large quantities.
Vitamins are micro nutrients, since they are required in low quantities.
Genesis 1:29, 30; The first chapters of the Bible, reveal that both man and animal were created to be strict
vegetarians. (The only exception, apparently, was the nursing of offspring on its mother's milk, until
weaning.) In other words, man was to exist upon natural foods, without even the use of dairy or egg
products

1. CARBOHYDRATES:
These comprise of a large group of organic compounds which contain C, H and O. They have a general
formula CX (H2O) Y where X and Y are either the same or different units (X = number of carbon atoms).
Most examples of carbohydrates do conform to the general formula e.g.
Glucose C6H12O6 C6(H2O)6 X=6 Y=6
Sucrose C12H22O11 C12(H2O)11 X = 12 Y = 11

CARBOHYDRATES
These are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These are energy giving foods.
Carbohydrates are grouped into 3 categories which include monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides depending on number of sugar molecules they are composed of.
i) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Monosaccharides (mono=one, saccharide= sugar) are substances consisting of one molecule of sugar.
They are also known as simple sugars.
Monosaccharides have a general formula C6H12O6
Properties of monosaccharides
 They have a sweet taste
 They dissolve in water
 They form crystals
 They are small molecules hence pass through a selectively permeable membrane.
 They change the colour of benedict’s solution from blue to orange when boiled with the solution
thus they are known as reducing sugars.
Monosaccharides include the following:
1. Glucose (present in grapes, yellow bananas)
2. Fructose (present in many edible fruits)

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3. Galactose (present in milk)
ii) Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di=two, saccharide= sugars) are carbohydrates molecules made up two simple sugars
joined together. When the two monosaccharides combine, it results in the loss of one molecule of water
and this reaction is called a condensation reaction. They have a general formula C 12H22O11
Glucose + Glucose = maltose (common in germinating seeds)
Glucose + Galactose = lactose (milk sugar)
Glucose + Fructose = sucrose (cane sugar)
The disaccharides have the following properties:
i) They are sweeter than monosaccharides
ii) They can be crystallized
iii) They are soluble in water
Examples of disaccharides include:
1) Sucrose (present in sugar cane)
2) Maltose (present in germinating seeds)
3) Lactose (present in milk)
Note: Just like monosaccharides, maltose and lactose are reducing sugars. Sucrose is a non-reducing
sugar. Can be broken down into simple sugars by dilute mineral acids and enzymes.

iii) Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (poly = many, saccharide = sugar) are complex carbohydrates made up of many units of
simple sugars.
Properties of polysaccharides include:
 Are not sweet
 Do not dissolve in water
 Cannot be crystallized
Examples include:
1) Starch
2) Glycogen
3) Cellulose.
Note:
 Plants store carbohydrates in form of starch.
 Animals store carbohydrates in form of glycogen
 Cellulose is a strengthening material in plant cell walls.

Functions of carbohydrates
i) They are energy stores in the body when oxidized during respiration.
ii) They are important components of body structures e.g. cellulose is a component cell walls, chitin
forms exoskeleton of arthropods, and heparin is anticoagulant in mammalian blood.
iii) They are important for commercial values as they provide raw materials for manufacture of various
products such as cellulose provides raw materials for manufacture of paper and textiles.
Deficiency of carbohydrates results in a deficiency disease called marasmus.
Symptoms of marasmus
i) High appetite.

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 ii) Dehydration of the body
iii) Growth retardation
iv) Wastage of muscles
v) Shrunken appearance

Most nutritionists agree that 55 to 65% of our diet should be carbohydrates.

A. Primary source of energy – easiest food to break down and use for energy.
B. Produced by all plant life – fruits, vegetables, grains (6-11 servings a day).
1. Photosynthesis – the energy from the sun plus chlorophyll causes the carbon dioxide that the
leaf takes from the air and the water that the roots bring up from the soil to produce glucose.

C. Fiber: some of the glucose units are linked together to form fiber.
Fiber is the tough, stringy part of vegetables, fruits, and grains which humans cannot digest. You need
about 25 grams of fiber each day – each meal choose one or two servings of food high in fiber.

1. Insoluble fiber – is found in the cell walls of most grains, vegetables, and fruits. It helps to move
waste through your digestive system by making your stools soft and bulky.
a. Lack of insoluble fiber can cause:
1. Constipation - hard sluggish stools
2. Hemorrhoids – swollen painful veins in the rectum that bulge out from straining to pass hard
stools
3. Fiber can also bind with some cancer – causing agents to help prevent certain types of cancer
of the digestive system. (colon cancer)

2. Soluble fiber – is present in certain grains, fruits, and in most vegetables and legumes, such as beans
and peas.
a. Soluble fiber binds with cholesterol and carries it out of the body in the stools to help
prevent heart disease.
Fiber also helps to balance blood glucose and helps to control diabetes. Fiber can also help to prevent
the accumulation of too much body fat.
The person who eats fiber-rich foods, chews longer and fills up sooner on fewer calories.
It is hard to eat a diet high in fiber and also gain weight. Fiber can be destroyed when foods are refined
or cooked.
a. Apples have more fiber – apple juice has none.
b. Baked potatoes with their skins have more fiber than mashed potatoes. Potato chips have almost none.

Types of carbohydrates:
1. Simple sugars – monosaccharide-single sugar unit.
a. Glucose – blood sugar
b. Fructose – mostly fruits, berries and honey
c. Galactose – does not occur free in nature, it is always bonded to something else
2. Compound sugars – disaccharide – two sugar units
a. Sucrose – sugar cane and sugar beets
b. Maltose – germinating seeds
c. Lactose – milk sugar
3. Complex carbohydrate (starch) – polysaccharide – many sugar units
a. Whole grains
b. Fruits
c. Vegetables
Carbohydrates as energy:

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 1. Glucose is the blood sugar.
2. Excess glucose is stored in the body as glycogen.
a. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
b. The body can store about ½ day supply of glycogen for energy.
3. When the glycogen stores for glucose are full, the body stores the rest as fat.
4. The body can store an unlimited amount of fat.
5. When work is being done the glucose in the cell is used first → then the blood sugar → then
the glycogen → then stored fat or protein.

Carbohydrates also have an important role in the efficient use of fats for energy.
1. In order to use fat for energy you need glucose – a breakdown product of glucose is needed to combine
with fat fragments so they can be used for energy.
2. Glucose is the only food the brain and nervous system can use for energy.
a. When glucose is not available the body breaks down protein to be used as glucose to feed the brain.

Processed Sugar – is not a nutrient but sometimes it is confused as a carbohydrate.

All nutrients are removed from sugar through the refinery process.
1. Contains empty calories – it has no nutritional value, but it fills you up.
a. Burned as energy or turned into fat.
2. Processed sugar robs the body of vitamins and minerals. Vitamins and minerals are used up when we
digest food – usually we are repaid by the nutrients in the food – but there are no nutrients in sugar.
3. Sugar is hidden in many labels under a variety of different names. Add all the sugars together and they
equal the number one ingredient.
a. Brown sugar, dextrose, beet sugar, maltose, glucose, corn syrup, fructose, molasses, galactose.
4. Processed sugars effect on behavior.
a. FIRST – hyper activeness – due to speed that sugar gets into the blood.
b. NEXT – drops glucose level – due to an insulin over-reaction.
c. THEN – low sugar levels in the blood, shuts off the “cerebral brain” which controls learning,
attention span, moral values, etc.
1. Now the hypothalamus in the brain is left to run the body which controls survival instincts and
self-gratification.

H. Hypoglycemia – low blood sugar due to an over secretion of insulin.

1. Symptoms begin 2-5 hours after a meal.
a. Symptoms – rapid heartbeat, sweating, lack of energy, dizziness, shaking, faintness, and headaches
2. Treatment involves a diet that limits simple or refined sugars and substitutes for complex and high
fiber carbohydrates such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Eating small and frequent meals also
helps keep blood sugar levels consistent.
I. Diabetes. A chronic disease that affects the way body cells convert food into energy.
Diabetes develops either because no insulin or insufficient insulin is produced or because the insulin
produce is not used efficiently.
- Diabetic people are more prone to heart disease, stroke, blindness, and kidney disease
Type I diabetes – Pancreas produces little or no insulin. Patient must take daily injections of insulin to
stay alive. Occurs most often before the age of 15 and accounts for about 10% of all cases of diabetes.
Symptoms usually appear abruptly and progress rapidly.
a. Symptoms – frequent urination, abnormal thirst, unusual hunger, weight loss, body weakness, fatigue,
nausea, and vomiting.
Type II diabetes – The pancreas produces some insulin; but because of a cell receptor defect, the cells
cannot use the insulin effectively. Can usually be controlled by diet and exercise. Accounts for about
90% of all cases of diabetes and usually occurs in adults over 40 years of age.

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a. Symptoms – excess weight, drowsiness, blurred vision, tingling or numbness in hands and feet, skin
infections, and itching and slow healing cuts.
b. Linked to – heredity, obesity and inactivity.

Carbohydrate has 4 calories per gram. About 50 to 60 percent of your total daily calories should
come from carbohydrate. Carbohydrate contains the most glucose and gives the quickest form of energy.
Your body changes 100 percent of carbohydrate into glucose.
Besides giving your body energy that it uses right away; your body can store carbohydrate in your liver.
Your liver stores extra carbohydrate as glycogen and releases it later, when your body needs it. However,
there's a limit to the amount of glycogen your liver can store. Once your liver has reached that limit, your
body turns the extra carbohydrate into fat.

There are two types of carbohydrate: healthy and not-so-healthy.

Healthy carbohydrates: Also called complex or slower-acting carbs. Includes multigrain bread, brown
rice, lentils, and beans. This type of carbohydrate raises blood sugar slowly and lasts longer. This helps
keep you from feeling hungry for a longer time and helps to keep blood sugar levels closer to normal.
Not-so-healthy carbohydrates: Also known as simple or fast-acting carbs. Includes candy, cookies,
cake, soda, juice, and sweetened beverages. This type of carbohydrate raises blood sugar levels very
quickly, but doesn't last very long. That's why these carbohydrates work well to correct low-blood sugar
but don't satisfy hunger as well as healthy carbohydrates.

