MATRICES
A table of m by n quantities, called elements, arranged in a rectangular array of m rows
and n columns is called a matrix. If aij is the element of the ith row and jth column, then
the matrix A can be written in the following manner.
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 1n st
1 row
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 2n nd
. . . . -2 row
A . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 a mn
st
1 col 2ndcol
The matrix A is said to be a matrix of order (mxn). If m=n then, A is called a square
matrix. The other types of matrices are:
Row matrix : R r1 , r 2 ......... r n
c1
c2
Column matrix : C .
.
.
cm
Indicial notation : A aij i = 1,2,3,......m
j = 1,2,3,......n
aij : the element in the ith row and jth column.
Definitions
i. Equality of matrices: Two matrices A and B are defined to be equal, provided that
they have the same order and their corresponding elements are equal.
A B aij bij for any i and j.
ii. Addition of matrices: Let A aij and B bij two matrices of the same order. The
sum of A and B is a matrix and will have the same order with A and B .
C A B cij aij bij i = 1,2,3,........m
j =1,2,.........n
iii. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar: , is effected by multiplying each element of
a matrix by the scalar :
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 2 n
. . . .
A a ij . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
a m1 a m 2 a m 3 a mn
Properties of summation; and multiplication by a scalar:
i. A B B A
ii. A ( B C ) ( A B) C
iii. ( A B ) A B
iv. (A ( ) A A
v. ( A ) ( )A
vi. A 0 0 A A
vii. A (A) 0
viii. 1 A A 1 A
Transpose of a matrix:
Interchanging the rows and the columns of a matrix is called a transposition. Resultant
T
matrix obtained by a transposition is called the transpose of a matrix and denoted as A
which is the transpose of a matrix A
Let A mxn a ij
A nxm a ji
T
a11 a12 a13 a1n a11 a 21 a 31 a n1
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 2 n T
a12
A A
a 31 a13
a m1 a mn a1m a nm
Def 1: If A T A then A is said to be a symmetric matrix.
Def 2: If A T A then A is said to be an antisymmetric matrix.
Consider an arbitrary martix (mxn):
a11 a12 a13 a1n
a 21 a 22
.
A .
.
.
a m1 a mn
aii Diagonal elements and others are called off-diagonal elements
For an symmetric matrix, it is equal to its transpose
Example:
2 3 6 2 3 6
T
A 3 4 5 A = 3 4 5
6 5 9 6 5 9
A T A then A is an symmetric matrix.
S 1 A A T
2
For an antisymmetric matrix, all diagonal elements are zero.
Example:
0 1 2 0 1 2
T
A 1 0 3 A = 1 0 3
2 3 0 2 3 0
A T A then A is an antisymmetric matrix.
R 1 A - AT
2
Any matrix can be written as a summation of a symmetric and antisymmetric matrices.
A S R where S T = S R T = -R
A 1 A AT 1 A AT
2
2
S R
Example:
2 3 2 5
A A
T
5 1 3 1
1 1 2 3 2 5 1 4 8 2 4
S ( A A )
T
2 2 5 1 3 1 2 8 2 4 1
1 1 2 3 2 5 1 0 2 0 1
R ( A A )
T
2 2 5 1 3 1 2 2 0 1 0
2 4 0 1 2 3
A
4 1 1 0 5 1
Triangular Matrices:
If upper off diagonal elements of a matrix are zero, then this is a lower triangular matrix.
a11 0 0
A a 21 a 22 0
a 31 a 32 a 33
If lower off diagonal elements are zero:
a11 a12 a13
A 0 a 22 a 23 upper triangular matrix
0 0 a 33
If all the off diagonal elements are zero:
a11 0 0
D 0 a 22 0 diagonal matrix
0 0 a 33
If all the elements of a diagonal matrix are equal to 1 then it is called a UNIT MATRIX.
1 0 0
I 0 1 0 Identity matrix for multiplication.
