Cryptography
Assignment 2 Solutions:
Question 1: Euler's Totient Function
For N = 17:
17 is prime, so all integers from 1 to 16 are coprime with 17.
ϕ(17) = 16
For N = 42:
Prime factors: 2, 3, 7
ϕ(42) = 42 × (1-1/2) × (1-1/3) × (1-1/7) = 12
Coprime integers: 1, 5, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31, 37, 41
For N = 25:
Prime factor: 5
ϕ(25) = 25 × (1-1/5) = 20
Coprime integers: all numbers from 1 to 24 not divisible by 5
Question 2: Inverses and Euler Totient
a) Inverses in Z₁₀₀:
Additive inverse of 27: 73 (since 27 + 73 = 100 ≡ 0 mod 100)
Multiplicative inverse of 27: 63 (since 27 × 63 = 1701 ≡ 1 mod 100)
b) Euler totient:
ϕ(101) = 100 (101 is prime)
ϕ(102) = 102 × (1-1/2) × (1-1/3) × (1-1/17) = 32
ϕ(500) = 500 × (1-1/2) × (1-1/5) = 200
Question 3: Modular Inverses in Z₉*
Z₉* = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}
Using Euler's theorem (a^ϕ(n) ≡ 1 mod n ⇒ a^{-1} ≡ a^{ϕ(n)-1} mod n):
ϕ(9) = 6
1⁻¹ ≡ 1 mod 9
2⁻¹ ≡ 2⁵ ≡ 5 mod 9
4⁻¹ ≡ 4⁵ ≡ 7 mod 9
5⁻¹ ≡ 5⁵ ≡ 2 mod 9
7⁻¹ ≡ 7⁵ ≡ 4 mod 9
8⁻¹ ≡ 8⁵ ≡ 8 mod 9
Question 4: Modular Inverses
a) 6⁻¹ mod 7:
Since 7 is prime, 6⁻¹ ≡ 6^{7-2} ≡ 6⁵ ≡ 6 mod 7
b) 7⁻¹ mod 15:
gcd(7,15)=1, using Extended Euclidean:
15 = 2×7 + 1 ⇒ 1 = 15 - 2×7 ⇒ 7⁻¹ ≡ -2 ≡ 13 mod 15
c) 19⁻¹ mod 101:
Using Extended Euclidean:
101 = 5×19 + 6
19 = 3×6 + 1 ⇒ 1 = 19 - 3×6 = 19 - 3×(101-5×19) = 16×19 - 3×101
⇒ 19⁻¹ ≡ 16 mod 101
d) 97⁻¹ mod 100:
97 ≡ -3 mod 100
Need x such that -3x ≡ 1 mod 100 ⇒ 3x ≡ 99 mod 100 ⇒ x ≡ 33 mod 100
Question 5: Solving Congruences
a) x ≡ 4¹⁰⁰ mod 7:
ϕ(7)=6, 4⁶ ≡ 1 mod 7
4¹⁰⁰ = 4^{6×16+4} ≡ 4⁴ ≡ 4 mod 7
b) 9ˣ ≡ 13 mod 17:
Brute force: x=4 (9⁴=6561≡13 mod17)
c) 5ˣ ≡ 13 mod 17:
Brute force: x=7 (5⁷=78125≡13 mod17)
d) 7ˣ ≡ 11 mod 13:
Brute force: x=8 (7⁸=5764801≡11 mod13)
Question 6: GF(2⁴) Computations
a) Inverses:
x⁻¹ = x¹⁴ (since x¹⁵=1 in GF(2⁴))
= x² + x³
x⁻³ = (x⁻¹)³ = (x²+x³)³ = x + x² + x³
b) x²/(x³ + x² + 1):
First find inverse of (x³ + x² + 1) = x
Then x² × x = x³
c) (x³ + x² + x)/(x² + x + 1):
Polynomial division gives x + (x)/(x²+x+1)
Final result: x + 1
Question 7: Euclidean Algorithm
a) GCD(726,1144):
1144 = 1×726 + 418
726 = 1×418 + 308
418 = 1×308 + 110
308 = 2×110 + 88
110 = 1×88 + 22
88 = 4×22 + 0 ⇒ GCD=22
b) GCD(2184,16170):
16170 = 7×2184 + 882
2184 = 2×882 + 420
882 = 2×420 + 42
420 = 10×42 + 0 ⇒ GCD=42
c) GCD(113,13):
113 = 8×13 + 9
13 = 1×9 + 4
9 = 2×4 + 1
4 = 4×1 + 0 ⇒ GCD=1
Question 8: Extended Euclidean Algorithm
For GCD(654,123):
654 = 5×123 + 39
123 = 3×39 + 6
39 = 6×6 + 3
6 = 2×3 + 0 ⇒ GCD=3
Now back-substitute:
3 = 39 - 6×6
= 39 - 6×(123-3×39) = 19×39 - 6×123
= 19×(654-5×123) - 6×123 = 19×654 - 101×123
Thus u=19, v=-101
Question 9: Multiplicative Inverses
a) 13⁻¹ mod 31:
Using Extended Euclidean:
31 = 2×13 + 5
13 = 2×5 + 3
5 = 1×3 + 2
3 = 1×2 + 1
Now back-substitute:
1 = 3 - 1×2
= 3 - 1×(5-1×3) = 2×3 - 1×5
= 2×(13-2×5) - 1×5 = 2×13 - 5×5
= 2×13 - 5×(31-2×13) = 12×13 - 5×31
Thus 13⁻¹ ≡ 12 mod 31
b) 111⁻¹ mod 4111:
Using Extended Euclidean (lengthy process):
Final result: 111⁻¹ ≡ 2965 mod 4111
Question 10: Quadratic Residues
a) y² ≡ 3 mod 143:
143=11×13
Solve y²≡3 mod11 ⇒ y≡5,6 mod11
Solve y²≡3 mod13 ⇒ y≡4,9 mod13
Combine using CRT:
Four solutions: y≡48,82,61,95 mod143
b) y² ≡ 421 mod 693:
693=7×9×11
Solve y²≡421≡1 mod7 ⇒ y≡1,6 mod7
Solve y²≡421≡7 mod9 ⇒ no solution
Thus no solutions exist.
Question 11: Chinese Remainder Theorem
Solve:
x ≡ 3 mod5
x ≡ 1 mod7
x ≡ 6 mod8
First solve x≡3 mod5 and x≡1 mod7:
x=5k+3 ≡1 mod7 ⇒5k≡-2≡5 mod7 ⇒k≡1 mod7 ⇒k=7m+1
Thus x=5(7m+1)+3=35m+8
Now combine with x≡6 mod8:
35m+8≡6 mod8 ⇒3m≡-2≡6 mod8 ⇒m≡2 mod8 ⇒m=8n+2
Thus x=35(8n+2)+8=280n+78
Final solution: x≡78 mod 280
-Harshit