Calorie Needs for Men vs. Women

Caloric requirement will take your gender into account, in addition to your weight and your activity level.
Why? Because a man's body will generally require more energy (in the form of calories) even when it is
the same size as a woman.

Men generally have more muscle mass than women. The extra muscle requires more energy.
Men are usually taller than women and the extra height leads to increased calorie needs for men.
But even in similarly sized men and women, men often need more calories. Men generally have
an increased lung capacity which allows them to work harder during exercise and physical
activity and also requires more calories to maintain.
Your specific calorie needs will vary, which is why the calculator is helpful. As an example, an
average height, 32-year old man will require about 2,600 calories to maintain his weight.
However, the calorie needs for men will change if he wants to gain or lose weight.
Calories for Men to Maintain Weight
To maintain your weight, you want to consume enough food to meet your daily energy needs. If you don't
eat enough calories per day you will lose fat and muscle mass. If you eat too many calories per day, your
body will store the excess energy as fat.
You can use a calculator to find out how many calories you burn each day. Or scan these average calorie
numbers for men to see how much energy you use each day and how many calories you should consume
to maintain your weight. Each average calorie number is based on a moderately active man of average
height (or approximately 5'10") who weighs 175 pounds
 A 20-year-old man should consume about 2800 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A 30-year old man should consume about 2728 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A 40-year old man should consume about 2651 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A 50-year old man should consume about 2573 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A 60-year old man should consume about 2496 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A 70-year old man should consume about 2418 calories per day to maintain his weight
 A lightly active 80-year old man should consume about 2076 calories per day to maintain his
weight

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 If you are sedentary or lightly active you should consume fewer calories per day to maintain your weight.
If you are very active (you work a job that includes physical labor and/or you exercise vigorously on a
regular basis) you should consume more calories per day to maintain your weight.
You might notice that the number of calories you need declines with age. As we get older,
our metabolism slows down and we don't need as much food (energy) to fuel our bodies. Your
metabolism may slow because of a decrease in muscle mass 2 or because of a slower lifestyle. We
typically become less active as we get older.

The body mass index

The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is universally
expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in meters.
Body Mass Index is a simple calculation using a person’s height and weight. The formula is BMI =
kg/m2 where kg is a person’s weight in kilograms and m2 is their height in metres squared.
A BMI of 25.0 or more is overweight, while the healthy range is 18.5 to 24.9. BMI applies to most adults
18-65 years

ROUGHAGES / DIETARY FIBRE

They are indigestible materials in food and consist mostly of cellulose and lignin. They add bulk to food
and prevent constipation.
The major sources of roughages include: vegetables, such as cabbages, dodo, fruits, etc.
Functions of roughages
 They facilitate muscle movements called peristalsis which move food (propel) through the alimentary
canal.
 Some enable food pass through the intestines properly.
NOTE: The deficiency or lack of roughages causes constipation.
PROTEINS
These are food nutrients containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and sometimes sulphur or
phosphorus. The building unit of proteins are called Amino acids. The amino acid molecule can combine
to form dipeptide; further combination gives rise to polypeptide molecule (protein).
The amino acids can be categorized into essential and non-essential amino acids.
There are twenty (20) amino acids present thus allowing the formation of a variety of proteins.
Types of amino acids:
i) Essential amino acids
These are amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the body; therefore, they must be supplied in
the diet.
ii) Non-essential amino acids
These are amino acids that can be synthesized by the body so they are not required in the diet.
Sources of proteins:
Food substances rich in proteins are eggs, lean (thin and healthy) meat, beans, Soya, milk and its
products, fish, liver and groundnuts.
Properties of proteins
i) Most dissolve in water to form colloidal or sticky suspensions.
ii) They are denatured by high temperatures-there structure is completely changed.
iii) They have both acidic and alkaline properties
The main functions of proteins

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i) Body building which brings about growth i.e. from structures like in cell membrane, certain as in
horns, fingernails, hooves etc.
ii) Repair and regenerate tissues that are damaged or worn out.
iii) Synthesis of body chemicals like enzymes, hormones, hemoglobin etc.
iv) Provision of energy in times of starvation.
Note: Protein deficiency results in poor health especially in children where it causes kwashiorkor.
Symptoms of kwashiorkor
i) Loss of appetite
ii) Diarrhea
iii) The hair becomes soft and can easily be plucked out accompanied by loss of its colour.
iv) Growth retardation
v) Pot belly i.e. swollen lower abdomen
vi) Swollen legs and joints i.e. Oedema.
vii) Wasted muscles

It is recommended that 15 to 20% of the diet come from protein. Proteins contain 4 calories per gram.
A. Function: vital part of every body cell – muscle, bone, blood, and organs.
1. Build
2. Repair and maintain body tissue
3. Regulate body processes – enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
B. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids
1. The body needs 20 amino acids in order to grow and develop properly.
2. The body can produce most of these amino acids itself.
3. The other 10 amino acids must be received through the food you eat and are called essential amino
acids.
4. Foods that contain all 10 essential amino acids are complete proteins.
a. All animal products are complete proteins
meat milk
poultry cheese
fish eggs
5. Not all protein foods have all 10 essential amino acids – these foods are called incomplete proteins
(plants may be rich in protein – but are incomplete).
6. It is possible to combine 2 incomplete proteins to make a complete protein. A vegetarian can
combine 2 plant sources of incomplete proteins to make a complete protein
a. Wheat bread and peanut butter
b. Legumes and seeds
c. Legumes and grains
Excess protein cannot be stored in the body.
1. The body will only use as much protein as it needs.
2. The excess is converted into glucose and burned as energy or stored as fat.
3. The body needs a daily supply of protein.
4. Small amounts of protein at each meal is better than one large serving.
D. Excess protein causes:
1. Dehydration, because more water is needed to flush protein out of the system.
2. Strain on liver and kidneys.
3. A need for more calcium – which results in a calcium deficiency.
E. Small amounts of extra protein is only needed by:
1. Pregnant mothers.
2. Teens.

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 3. Seriously ill/injured.
4. Athletes on a strenuous training program.
Functions of proteins
VITAL ACTIVITY PROTEIN EXAMPLE FUNCTION
1. Nutrition  Digestive enzymes e.g.  Catalyzes, hydrolysis of proteins to peptides.
trypsin, amylase, etc.  Helps to arrange chlorophyll molecules to
 Fibrous proteins in grana receive unlimited light.
lamellae  Assists in transporting of food in filter
 Casein feeder.
 Storage of proteins in milk.
2. Respiration and  Haemoglobin.  Transport of oxygen.
transport.  Myoglobin  Stores oxygen in muscles.
 Prothrombin/fibrinogen  Required for blood clotting.
 Antibodies.  Essential for defense.
3. Growth Hormones e.g. thyroxine Controls growth and metabolism.
4. Excretion Enzymes e.g. urease Catalyzes reaction in ornithine cycle and helps in
protein break down and urea formation
5. Support and Actin/myosin For muscle contraction.
movement Collagen Gives strength with flexibility in tendons and
cartilage.
Keratin Tough for protection e.g. in scales, claws, nails,
hooves, etc.
Sceleratin Provide strength in insect exo-skeleton
6. Sensitivity and Hormones e.g. insulin Control of blood sugars
co-ordination. Vasopressin Control of blood pressure
Rhodopsin Visual pigments in retina.
7. Reproduction Hormones e.g. prolactin Induces milk production in mammals.
Chromatin Gives structural support to chromosomes.
Chitin Storage of proteins in seeds which nourishes the
embryo.
Keratin Forms horns which are used for sexual display.
Proteins
Protein also has 4 calories per gram. In a healthy diet, about 12 to 20 percent of your total daily calories
should come from protein.
Your body needs protein for growth, maintenance, and energy. Protein can also be stored and is used
mostly by your muscles. Your body changes about 60 percent of protein into glucose.
Protein takes 3 to 4 hours to affect blood sugar levels. When it does have an effect, foods that are mostly
protein won't cause much of a rise in blood sugar.

FATS
Lipids also contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but with higher proportions of hydrogen and less
oxygen than carbohydrates. Because of this, they are able to yield more energy than carbohydrates or
proteins when oxidized. Fats differ from oils in that they are solids at room temperature whereas oils are
liquids at room temperature (250C).
Fats are mainly found in animal tissues while oils are obtained from plant tissues.
Examples of fats include; kimbo, cow boy, tamu, margarine, etc.
Examples of oils include; fortune buto, sun seed cooking oil, ufuta cooking oil, etc.

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Lipids are made up fatty acids and glycerol.
Food sources:
 Ground nuts
 Eggs
 Sun flower
 Palm oil
 Castor oil, etc.
Properties of lipids
i) Fats and oils are distinguished from other nutrients in that they make a permanent translucent mark or
spot on papers. This property also provides a simple test for fats and oils.
ii) They also don’t dissolve in water
Functions of lipids
i) They produce energy during respiration
ii) Insulate the body to prevent excessive heat loss; this has been of major adaptations in some small
animals and those animals living in cold regions where the sub- cutaneous fats are largely deposited
under the dermis of the skin.
iii) Prevent water loss and entry in cells and tissues.
iv) They are also constituents of waxy cuticle of animals and plants and the cell membrane.
v) They act as shock absorbers in body organs.
vi) They can be used as a source of water in desert animals such as camels- when stored fat is broken
down in the body, much water is produced.
vii) They are components of steroid hormones e.g. sex hormones.
viii) Lipids act as solvents for fat soluble vitamins (ADEK)

Most nutritionist agree that we should reduce fat intake to under 30% of our diet. Fats contain about
9 calories per gram twice as many carbohydrates or protein.
A. Function: (add flavor and help satisfy hunger).
1.Body’s storage form for food energy eaten in excess of need.
2.Insulates the body.
3.Cushions vital body organs.
4.Transports fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
B. Types of fats
1.Saturated fats – solid or semisolid at room temperature.
a. A fatty acid carrying the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms.
b. Source – mostly from animal products – meats, poultry, fish, milk, cheese and eggs.
1.Vegetable oils high in saturated fats
a. Palm oil – 50% saturated
b. Coconut oil – 92% saturated
2. Beware of terms like
a. All vegetable oil.
b. 100% vegetable oil.
c. made from one or more of the following.
c. Raise cholesterol levels in the blood as well as LDL (low density lipoproteins) (bad cholesterol).
d. They add texture and are more chemically stable to heat.
2.Polyunsaturated fats – liquid at room temperature.
a. A fatty acid that has two or more hydrogen bonds missing.
b. Source – mostly from plants.