0 0 1
A I = IA A
If all the elements of a matrix are zero, then it is called zero matrix.
0 0 0
Identity matrix for addition
0 0 0 0
AO A
0 0 0
MATRIX ALGEBRA:
Let A a ij m x n B bij p x q
A B is defined only when n = p
A B BA
B A is defined only when q = m
c11 c12 c13 . . . c1q
c 21 c 22
.
C A B C = cij m x q C .
.
.
c m1 c mq
n
Cij a ik bkj a ik b kj a i1 b1 j a i 2 b 2 j a i 3 b3 j ......... a in b nj
k 1
C11 a11 b11 a12 b21 a13 b31 ........... a1n bn1
C12 a11 b12 a12 b22 a13 b32 ........... a1n bn 2
.
.
C mq am1b1q am2 b 2q am3 b3q ........... amnb nq
Example:
1 0 2
3 2 -1
A B = 5 3 1
0 4 6 2x3
6 4 2 3 x 3
1 0 2
3 2 -1 7 2 6
C AB 5 3 1
0 4 6 56 36 16 2 x 3
6 4 2
C11 =(3)(1)+(2)(5)+(-1)(6)=7 C12 = (3)(0)+(2)(3)+(-1)(4)=2
C13 =(3)(2)+(2)(1)+(-1)(2)=6 C21 = (0)(0)+(4)(3)+(6)(4)=2
C22 =(0)(1)+(4)(5)+(6)(6)=7 C 23 = (0)(0)+(4)(3)+(6)(4)=2
B A is not defined in this example
Vectors can be represented as column matrices
vx 1 0 0
V v y i 0
j 1 k 0
~ ~ ~ ~
v z 0 0 1
Vectors also can be represented as row matrices
i T 1 0 0 j T 0 1 0 k T 0 0 1
~ ~ ~
Dot product of two vectors can be represented by using column and row matrices
V V V T V
~ ~ ~ ~
Example:
V V cos i V sin j
~ ~ ~
V cos
V = Vcos Vsin
T
V
~
V sin xy ~
V V i
~ x 'y' ~
V
V V T= V 0
~
0 x 'y' ~
V cos
V TV Vcos Vsin V cos V sin
2 2 2 2
~ ~
V sin
= V 2 (cos2 sin 2 ) V 2 1x1 V V
~ ~
V
V T V V 0 V 2 0 V 2 V V
~ ~
0 ~ ~
Matrix multiplication satisfies:
k (A B) (k A) B A(k B) (A B) k
A ( B C ) ( A B) C
A ( B C) A B + A C
( A B) C A C B C
Special square matrices.
i ) A B = B A A and B are said to commute
A , B A B - B A = 0
ii ) A B = - B A A and B are said to anticommute
A , B A B + B A = 0
iii ) A p 1 A and p is the least positive integer
p: period of A and A is idenpotent of order (p+1)
ex: p=1 A 2 A (idenp. of order 2)
iv ( Aq 0 A is nilpotend of order q, where q is the least integer.
1 1 3
HE: Show that A 5 2 6 nilpotent of order 3
2 1 3
2 2 4
B 1 3 4 idenpotent of order 2
1 2 3
Scalar matrix S is defined as A S = S A = kA
k 0 0.... 0
0 k 0 .
S
. 0 . .