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 c. Lowers cholesterol, but also slightly lowers HDL (good cholesterol).
d. They supply essential fatty acids.
3.Monounsaturated fats – liquid at room temperature
a. A fatty acid that has one hydrogen bond missing.
b. Source – mostly from plants (olive oil & peanut oil)
c. Slightly lowers LDL cholesterol, but some studies show that it may slightly raise HDL - other
studies show its effect on HDL is neutral.
d. Canola oil had both polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.
4.Fish Oils – Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that come from fish.
a. They don’t have much effect on cholesterol.
b. They lower the total amount of fat in the blood (reduce triglycerides).
c. They help prevent blood clots.
d. Smart to eat fish 2 or 3 times a week.
5.Trans fatty acids – the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to make it more solid and
resistant to chemical change.
a. Causes it to lose its polyunsaturated character and health benefits.
b. Example: Butter – Margarine (partially hydrogenated vegetable oil).
C. CHOLESTEROL: A fat related substance found in all animal fats and some vegetable
fats that may form fat deposits on the wall of the arteries. A condition called atherosclerosis. no problem
when in correct amount
Function in the body
a. Essential for cell wall construction
b. Needed to make hormones and bile
c. Transmission of nerve impulses
Where does it come from?
a. Some cholesterol is produced in the body.
1. If a person ate no cholesterol the body would manufacture enough for its needs.
b. Some cholesterol comes from the food we eat.
1. Saturated fats
a. Meat, fish, poultry, milk products, eggs
Fats do not mix with watery liquids.
a. In order to carry fat in the bloodstream the body coats it with a water – soluble protein called a
lipoprotein.
Two types of cholesterol
a. Low – Density Lipoproteins – LDL – bad cholesterol
1. Fat in the blood stream that is on its way to cell for storage.
(including the cells that line the artery walls)
2. Saturated fat causes the body to produce LDL.
b. High – Density Lipoproteins – HDL – good cholesterol
1. Fat in the bloodstream id taken to the liver where it is processed and excreted from the body.
2. HDL works to minimize the harmful effects of LDL by causing it to be removed from the bloodstream
and excreted.
3. Cannot get HDL from the food you eat.
a. The trick is to get your body to make it
 losing weight
 not smoking
 aerobic exercise
5. How to lower cholesterol levels
a. Choose more vegetables, fruits, cereal grains and starches.
b. Choose fish and poultry instead of red meat.

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c. Trim fat from meat and skin from chicken before cooking.
d. Eat less or avoid organ meats such as liver, brain or kidney.
e. Eat less commercial baked goods made with lard, coconut oil, palm oil or shortening.
f. Eat less sausage, bacon and processed luncheon meats.
g. Use skim or low-fat milk.
h. Choose low fat cheeses.
i. Eat less cream, ice cream, and butter.
j. Use low fat yogurt.
k. Eat less food fried in animal fats or shortening.
l. Eat fewer eggs, or fewer egg yolks.
Fat has the most calories of all the nutrients: 9 calories per gram. In a healthy diet, about 30
percent of total daily calories should come from fat. This means eating about 50 to 80 grams of fat each
day. Fat gives the body energy, too, but the body changes only about 10 percent of fat into glucose.
By itself, fat doesn't have much impact on blood sugar. But when you eat fat along with a carbohydrate, it
can slow the rise in blood sugar. Since fat also slows down digestion, once your blood sugar does rise, it
can keep your blood sugar levels higher for a longer period of time.
There are various types of fat, and some types are better for you than others. Choose mono-unsaturated or
poly-unsaturated fat. These fats are liquid at room temperature. Mono-unsaturated fats are especially
healthy because they lower the bad cholesterol (LDL) in your blood. These fats include olive, canola,
avocado, and nut oils.
Limit saturated and trans-fats. Saturated fats are found in foods that come from animals, such as meat and
dairy products. These kinds of fats are solid at room temperature. Hardened fats, such as coconut or palm
kernel oils as well as oils that have been hydrogenated, also contain saturated fat. These can damage your
heart and arteries.
Trans-fats are found in most processed foods and many fried fast foods, such as French fries. They help
food stay fresher longer, but they're just as bad for you as saturated fat.

VITAMINS – they do not supply calories

These are organic compounds required in small amounts in the diet for the normal functioning of the
body. They are called micro-nutrients since they are required in low quantities. They are classified into
two:
i) Water soluble vitamins
ii) Fat soluble vitamins
Water soluble vitamins are those which dissolve in water. They include vitamins B and C.
Fat soluble vitamins dissolve in fats but not in water. They include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Vitamins have no energy value but required for normal functioning of the body. If the body lacks any
vitamin, it results in the breakdown of normal body functioning.
A table showing vitamins and their deficiency diseases
Vitamin Common food source Functions Symptom of deficiency
A (Retinol) Green vegetables, Proper growth in Night blindness (poor dark
Fat soluble liver, butter, children, provides vision), frequent cold and soar
margarine, egg yolk, resistance to eye diseases throat, sore eyes, reduced
fish, pepper and (night blindness). good resistance to diseases, poor
carrots night (Dim light) vision growth.
B1 (Thiamine) Yeast, beans, lean Tissue respiration, keeps Tiredness (fatigue), retarded
Water soluble meat, egg yolk, bread the heart, nerves and growth in children and poor
and rice husks digestive organs healthy appetite, constipation, extreme
muscle weakness (beriberi)

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B2 (Riboflavin) Yeast, milk, liver, Tissue respiration, growth Retarded growth especially in
Water soluble cheese, leafy and health of skin. Keeps children, cracks on lips, poor
vegetables. mucus membrane healthy vision and skin disorders
B3 (Nicotinic Cereal grains, milk Same as B2 Disorders of central nervous
acid /Niacin) and its products, liver system (CNS) like memory
Water soluble and yeast loss & depression (Pellagra)
B12 (cobamine) Beef, kidney, liver, Forms red blood cells Low red blood cell count
Water soluble yeast (Anemia)
C (Ascorbic Fresh fruits and row Development of teeth and Scurvy- Sore gums, poor
acid) vegetables bones, normal growth and healing of sores in the gum
Water soluble sticks together the cells
lining parts of the body
D (calciferol) Liver, fish, egg York, Proper development of Weak bones and teeth, rickets
Fat soluble synthesized by strong and hard bones and in children and dental caries
mammalian skin in teeth, promotes
presence of sunlight absorption of phosphorus
and calcium in the gut
E (tocopherol) Milk, liver, grains, Anti-oxidant, removing Sterility (infertility) in some
Fat soluble green vegetables, dangerous oxidants in the animals like rats due to poor
avocado, eggs. body. sperm and ova formation.
Promotes fertility in
animals e.g. rats
K(phylloquinone Cabbage, spinach Normal clotting of blood Prolonged bleeding due to
) failure of blood clot
Fat soluble
A. Function – They work with enzymes by triggering specific chemical reactions that allow the
digestion, absorption, metabolism, and use of other nutrients.
They act like catalyst or co-enzymes to help a reaction take place but are neither changed nor
incorporated into the products of the reaction.
B. Types
1. Water soluble – (C and B complex).
a. Are not stored to any extent in the body so you need an adequate supply of water soluble vitamins
every day.
b. Any excess is excreted in the urine.
c. Found in fruits and vegetables.
d. Foods need to be cooked carefully so that water – soluble vitamins are not destroyed by heat or lost
through steam or in cooking water.
* Cook fruits and vegetables quickly
* Steam them, or use only small amounts of cooking water
* Cover food during cooking
* Use leftover liquid in soups and stews
2. Fat Soluble – (A – D – E – K)
a. They are absorbed and transported by fat.
b. The body stores fat-soluble vitamins in fatty tissue.
c. Any excess buildup of these vitamins can have a dangerous toxic effect.
d. People who take nutrient supplements with very large doses of fat soluble vitamins are especially
vulnerable to the toxic effects.

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 Vitamin Deficiency Diseases
1. Pellagra – lack of niacin (B group vitamin)
a. Can produce dermatitis – a painful skin rash, diarrhea, and mental disturbances.
b. Not common in the U.S. today, because commercially made bread and flour is enriched with
niacin.
2. Rickets – lack of vitamin D
a. Without this vitamin bones become weak and are unable to support the weight of the body. This
causes the skeleton to become deformed.
Teeth may fail to develop.
b. Today milk is fortified with vitamin D.
3. Scurvy – lack of vitamin C
a. Without this vitamin you develop swollen, bleeding gums, and loss of
teeth.
MINERAL ELEMENTS AND SALTS
These are inorganic food constituents required in small amounts but whose deficiency affects the normal
functioning of the body leading to deficiency diseases. – inorganic substances that the body cannot
manufacture.
Mineral salts can be divided into;
(i) Essential mineral elements (macro elements)
These are mineral elements required in relatively large amounts. They are sodium, potassium,
phosphorous, calcium iron.
(ii) Non-essential or Trace mineral elements (micro- elements)
These are mineral elements required in relatively very small amounts. However, their presence in the diet
is of at most importance. They are Zinc, Molybdenum, cobalt Manganese.

A table showing some elements and their deficiency diseases

MINERAL SOURCE IMPORTANCE DEFFICIENCY
ELEMENTS
Beef, liver, kidney, - It is a constituent of Anaemia
Fe Groundnuts, beans, Haemoglobin. - Reduced red blood cell account.
Iron eggs, green - Reduction in oxygen transportation
vegetables. rate.
Vegetables, fish, - In blood clotting Rickets in children
Ca milk, bread, eggs. - hardening of bones - Delay in blood clotting
Calcium and teeth. - Soft bone, poor skeletal growth.
- Most foods - Constituent of cell - It is not likely for one to be deficient
P membrane. of phosphorus since it is found in
Phosphorus - Formation of teeth & most foods.
bones.
- Iodised salts - It is a constituent of a Goiter
I - Marine fish hormone Thyroxin - Swelling of the Thyroid gland.
Iodine - Muscle cramp (sharp painful
involuntary muscle contraction).
Drinking water It is constituent of Weak teeth in children.
F (National water and bones and teeth.
Fluorine sewage co-

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 operation
K Fish, beef, liver, Transmission of nerve Muscular cramp (painful involuntary
Potassium mushroom and impulse along neurons muscle contraction when fatigued)
some tubers
Na Common salt Transmission of nerve
sodium (NaCl) and cheese impulse along neurons

A. Used for building new cells and chemical reactions within the body.
B. Some of the functions: muscular contraction, nerve irritability, water
balance, acid base equilibrium, metabolism.
Osteoporosis – a condition that results from a lack of calcium in the bones.
1. The bones become weak and can break easily.
2. Weight bearing exercise and a diet high in calcium help to prevent this disease.
3. Most commonly found in older females.
D. Sodium (Salt): Some people have a natural sensitivity to sodium, which elevates blood
pressure. (Keep sodium intake under 2400 mg)

FOOD AND CANCER

Most of us are concerned, curious and sometimes confused over reports associating nutrition with cancer.
This relationship is a complex issue and easy to misunderstand. What should you and your family eat?
What foods should you avoid? The best recipe for health is a simple one: everything in moderation. If
you eat a well- balanced diet, there is usually no need to use vitamin or mineral supplements.

Extensive research is under way to evaluate and clarify the role diet plays in the development of cancer.
So far, no direct cause - effect relationship has been proved. Though we do know that some things you
eat may increase or decrease your risks for certain types of cancer.
Based on evidence at hand, you might lessen your chances of getting cancer by following these simple
guidelines.

1. Avoid obesity
Sensible eating habits and regular exercise will help you avoid excessive weight gain. Your physician
can work with you to determine your best body weight since it depends on your medical condition and
body build and an appropriate diet to maintain this weight. If you are 40 percent overweight, your risk
increases for colon, breast and uterine cancers.
2. Cut down on total fat intake A diet high in fat may be a factor in the development of certain cancers
like breast, colon and prostate. If you avoid fatty foods, you will be able to control your body weight
more easily.
3. Eat more high fiber foods
Regular consumption of cereals, fresh fruits and vegetables is recommended. Studies suggest that diets
high in fiber may help to reduce the risk of colon cancer. And even if not, high fiber containing foods are
a wholesome substitute for foods high in fat.
4. Include foods rich in vitamins A and C in your daily diet
Choose dark green and deep yellow fresh vegetables and fruits as sources of vitamin A, such as carrots,
spinach, yams, peaches, apricots and oranges, grapefruit, strawberries, green and red peppers for vitamin
C. These foods may help lower risk for cancers of the larynx, esophagus and the
lung.
5. Include vegetables in your diet

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 Certain vegetables in this family – cabbage– may help prevent certain cancers from developing.
Research is in progress to determine what is in these foods that may protect against cancer.
6. Eat moderately of salt-cured, smoked and nitrite-cured foods
In areas of the world where salt-cured and smoked foods are eaten frequently, there is more incidence of
cancer of the esophagus and stomach. The American food industry is developing new processes to avoid
possible cancer-causing byproducts.
7. Keep alcohol consumption moderate, if you do drink
The heavy use of alcohol, especially when accompanied by cigarette smoking or chewing tobacco,
increases risk of cancers of the mouth, larynx, throat, esophagus and stomach.

EXERCISE
“AND the LORD God took the man (Adam), and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep
it." Genesis 2:15. God's original plan was for people to be active. Physical activity is necessary to
maintain all our functional body units and to keep a reserve physical capacity to handle emergency
situations. "God designed that the living machinery should be in daily activity. For in this activity or
motion is its preserving power.... The more we exercise, the better will be the circulation of the blood."
-- Ellen G. White, Healthful Living, pp. 131-132
Regular exercise has a host of health benefits. For example, when fat gets into the muscles of the heart it
can interfere with electrical impulses necessary for the proper functioning of the heart. Regular aerobic
exercise can make your heart stronger and work more efficiently by reducing the amount of fat that
can build up.

Some other benefits include, reduced risk of developing diabetes, control of type II diabetes, reduce
risk for high blood pressure, reduce level of current high blood pressure, control weight gain, build
healthy and strong bones, muscles and joints, improve blood flow throughout the body, improves the
body’s capacity to use calories, and reduces both mental and physical stress.

The CDC recommends that, for healthy aging, adults 65 years or older who are generally fit and have no
health conditions that limit their activity, should engage in one of three variations on exercise per week:
1. Two and a half hours of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and at least two days of muscle-
strengthening exercises
2. One hour and 15 minutes of vigorous aerobic exercise with muscle-strengthening activities at
least two days per week
3. An equivalent mix of moderate and vigorous aerobic exercise with the inclusion of two or more
days of muscle-strengthening activities
It’s important to note that you can spread your activity into intervals as short as 10 minutes. So if you
have a very busy schedule, even doing three, 10-minute aerobic exercises per day, five days per week,
will be sufficient. To get you started, here are the different types of exercise, how they benefit the body
and what kind of activities they entail
Aerobic (Endurance) Exercise:
Aerobic exercises increase your breathing and heart rate and are the main component of overall fitness
programs. They keep the circulatory system and lungs healthy, can stave off diabetes and heart disease
and help you build up endurance. Some common aerobic activities include:
 A brisk walk
 Jogging
 Climbing the stairs

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  Playing tennis
 Dancing
 Biking
 Doing yard work like raking, digging and gardening
 Swimming laps
Strength exercises:
These are important for keeping your bones and muscles strong and helping older adults maintain their
independence. Strength training is beneficial in reducing falls and helping you do everyday activities that
require lifting, such as carrying groceries. Some examples of strength training include:
 Lifting free weights
 Using resistance machines at the gym
 Using resistance bands to leverage your own body weight in building strength
Flexibility
Though not part of the CDC’s official recommendations for maintaining good physical health, flexibility
exercises can keep your body limber and help you maintain a wide range of motion. This is important
because range of motion is often limited by things like arthritis. Here are some ways to improve your
flexibility:
 Stretching various parts of the body
 Doing yoga
Balance exercises:
Practicing and improving balance is important for older adults because it can strengthen the body’s core
and help prevent falls. Here are some good balance exercises:
 Heel-to-toe walking
 Standing on one foot

WATER
Genesis 2:10 "And a river went out of Eden and watered the garden."
John 4:14 "But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; but the water that I
shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life."
Notice Jesus equates Himself and His truth with Water; the water of life. John 6:35 "And Jesus said unto
them, I am the bread of life: he that cometh to me shall never hunger; and he that believeth on me shall
never thirst." Jesus is the one who cleanses us from sin within and without. - another function of water.
And just as it is necessary to our physical life for each cell to be washed clean of impurities, so it is
necessary if we are to have eternal life that every part of our minds and hearts must be surrendered to
Jesus to be cleansed of sin by His blood. "Water is the best liquid possible to cleanse the tissues.... Drink
some, a little time before or after a meal." -- Ellen G. White, Healthful Living, p. 226
Water carries elements of life and has the ability to transmit and maintain them. Our body is made up of
about 75% water, and about 3/4 of our planet’s surface is covered with water with a vast amount of life
forms. Every single cell is made up of water including the cells in our own body. On average, an adult
requires about 3 to 4 liters of water daily.

Water is critical for the life and functioning of cells, tissues, and organs in our body. Consequently,
thought processes, movements, nerve function, blood circulation, digestion, elimination of waste, etc.,
depend on water for their normal and effective functioning.

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Drink lots of pure, soft water daily. Distilled or reverse osmosis water is best. Juice, tea or soft drinks do
NOT take the place of water. Adequate fluid intake will increase your endurance and energy levels.
Studies show DEHYDRATION at the cellular level to be the root cause of many diseases. Carry a supply
with you at work and on walks etc.

On arising squeeze a fresh lemon into two glasses room temperature or warm water and drink it. Drink
between meals. 2 hours after to 1/2 hour before, not with meals. Taking 2 glasses 1/2 hour before each
meal, prevents mealtime thirst, aids digestion and prevents ulcers. Shower daily with cool or tepid water
using a bath brush or good rough washcloth to rub your skin all over. This improves circulation and helps
the body to get toxins out.
THE SCIENCE OF WATER
It is the most important inorganic compound in life and most abundant within living organism. A human
cell contains about 80% water and the whole body has over 60% water.
Structure of a water molecule.
Water molecule consist of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom by sharing
electrons, forming a stable molecule, which is relatively unreactive. The shape of a water molecule is a V
shaped structure.
The molecule is electrically neutral, but the oxygen atom being more electro negative tends to pull
electrons away from the hydrogen atoms. Thus, there is a net negative charge on the oxygen atom and a
net positive charge on the hydrogen atom, making water a polar molecule (has positive and negative
poles).
Water molecules hence can form weak hydrogen bonds with other water molecules between the oxygen
atom and hydrogen atom of adjacent water molecule. These bonds give water its unique properties.
Note: A polar molecule is one that has opposite electrical charge .

Properties of water
Physical properties
 Water is liquid at room temperature.
 Water expands as it freezes unlike other liquids which contract on cooling. Water reaches its
maximum density above its freezing point at 4 0C hence when water freezes, the ice formed is less
dense than the water and hence floats on top of the surface. In this way, ice insulates water below
keeping it warmer than the air above.
 Water has a high surface tension. Surface tension is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to
contract so that it occupies the least area. It is high due to the fact that molecules are oriented so
that most hydrogen bonds point inwards towards other water molecules.
 It has high adhesive and cohesive properties preventing it from breaking under tension.
 It is Colourless and transparent.