0 . . k
Example: Show that
n
cij a ik bkj
T
(A B) = B T A T C =A B
k 1
cij a ik bkj , c ij (a ik b kj ) c ji (a ik ) (b kj ) a ki b jk
T T T T
b jk a ki (bkj) T (a ik ) T BT AT
Determinant of a matrix (for a square matrix)
det A A =number
a11 a1n a11 a1n
A det A =
a n1 a nn nxn a n1 a nn nxn
Minor matrix (of A 3x3)
a11 a12 a13 m11 m12 m13
A a 21 a 22 a 23 M = m21 m22 m23
a 31 a 32 a 33 m31 m32 m33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a11 a13
m11 m12 m22
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33 a 31 a 33
Cofactor matrix: c
Cij = (-1)i+j mij if i+j is even (-1)i+j=1
if i+j is odd (-1)i+j=-1
c11 m11 c11 c12 c13
c12 m12 C = c21 c22 c23
c31 m31 c31 c32 c33
Evaluation of a determinant:
Anxn, det A a i1 ci1 a i 2 ci 2 ........... a in cin
Laplace expansion of a determinant wrt. ith row
also, det A a1 j c1 j a 2 j c2 j ........... a nj cnj
Laplace expansion of a det. w.r.t. jth column
a11 a12 a13 m11 m12 m13 c11 c12 c13 m11 m12 m13
let A a 21 a 22 a 23, M = m 21 m 22 m 23, C c21 c22 c23 m21 m22 m 23
a 31 a 32 a 33 m31 m32 m33 c31 c32 c33 m31 m32 m33
det A a i1 ci1 a i 2 ci 2 a i 3 ci 3 a1 j c1 j a 2 j c2 j a 3 j c3 j
for i=1 det A a11 c11 a12 c12 a13 c13 a11 m11 a12 m12 a13 m13
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22
= a11 a 32 a 33 a12 a 31 a 33 a13 a 31 a 32
For j=1 det A a11 c11 a 21 c21 a 31 c31 a11 m11 a 21 m 21 a 31 m31
a 22 a 23 a12 a13 a12 a13
a11 a 21 a 31
= a 32 a 33 a 32 a 33 a 22 a 23
det A a i1 ci1 a i 2 ci 2 ........... a in cin
n n
a ik cik ij det A = a ik c jk
k=1 k=1
n
ij det A = a ik c jk Laplace exp. of a det. wrt. ith row
k=1
Properties of a determinant:
i ) If all the elements of any row (or column) of a matrix A are zero then det ( A ) 0
ii ) If any two rows (or columns) of A are interchanged then the determinant of the new matrix
is equal to -det ( A ).
iii ) If all the elements of a row (or column) of A are multiplied by a constant and then the
determinant of the new matrix is equal to the det( A ).
iv) If the corresponding elements of two rows (or columns) are equal or have a constant ratio,
then det ( A) 0 .
v) If a scalar multiple of one row (or column) of A is added to another then the determinant of
the new matrix remains the same.
vi) If A is triangular matrix, then det ( A )=a11a22a33.........ann
vii) If A is diagonal matrix, then det ( A )=a11a22a33.........ann
viii) det (A B) = det (A ) det(B)
Inverse of a matrix, A 1 :
If A B = I then B is said to be the inverse of A and denoted by A 1 .
A A-1 = I and A-1 A = I
n n T
let A nxn , ij det( A ) = a ik c jk a ik (c )
k =1 k 1 kj
AC
T
CT 1
I = A A 1 =
T T
I det (A) = A C I= C
det (A) det ( A ) det ( A )
For a 2x2 matrix,
b11 b12 1 b22 b12
B det(B)
-1
B=
b21 b22 b21 b11
2 1 1
Example: A 4 4 3
1
A ? A
-1 -1 T
C
det(A )
6 7 4
4 3 4 3 4 4
det (A) = 2 1 1 4
7 4 6 4 6 7
4 3 4 3
m11 16 21 5 and m12 16 18 2
7 4 6 4
m11 m12 m13 5 2 4
C m 21 m 22 m 23 3 2 8
m31 m32 m33 1 2 4
5 3 1
C 2 2 2
T
4 8 4
3
5 3 1 4
5 1
4 4
then A 1 2 2 2 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
4 8 4 1 2
4
1
1 0
a11 0 0 a11
A 1
-1
if A = 0 a 22 0 then
a 22
0 0 a 33 0 1
a 33
1
( A ) 1 A and (A B) - 1 = B-1 A -1