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  It has a low viscosity i.e. water molecules slide over each other very easily.
 It dissolves more substances than any other liquid i.e. it is a universal solvent, it dissolves all
polar substances (charged or ionizable substances) e.g. salt and it is also a solvent for some non-
polar substances e.g. sugar
 Water is incompressible.
Thermal properties
 It has a high heat capacity therefore much energy is used to raise the temperature of water,
because much heat is required to break the hydrogen bonds. As a result, water is relatively slow
to heat up or to cool down thus a large change in external heat energy results into a relatively
small change in the temperature, minimizing temperature changes in water.
 It has a high latent heat of fusion i.e. much heat must be removed before freezing occurs. This
property is important because it ensures that the cell contents and their environments are unable
to freeze
 It has High heat of vaporization; hence a relatively large amount of energy is needed to vaporize
water due to the hydrogen bonds within water and as a result water has a high boiling point,
hence water causes cooling upon evaporation since much heat is lost in the process.
Biological Functions of water
 It is a component of cell cytoplasm
 It is a solvent and a medium of transport in blood, lymph where it transports materials from one
point to another.
 It is a reagent in reactions involving hydrolysis
 It facilitates fertilization by enabling swimming of gametes e.g. in bryophytes, human beings.
 It enables dispersal of seeds, fruits and larvae stages in aquatic organisms.
 It is important in transpiration in plants.
 It is important in translocation in plants.
 It enables germination to proceed by activating enzymes, transporting hydrolyzed stored food,
swelling and breaking open the testa.
 It is involved in Osmo-regulation in animals
 It enables cooling by evaporation as a result of sweating and panting.
 It is a component of lubricants at joints e.g. the synovial fluid.
 It offers support in hydrostatic skeleton.
 It offers protection as a component of mucus and tears.
 It enables migration to occur as a result of river flow or ocean currents.
QUESTION: HOW DO THE PROPERTIES OF WATER RELATE TO ITS BIOLOGICAL ROLE?
 Water is transparent and this allows light penetration in aquatic habitats to enable photosynthesis
of aquatic autotrophs and visibility of aquatic animals to obtain food and escape predators.
 Water has a low viscosity and this allows for smooth flow of water and other dissolved
substances in an aqueous medium for easy transport.
 It has a high surface tension providing support to aquatic organisms and allowing movement of
living organisms on water surface.
 Has a high latent heat of vaporization hence offers a cooling effect on the body surface since
evaporation of water from the body of an organism draws out excess heat.
 It has a high boiling point thus provides a stable habitat and medium for life processes since a lot
of heat which is not normally provided in the natural environment is needed to boil the water.

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 It has a high latent heat of fusion and hence a low freezing point thus providing a wide range of
temperature for survival of aquatic organisms since it prevents freezing of cells and cellular
components.
 It has a high specific heat capacity which minimizes drastic temperature changes in biological
systems and provides a constant external environment for many plant cells and aquatic
organisms.
 It has a maximum density at 40C hence ice floats on top of water insulating the water below hence
increasing the chances of survival of aquatic organisms below the ice.
 Water is liquid at room temperature providing a liquid medium for living organisms and
metabolic reactions and a medium of transport.
 It has high adhesive and cohesive forces creating enough capillarity forces for transport in narrow
tubes of biological systems.
 It is a universal solvent hence providing a medium for biochemical reactions.
 Water is a polar molecule allowing solubility of polar substances, ionization or dissociation of
biochemical substances.
 Water is incompressible thus providing support in hydrostatic skeleton and herbaceous stems.
 Water is neutral hence does not alter the pH of cellular components on their environment.
 A water molecule is relatively small for easy and fast transport across a membrane.
WATER – human body is about two thirds water (6 to 8 cups of water a day)
A. Regulator – vital to every body function (digestion, excretory, circulatory)
1. Dehydration causes malfunction of all systems – death
a. Decrease urine – increase of toxins
b. Decrease sweating – increase body temperature
c. Decrease blood volume – increase of fatigue – decrease oxygen and nutrients

SUNLIGHT
The Sun provides the basis for all life on earth. It is the source of energy for all life form including plants,
animals and humans. The body manufactures vitamin D after being exposed to sunlight.
Vitamin D is critical for the body because it helps the body absorb calcium and also helps it keep the right
amount of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. Without sufficient amount of vitamin D, bones can
become thin, brittle, or even misshapen.
Sunshine has several benefits to the body. It furnishes the natural Vitamin D and helps to lower
cholesterol. Sunlight increases the volume of oxygen in the blood. The best time for sunbathing is 9-10
am and 4-6 PM. Avoid burning. To lessen skin cancer risk, reduce the fat intake, such as animal fats, oils,
margarine - (and foods containing refined, processed oils)’

The following discoveries show the benefits derived from the sun: It lowers blood sugar and blood
pressure; it lowers cholesterol by converting it to vitamin D; it utilizes calcium and phosphorus; it
increases red blood cells; it increases white blood cells; it strengthens the immune system; it calms the
nerves and increases adrenaline; it destroys germs on the skin; it reverses jaundice; it increases
circulation; and it helps eliminate pesticides and other chemicals from the system.

Health risks of overexposure to UV radiation include:

 Sunburn and other skin changes: sunburn ranges from skin reddening to severe and painful
blistering of the skin.
 Cataract of the eye lens: opacities in the eye lens lead to decreased vision and eventual blindness.

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  Skin carcinoma: several types of malignant skin tumours of the non-melanoma type are caused by
UV radiation.
 Malignant melanoma of the skin: this is a very severe cancer that can develop many years after
excessive exposure to the Sun.
Measures to utilize sunshine
Protect children
Children are particularly vulnerable to UV radiation and often spend more time outdoors than adults.
Parents should take special care to protect them from solar UV radiation. Babies under 12 months should
always remain in the shade.
Limit time in the midday Sun
The Sun’s UV rays are strongest between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. ( = 2 hours each side of the solar noon).
Limit exposure to the Sun during these hours.
Use shade wisely
Seek shade when UV rays are the most intense. The shadow rule: “Watch your shadow – short shadow,
seek shade!” may be helpful.
Wear protective clothing
A hat with a wide brim and tightly woven, loose-fitting clothes provide protection from the Sun.
Sunglasses
that filter all UV-A and UV-B radiation will greatly reduce the risk of eye damage.
Use sunscreen
Liberal application of a broad-spectrum sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 15+ and
reapplication every two hours, or after working, swimming, playing or exercising outdoors, can
Help to reduce the skin-damaging effects of UV radiation. Don’t prolong your stay in the Sun even if you
have used sunscreen.
TEMPERANCE (SELF CONTROL)
Human beings were created to have control over their environment, not to be controlled by it.
Believing that you are in control, in times when situations are far from what you would like them to be,
plays a crucial role in your physical and mental health.
Your perceptions and interpretations of external events, regardless of their nature, determine your
physical and mental reaction to them, and consequently their influence on your health and well-being.
Feelings of helplessness only blocks the creative ability of your mind making you feel like a victim of
circumstances rather than the master of your destiny.
Temperance is not only concerned with drinking booze or smoking; good health requires moderation and
wise choices in all aspects of life. Over-eating, over-playing, over-working, and over-indulgence of the
marriage privilege can all contribute to poor health. Abstain from all harmful indulgences; Tobacco,
alcohol coffee, tea, (except herbal tea) colas and soft drinks. The bit of pleasure they might give is not
worth the misery they cause in the long run.
AIR
The air we breathe plays an essential part in our health and functioning. Long-term exposure to toxic or
polluted air can compromise the health and functioning of the cells and organs of our body leading to
increase susceptibility to infections and various forms of disease.
Some long-term effects of polluted air include: Lung cancer, heart disease, chronic respiratory disease,
and even damage to parts of the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys, etc.
Pure fresh air is very important to our well-being. That means good air with lots of oxygen. Walking in
forests and nature is great. Do some deep breathing exercises daily, this is very helpful in the morning.

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Have windows open a little and circulate air into rooms daily. Avoid smoke, chemicals, Room fresheners
and aerosol sprays.

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) – a Health and Safety Concern?

Indoor air quality has become an important occupational health and safety concern. Energy conservation
measures instituted in the ’70s often led to reduced intake of fresh outside air and thus increased the
consequent buildup of internally generated pollutants including fungi, microbial contamination, house
dust mites, particulates and toxic air contaminants (chemicals) gases, vapours and odours. An IAQ
problem is suspected if people generally develop these symptoms within a few hours of starting work
inside the building and feel better after leaving the building.
People working inside these energy conserved buildings (tight buildings), often experience symptoms
such as headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, sneezing and coughing, dizziness, nausea, dryness and
eye, nose, throat and skin irritation, hypersensitivity and allergies apparently linked to the time they spend
in the building (Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)). These symptoms may also be caused by other factors
and are not necessarily attributable to poor indoor air quality.
It is rarely possible to prove these symptoms are related to any particular indoor air pollutant. In reality,
the occupants are simultaneously exposed to a wide variety of indoor air contaminants.
As with any other occupational illness, not all people are affected. The more sensitive or more exposed
people will experience symptoms sooner. Susceptibilities of individuals to the contaminants may vary
and some may be sensitized with continued exposure. As indoor air quality deteriorates and/or the
duration of exposure increases, more people tend to be affected and the symptoms tend to be more
serious.
Causes
Some of the causes of IAQ problems include:
• Airtight buildings that reduce energy consumption by heating and cooling (HVAC) systems
• Reduced intake of outside air
• Climate
• Indoor environment – inadequate temperature, humidity, lighting, excessive noise
• Indoor air contaminants – chemicals (construction materials and furnishings, glues, fiberglass, particle boards,
stored chemicals and storage practices etc.), dusts, molds, microbial contamination, gases, vapours, odours.
• Activities within the building
• Increase in the number of building occupants and time spent indoors
Indoor air contaminants – Common indoor air contaminants and their main sources are:
• Carbon dioxide, tobacco smoke, perfume from building occupants and kitchen fumes (if there is one)
• Dust, fiberglass, asbestos, gas from building materials
• Toxic vapours, volatile organic compounds (VOCs including formaldehyde) – from cleansers, pesticides,
disinfectants, glues or from stored chemicals
• Gases, vapours, odours from furniture, carpets and paints
• Fungi, bacteria, microbials, mites from damp area, stagnant waters and condensates
• Ozone – from photocopiers, electric motors, electrostatic cleaners

SLEEP
More and more studies are suggesting that sleep plays a critical role in people’s physical as well as their
mental health and functioning. Lack of sleep can compromise immune system effectiveness, which can
lead to various forms of health problems. Some experts believe that lack of sleep can make the body
become resistant to insulin, a hormone which helps carry glucose from bloodstream to cells.
Other problems resulting from lack of sleep includes lack of mental clarity, memory problems, moody
disposition, and higher stress level.
Get adequate restful sleep; an early, light supper, well before bedtime and no eating before bed will help.
A relaxing warm bath may help you unwind, avoid stressful and stimulating activities before bedtime.
Regular times for going to bed and rising will also help. The best time to go to bed is between 9 and 10

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PM. This sounds strange, because in our culture, it almost seems a bad taste to sleep. 100 years ago, the
average person got 9 or more hours sleep. Now it is more like 4 or 5. Exercise during the day also helps
set the stage for restful sleep. Avoid using drugs for sleep, as these are harmful and sleep thus attained is
of little benefit to your body. Lack of restful sleep is for many the root of the 'enervation' that brings
disease. For healing and cleansing to occur much rest and sleep is needed as these actions are done only
while asleep.
Tips for Getting a Good Night’s Sleep
Stick to a sleep schedule.
Go to bed and wake up at the same time each day. As creatures of habit, people have a hard time
adjusting to changes in sleep patterns. Sleeping later on weekends won’t fully make up for a lack of sleep
during the week and will make it harder to wake up early on
Monday morning.
Exercise is great, but not too late in the day. Try to exercise at least 30 minutes on most days but not
later than 2–3 hours before your bedtime.
Avoid caffeine and nicotine.
Coffee, colas, certain teas, and chocolate contain the stimulant caffeine, and its effects can take as long as
8 hours to wear off fully. Therefore, a cup of coffee in the late afternoon can make it hard for you to fall
asleep at night. Nicotine is also a stimulant, often causing smokers to sleep only very lightly. In addition,
smokers often wake up too early in the morning because of nicotine withdrawal.
Avoid alcoholic drinks before bed. Having a “nightcap” or alcoholic beverage before sleep may help
you relax, but heavy use robs you of deep sleep and REM sleep, keeping you in the lighter stages of sleep.
Heavy alcohol ingestion also may contribute to impairment in breathing at night. You also tend to wake
up in the middle of the night when the effects of the alcohol have worn off.
Avoid large meals and beverages late at night. A light snack is okay, but a large meal can cause
indigestion that interferes with sleep. Drinking too many fluids at night can cause frequent awakenings to
urinate.
If possible, avoid medicines that delay or disrupt your sleep. Some commonly prescribed heart, blood
pressure, or asthma medications, as well as some over-the-counter and herbal remedies for coughs, colds,
or allergies, can disrupt sleep patterns. If you have trouble sleeping, talk to your doctor or pharmacist to
see whether any drugs you’re taking might be contributing to your insomnia and ask whether they can be
taken at other times during the day or early in the evening.
Don’t take naps after 3 p.m. Naps can help make up for lost sleep, but late afternoon naps can make it
harder to fall asleep at night.
Relax before bed. Don’t overschedule your day so that no time is left for unwinding. A relaxing activity,
such as reading or listening to music, should be part of your bedtime ritual.
Take a hot bath before bed. The drop-in body temperature after getting out of the bath may help you feel
sleepy, and the bath can help you relax and slow down so you’re more ready to sleep.
Have a good sleeping environment. Get rid of anything in your bedroom that might distract you from
sleep, such as noises, bright lights, an uncomfortable bed, or warm temperatures. You sleep better if the
temperature in the room is kept on the cool side. A TV, cell phone, or computer in the bedroom can be a
distraction and deprive you of needed sleep. Having a comfortable mattress and pillow can help promote
a
good night’s sleep. Individuals who have insomnia often watch the clock. Turn the clock’s face out of
view so you don’t worry about the time while trying to fall asleep.
Have the right sunlight exposure. Daylight is key to regulating daily sleep patterns. Try to get outside
in natural sunlight for at least 30 minutes each day. If possible, wake up with the sun or use very bright

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lights in the morning. Sleep experts recommend that, if you have problems falling asleep, you should get
an hour of exposure to morning sunlight and turn down the lights before bedtime.
Don’t lie in bed awake. If you find yourself still awake after staying in bed for more than 20 minutes or
if you are starting to feel anxious or worried, get up and do some relaxing activity until you feel sleepy.
The anxiety of not being able to sleep can make it harder to fall asleep.

MEDITATE and reflect

Taking time out of a busy schedule to relax and meditate can act as good medicine. Until recently,
meditation has been largely recognized as a spiritual practice. Meditation is now recognized as having
many benefits for health and well-being. In some cases, it has been implemented in the management of
some forms of illness, management of stress, and even in accelerated learning programs.
In the area of health and wellness, meditation is known to increase blood flow and slow heart rate,
relaxation, reduction of physical and psychological stress, reduce anxiety attacks, and even build self-
confidence.
An abiding faith in our loving God will help you. He has made every provision to forgive and cleanse all
our past mistakes. He will give power to break harmful addictions and help us overcome bitter and angry
attitudes that 'eat us up' inside. If we are 'Willing to be made willing' He will work with us, take away our
love for sinning and make us free in Him. Ask Him. Have you ever really read the Bible?
Oh, I don't mean just looking up a text at church; I mean really read it as a letter of love from God to you
personally?
Well, when you do, you will find it full of precious promises; each one meant for you just as much as
anybody else.
Do you know what 'Faith' is? Well, it is simply taking God at His word; in other words, believing that He
means what He says in His Word, the Bible. If you take time every day to read God's Word as personal to
you and talk to Him about His promises; your life will blossom as you have never dreamed.
Stress and stress management
Stress is primarily a physical response. A state of mental, emotional and physical strain. When stressed,
the body thinks it is under attack and switches to ‘fight or flight’ mode, releasing a complex mix of
hormones and chemicals such as adrenaline, cortisol and norepinephrine to prepare the body for physical
action. This causes a number of reactions, from blood being diverted to muscles to shutting down
unnecessary bodily functions such as digestion.
Causes of work stress include:
 Being unhappy in your job
 Having a heavy workload or too much responsibility
 Working long hours
 Having poor management, unclear expectations of your work, or no say in the decision-making
process
 Poverty
 Social problems like expectations of marriage
 Hunger
 Working under dangerous conditions
 Being insecure about your chance for advancement or risk of termination
 Having to give speeches in front of colleagues
 Facing discrimination or harassment at work, especially if your company isn't supportive
Life stresses can also have a big impact. Examples of life stresses are:

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  The death of a loved one
 Divorce
 Loss of a job
 Increase in financial obligations
 Getting married
 Moving to a new home
 Chronic illness or injury
 Emotional problems (depression, anxiety, anger, grief, guilt, low self-esteem)
 Taking care of an elderly or sick family member
 Traumatic event, such as a natural disaster, theft, rape, or violence against you or a loved one
Sometimes the stress comes from inside, rather than outside. You can stress yourself out just
by worrying about things.
 Fear and uncertainty. When you regularly hear about the threat of terrorist attacks, global
warming, and toxic chemicals on the news, it can cause you to feel stressed, especially because
you feel like you have no control over those events. And even though disasters are typically very
rare events, their vivid coverage in the media may make them seem as if they are more likely to
occur than they really are. Fears can also hit closer to home; such as being worried that you won't
finish a project at work or won't have enough money to pay your bills this month.
 Attitudes and perceptions. How you view the world or a particular situation can determine
whether it causes stress. For example, if your television set is stolen and you take the attitude,
"It's OK, my insurance company will pay for a new one," you'll be far less stressed than if you
think, "My TV is gone and I'll never get it back! What if the thieves come back to my house to
steal again?" Similarly, people who feel like they're doing a good job at work will be less stressed
out by a big upcoming project than those who worry that they are incompetent.
 Unrealistic expectations. No one is perfect. If you expect to do everything right all the time,
you're destined to feel stressed when things don't go as expected.
 Change. Any major life change can be stressful -- even a happy event like a wedding or a job
promotion. More unpleasant events, such as a divorce, major financial setback, or death in the
family can be significant sources of stress. Your stress level will differ based on your personality
and how you respond to situations. Some people let everything roll off their back. To them, work
stresses and life stresses are just minor bumps in the road. Others literally worry themselves sick.
Effects of Stress on Your Health
When you are in a stressful situation, your body launches a physical response. Your nervous
system springs into action, releasing hormones that prepare you to either fight or take off. It's called the
"fight or flight" response, and it's why, when you're in a stressful situation, you may notice that your
heartbeat speeds up, your breathing gets faster, your muscles tense, and you start to sweat. This kind of
stress is short-term and temporary (acute stress), and your body usually recovers quickly from it.
But if your stress system stays activated over a long period of time (chronic stress), it can lead to more
serious health problems. The constant rush of stress hormones can put a lot of wear and tear on your
body, causing it to age more quickly and making it more prone to illness.
If you've been stressed out for a short period of time, you may start to notice some of these physical signs:
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Difficulty sleeping

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  Difficulty concentrating
 Upset stomach
 Irritability
When stress becomes long-term and is not properly addressed, it can lead to a number of more serious
health conditions, including:
 Depression
 High blood pressure
 Abnormal heartbeat (arrhythmia)
 Hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis)
 Heart disease
 Heart attack
 Heartburn, ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome
 Upset stomach -- cramps, constipation, and diarrhea
 Weight gain or loss
 Changes in sex drive
 Fertility problems
 Flare-ups of asthma or arthritis
 Skin problems such as eczema

STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stress management refers to the wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a
person's levels of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday
functioning.
In this context, the term 'stress' refers only to a stress with significant negative consequences, or distress
rather than what he calls eustress, a stress whose consequences are helpful.
 Social activity
 Conflict resolution
 Cranial release technique
 Meditation
 Mindfulness
 Music as a coping strategy
 Deep breathing
 Yoga
 Reading novels
 Prayer
 Relaxation techniques
 Physical exercise
 Progressive relaxation
 Spas
 Spending time in nature
 Natural medicine
 Clinically validated alternative treatments
 Time management
 Planning and decision making

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  Listening to certain types of relaxing music
 Spending quality time with pets

Life style diseases

Lifestyle disease: A disease associated with the way a person or group of people lives. Lifestyle diseases
include heart disease, and stroke; obesity and type 2 diabetes; and diseases associated with smoking and
alcohol and drug abuse, cancer. Regular physical activity helps prevent obesity, heart disease,
hypertension, diabetes, colon cancer, and premature mortality.
Reasons why following a healthy diet is important:
 to maintain health by preventing loss of muscle strength, bone mass, and vitamin deficiency
states;
 to prevent diseases such as heart attacks, strokes, obesity, osteoporosis, and certain cancers; and
 to help control and/or treat chronic diseases and conditions such as high blood
pressure, diabetebs mellitus, sleep apnea, and celiac disease.
Lifestyle-related diseases are on the rise in our country. These preventable chronic diseases are the
outcome of our unhealthy choices. Identifying the causes of lifestyle disease is critical, because the
elimination of the causes is the obvious and only way to achieve healing and enhanced health.

Causes of Lifestyle Disease

1. Dehydration - Dehydration of the muscles and tendons is a primary cause of muscle fatigue, strain,
tendonitis, and other disorders of the musculoskeletal system.
2. Malnutrition - The lack of living foods in our diet along with the overconsumption of dead foods
causes chronic disease.
3. Inflammation – Inflammation is a primary cause of most lifestyle-related disorders, including heart
disease and musculoskeletal disorders.
4. Fatigue - Lack of sleep is associated with numerous, serious medical illnesses including: high blood
pressure, heart disease, stroke, obesity, and mental impairment.
5. Poor physical fitness - It’s widely recognized that there’s a direct correlation between poor levels of
physical fitness and increased risk of chronic diseases.
6. Poor health habits - Smoking, alcohol, drug use/abuse, sugar, fast food, soft drinks, chocolate,
artificial sweeteners, worry, and stress have a negative impact on your health.

Lifestyle Diseases: Heart disease, Diabetes, Cancer, Stroke, Arthritis, Migraine Headaches, Sleep
Disorders, Musculoskeletal Disorders, Nerve Compression Disorder, Carpal Tunnel Syndrome,
Tendonitis, Degenerative Neck and Back, Pulmonary Disease, Osteoporosis, Arteriosclerosis, Gallbladder
Disease, Kidney and Liver Disease, Alzheimer’s and Dementia

Maintaining health
The body requires carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals to maintain healthy organs, bones,
muscles, and nerves, and to produce hormones and chemicals that are necessary for the proper function of
organs.
Non-communicable diseases
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (DM), commonly referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders in which
there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged period. Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent
urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger. If left untreated, diabetes can cause many
complications. Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state,

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or death. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney
disease, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes.
Major Modifiable Risk Factors
Unhealthy diets, Physical Inactivity, Heavy alcohol use, Psychological stress, High consumption of sugar,
Low consumption of fiber
Nonmodifiable
Advanced age, Family history/ genetics, Race, Distribution of fat in the body, Presence of autoantibodies
Other risk factors
High Blood Pressure, High Cholesterol, Obesity or Overweight, Low socioeconomic status
Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin or the cells of the body not
responding properly to the insulin produced.
There are two main types of diabetes mellitus:
 Type 1 DM results from the pancreas's failure to produce enough insulin. This form was
previously referred to as "insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (IDDM) or "juvenile
diabetes". The cause is unknown.
 Type 2 DM begins with insulin resistance, a condition in which cells fail to respond to insulin
properly. As the disease progresses a lack of insulin may also develop. This form was previously
referred to as "non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus" (NIDDM) or "adult-onset diabetes”. The
most common cause is excessive body weight and insufficient exercise.
Prevention and treatment involve maintaining a healthy diet, regular physical exercise, a normal body
weight, and avoiding use of tobacco. Control of blood pressure and maintaining proper foot care are
important for people with the disease.
Type 2 diabetes
This is used to be called adult-onset diabetes, but with the epidemic of obese and overweight kids, more
teenagers are now developing type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes was also called non-insulin-dependent
diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is often a milder form of diabetes than type 1. Nevertheless, type 2 diabetes can
still cause major health complications, particularly in the smallest blood vessels in the body that nourish
the kidneys, nerves, and eyes. Type 2 diabetes also increases your risk of heart disease and stroke.
With Type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually produces some insulin. But either the amount produced is not
enough for the body's needs, or the body's cells are resistant to it. Insulin resistance, or lack of sensitivity
to insulin, happens primarily in fat, liver, and muscle cells.
People who are obese -- more than 20% over their ideal body weight for their height -- are at particularly
high risk of developing type 2 diabetes and its related medical problems. Obese people have insulin
resistance. With insulin resistance, the pancreas has to work overly hard to produce more insulin. But
even then, there is not enough insulin to keep sugars normal. There is no cure for diabetes. Type 2
diabetes can, however, be controlled with weight management, nutrition, and exercise. Unfortunately,
type 2 diabetes tends to progress, and diabetes medications are often needed.
A blood test that estimates average glucose levels in your blood over the previous three months.
Cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels.
Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial
infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs include stroke, heart failure, hypertensive
heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart arrhythmia, congenital heart

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disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic
disease, and venous thrombosis.
The underlying mechanisms vary depending on the disease in question. Coronary artery disease, stroke,
and peripheral artery disease involve atherosclerosis. This may be caused by high blood
pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, and
excessive alcohol consumption, among others. High blood pressure results in 13% of CVD deaths, while
tobacco results in 9%, diabetes 6%, lack of exercise 6% and obesity 5%. Rheumatic heart disease may
follow untreated strep throat.
It is estimated that 90% of CVD is preventable. Prevention of atherosclerosis involves improving
risk factors through: healthy eating, exercise, avoidance of tobacco smoke and limiting alcohol
intake. Treating risk factors, such as high blood pressure, blood lipids and diabetes is also
beneficial. Treating people who have strep throat with antibiotics can decrease the risk of rheumatic heart
disease. The effect of the use of aspirin in people who are otherwise healthy is of unclear benefit.
Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death globally. This is true in all areas of the world
except Africa. Together they resulted in 17.9 million deaths (32.1%) in 2015, up from 12.3 million
(25.8%) in 1990. Deaths, at a given age, from CVD are more common and have been increasing in much
of the developing world, while rates have declined in most of the developed world since the
1970s. Coronary artery disease and stroke account for 80% of CVD deaths in males and 75% of CVD
deaths in females. Most cardiovascular disease affects older adults. In the United States 11% of people
between 20 and 40 have CVD, while 37% between 40 and 60, 71% of people between 60 and 80, and
85% of people over 80 have CVD. The average age of death from coronary artery disease in the
developed world is around 80 while it is around 68 in the developing world. Disease onset is typically
seven to ten years earlier in men as compared to women.
Risk factors
There are many risk factors for heart diseases: age, gender, tobacco use, physical inactivity,
excessive alcohol consumption, unhealthy diet, obesity, genetic predisposition and family history of
cardiovascular disease, raised blood pressure (hypertension), raised blood sugar (diabetes mellitus), raised
blood cholesterol (hyperlipidemia), psychosocial factors, poverty and low educational status, and air
pollution. While the individual contribution of each risk factor varies between different communities or
ethnic groups the overall contribution of these risk factors is very consistent. Some of these risk factors,
such as age, gender or family history/genetic predisposition, are immutable; however, many important
cardiovascular risk factors are modifiable by lifestyle change, social change, drug treatment (for example
prevention of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes). People with obesity are at increased risk
of atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries.
Prevention
Up to 90% of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided. Currently
practiced measures to prevent cardiovascular disease include:
 Tobacco cessation and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Smoking cessation reduces risk by
about 35%.
 A low-fat, low-sugar, high-fiber diet including whole grains and fruit and vegetables. Dietary
interventions are effective in reducing cardiovascular risk factors over a year, but the longer-term
effects of such interventions and their impact on cardiovascular disease events is uncertain.
 At least 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) of moderate exercise per week. Exercise-based
cardiac rehabilitation reduces risk of subsequent cardiovascular events by 26%, but there have

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 been few high-quality studies of the benefits of exercise training in people with increased
cardiovascular risk but no history of cardiovascular disease.
 Limit alcohol consumption to the recommended daily limits; People who moderately consume
alcoholic drinks have a 25–30% lower risk of cardiovascular disease. However, people who are
genetically predisposed to consume less alcohol have lower rates of cardiovascular
disease suggesting that alcohol itself may not be protective. Excessive alcohol intake increases
the risk of cardiovascular disease and consumption of alcohol is associated with increased risk of
a cardiovascular event in the day following consumption.
 Lower blood pressure, if elevated. A 10-mmHg reduction in blood pressure reduces risk by about
20%.
 Decrease non-HDL cholesterol. Statin treatment reduces cardiovascular mortality by about 31%.
 Decrease body fat if overweight or obese. The effect of weight loss is often difficult to distinguish
from dietary change, and evidence on weight reducing diets is limited. In observational studies of
people with severe obesity, weight loss following bariatric surgery is associated with a 46%
reduction in cardiovascular risk.
 Decrease psychosocial stress. This measure may be complicated by imprecise definitions of what
constitute psychosocial interventions. Mental stress–induced myocardial ischemia is associated
with an increased risk of heart problems in those with previous heart disease. Severe emotional
and physical stress leads to a form of heart dysfunction known as Takotsubo syndrome in some
people. Stress, however, plays a relatively minor role in hypertension. Specific relaxation
therapies are of unclear benefit.
Managing CVD: Depending on the type of CVD, an appropriate treatment plan can help alleviate the
problem/s. There are a number of treatments ranging from medication to surgeries that can help, however,
prevention is always recommended over treatment. To prevent CVD, one must:
a) Stop smoking
b) Have a balanced diet with plenty of fibre
c) Exercise regularly (>150 minutes of aerobic activity per week)
d) Maintain a healthy weight and body mass index (BMI; aim for a BMI below 25)
e) Cut down on alcohol (<14 alcohol units per week)

Cancer
is the uncontrolled and unwanted growth of cells. Cancer affects different parts of the body and is
characterized by a rapid creation of abnormal cells in that part and can invade other parts of the body as
well. More than 7 million people die of cancer each year and 30% of those diseases are attributed to
lifestyle choices.
Cause
(i) No definite cause has been arrived at so far. However, it is found that body has proto-oncogenes.
These are activated by some substances or stimulus, which convert these into active cancer-causing
oncogenes.
(ii) Heavy smoking and alcoholism.
(iii) Chewing of tobacco.
(iv) Consistent irritation of skin or repeated injury at the same point.
Cancer is a kind of tumorous growth. Tumors can be classified into two categories:
Benign tumor
It remains confined to the place of origin and does not spread to other body parts. It is relatively
harmless.
Malignant tumour

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It spreads to other parts of the body and growth is rapid. This is serious and may cause death of the
patient.
Symptoms
i) Persistent lump or thickening in tissues, especially in tongue, breast and uterus. (ii) Any irregular
bleeding or blood-tinged discharge from anybody opening. (iii) Any sore that does not heal quickly.
(iv) Change in the form of mole or wart. (v) Persistent hoarseness in voice, cough or difficulty in
swallowing.
Prevention and cure
(i) Cancer checku p should be done once a year. (ii) Treatment should be taken under medical
advice. (iii) Avoid smoking, taking alcohol and chewing of tobacco. (iv) Observe regularity in life
style to keep body healthy.
Type of Modifiable Risk Factors Other Risk Factors
Cancer
Cervical cancer Smoking Human papilloma virus infection (hpv), immune
Poverty deficiencies, Family history
Lung cancer Smoking Radiation therapy, being exposed to asbestos, radon,
Second hand smoke chromium, nickel, arsenic, soot, or tar
Living in air-polluted place
Breast cancer Hormone therapies Race, Genetics BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes
Weight and physical activity Age
Prostate cancer Obesity Age
Bad food habits Race
Low intake of fiber
Colorectal Unhealthy diet Age
cancer Insufficient physical activity Race
Family history

Chronic respiratory diseases

Some of the most under-diagnosed conditions, chronic respiratory diseases (CRD) are a potent cause of death
globally
with 90% of the deaths taking place in low-income countries. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and
asthma are the two main types of CRDs.
Modifiable Risk Factors; Cigarette smoke, Dust and chemicals, Environmental, tobacco smoke, Air pollution
Infections
Non-Modifiable Risk Factors, Genetics, Age.

Control and prevention of lifestyle diseases

An important way of controlling non-communicable diseases is by controlling the risk factors associated
with it. In other
words, a number of communicable diseases can be prevented by controlling the behavioral or lifestyle
habits associated with those diseases. There are a number of low-cost solutions that can be implemented
by the government and other involved groups to reduce the common modifiable risk factor

Monitoring the trends of non -communicable diseases and their associated risks is crucial for guiding
policies and guidelines. A comprehensive approach is essential that involves all sectors including health,
finance, education, planning and others, to minimize the impact of lifestyle diseases on individuals and
society. The approach needs to instigate a collaborative effort to minimize the risks associated with no
communicable diseases and at the same time inspire interventions to control and prevent them.

Lifestyle diseases are a threat to the socio-economic aspects of nations globally and appropriate actions
for their management are the need of the moment. Management of lifestyle diseases includes proper

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diagnosis, screening and treatment of these diseases in addition to providing palliative care for people
who require it. Quality lifestyle disease intervention needs to be delivered through a primary healthcare
approach where early detection and proper treatment are prioritized.

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

It is a pandemic disease. The word “immuno deficiency” signifies that the immune system becomes very
weak. It is a disease of cell-mediated immune system of the body. Lymphocytes are the main cells of
the immune system i.e. T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes
Damages to or destruction of ‘Helper’ lymphocytes leads to the development of a cellular immune
deficiency which makes the patient susceptible to wide variety of infections
Mode of transmission: AIDS may be transmitted through any of the following means :
(i) Sexual contact with the affected person. In India, the most common route of
HIV transmission is through unprotected heterosexual sex. (ii) Using the same syringe that was used for
affected person.
(iii) Blood transfusion which contains human immunodeficiency virus. (iv) Organ transplantation of the
affected person. (v) Artificial insemination. (vi) From mother to new born baby during the process of
giving birth.
Stage of HIV infection
Stage 1: infection:
Within 2 to 4 weeks after infection with HIV, people may experience flu-like illness, which may last for
a few weeks. This is the body’s natural response to infection. When people have acute HIV infection,
they have a large amount of virus in their blood and are very contagious. People with acute infection are
often unaware because they may not feel sick.
Stage 2: clinical latency (HIV inactivity or dormancy)
This is at times called asymptomatic HIV infection. During this phase, HIV is still active but reproduces
at very low levels. This period may last for a decade or longer but some may progress faster.
People who are taking ART the right way every day, may be in this stage for several decades.
Stage 3 (Acquired immunodeficiency disease. (AIDS)
This is the most severe phase of infection. At this level, the immune system is damaged, allowing
opportunist disease to cause severe harm to the body.
Incubation period: The average period is 28 months though it may range between 15 to 57 months
Symptoms: The sufferer may show one or more of the following symptoms: (i) A type of lung disease
develops (tuberculosis). (ii) A skin cancer may be observed. (iii) Nerves are affected.
iv) The number of platelets (thrombocytes) becomes less which may cause haemorrhage.
(v) In severe cases the patient shows swollen lymph nodes, fever and loss of weight. Vi) A full blown
(disease at its peak) AIDS patient, may die within three years.
Prevention and cure
No medicine or vaccine is known to be available against HIV infection. Therefore, care has to be taken
through following measures:
(i) There should not be any sexual contact with the person who has HIV infection or STI. Since STI
causes some damage to the genital area and mucous layer, and thus facilitates the entry of HIV into the
body.
(ii) Use disposable syringe and needle.
(iii) The blood to be transfused to the needy person, should be free from HIV germ. (iv) Prostitution and
homosexuality should be avoided.

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(v) Condom should always be used during intercourse.
Control
AIDS can be detected by ELISA test.
There are three points which may be important to control STD.
(i) Partner notification: Identification of potential infected contact, examination and treatment.
(ii) Education of STD: This should be a part of general education.
(iii) Screening for STD: Serological screening of groups, such as, blood donors, women before giving
birth.

How does HIV get passed from one person to another?

• Only five body fluids can contain enough HIV to infect someone: blood, semen, rectal fluid, vaginal
fluid and breast milk.
• HIV can only get passed when one of these fluids from a person with HIV gets into the bloodstream of
another person—through broken skin, the opening of the penis or the wet linings of the body, such as the
vagina, rectum or foreskin.
• HIV cannot pass through healthy, unbroken skin. The two main ways that HIV can get passed
between you and someone else are: through unprotected sex, by sharing needles or other equipment to
inject drugs (including steroids)
HIV can also be passed:
• by sharing needles or ink to get a tattoo
• by sharing needles or jewelry to get a body piercing
• to a fetus or baby during pregnancy, birth or breast-feeding
HIV cannot be passed by:
• talking, shaking hands, working or eating with someone who has HIV, hugs
• coughs or sneezes
• swimming pools
• toilet seats or water fountains
• bed sheets or towels
• forks, spoons, cups or food
• insects or animals

Drug abuse
What is a drug
A drug is a chemical substance that changes the way our body and mind work. A pharmaceutical
preparation or a naturally occurring substance used primarily to alter the physical or mental functioning of
an individual, is called a drug.
What is drug abuse
When drugs are taken for medical reasons to treat or cure disease both physical and mental, they are
called medications or therapeutic drugs.
Drug abuse occurs when drugs are taken without medical reasons and without medical supervision,
especially when they are taken in an amount, strength, frequency, or manner that damages the physical
and mental functioning of the individual.
Effects of drug abuse

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Short-term effects : These are the effects that appear instantly or a few minutes after the intake of drugs.
The effects include a sense of well-being and a pleasant drowsiness.
Long-term effects : Constant and excessive use of drugs over a long period can cause both physical
and mental damage and illness. This includes failure in academic studies, employment, and interpersonal
relationship; financial ruin; increased risk of contracting STIs; and increased risk of being involved in
vehicular accidents. Addicts stop thinking of everything in life except when and how they will get their
next drug dose. They will do anything for the dose, including committing crimes such as theft and in
certain case even murder
FIRST AID
First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a sudden illness or injury, with care provided to
preserve life, prevent the condition from worsening, and/or promote recovery. It includes initial
intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help being available, such as
performing CPR cardio pulmonary resuscitation while awaiting an ambulance, as well as the complete
treatment of minor conditions, such as applying a plaster to a cut. First aid is generally performed by
the layperson, with many people trained in providing basic levels of first aid, and others willing to do so
from acquired knowledge. Mental health first aid is an extension of the concept of first aid to cover
mental health.
There are many situations which may require first aid, and many countries have legislation, regulation, or
guidance which specifies a minimum level of first aid provision in certain circumstances. This can
include specific training or equipment to be available in the workplace (such as an Automated External
Defibrillator), the provision of specialist first aid cover at public gatherings, or mandatory first aid
training within schools. First aid, however, does not necessarily require any particular equipment or prior
knowledge, and can involve improvisation with materials available at the time, often by untrained
persons.

References
1. ^ World Health Organization.Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health
Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records
of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. In Grad, Frank P. (2002).
"The Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization". Bulletin of the World Health
Organization. 80 (12): 982.
2. ^ World Health Organization. (2006). Constitution of the World Health Organization – Basic Documents, Forty-fifth
edition, Supplement, October 2006.
3. ^ Jadad AR, O’Grady L: How should health be defined? (2008). "How should health be defined?". BMJ (Clinical
Research Ed.). 337: a2900. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2900. PMID 19073663.
4. ^ World Health Organization. The world health report. Geneva.

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