J Happiness Stud (2008) 9:257–277

DOI 10.1007/s10902-007-9051-8

RESEARCH PAPER

Sweetheart, you really make me happy: romantic

relationship quality and personality as predictors of
happiness among emerging adults

Melikşah Demir

Published online: 27 February 2007

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract Two studies investigated the predictive ability of romantic relationship

quality in happiness above and beyond the influence of personality (Big Five) among
emerging adults. Study 1 (n = 221) showed that global romantic relationship quality
accounted for 3% of the variance in happiness while controlling for personality.
Study 2 (n = 187) replicated this finding by assessing happiness and relationship
quality with different scales. Second study also extended the first study in two ways.
First, emotional security and companionship emerged as the strongest features of
romantic relationship quality that predicted happiness. Second, identity formation
moderated the relationship between relationship quality and happiness such that
emerging adults were happier when they experienced high quality relationships at
high levels of identity formation. Findings across the two studies were discussed in
the light of the literature and suggestions for future research were made.

Keywords Companionship Æ Emotional security Æ Happiness Æ Identity formation Æ

Personality Æ Romantic relationship quality

1 Introduction

Romantic relationships constitute an important part of people’s lives. Two points

about this cherished relationship are important. First, establishing close romantic
relationships is an important developmental task during the transition to adulthood
(Arnett, 2000; Erikson, 1982). Second, theory and research suggest that involvement
in and the quality of romantic relationships is an essential correlate of well-being
(Argyle, 2001; Hinde, 1997; Myers, 2000; Reis, Collins, & Berscheid, 2000).
Empirical work regarding the importance of romantic relationships in the well-being
of emerging adults is partially reflected in the popular self-help books and song lyrics
that suggest that romantic relationships make one happy. This is a strong and

M. Demir (&)
Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
123
258 M. Demir

well-articulated argument, however, one should be cautious if the outcome is hap-

piness. In the case of happiness, personality accounts for as high as 50% of the
variance (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005). The well-established relation-
ship between personality and happiness raises the following question: Does the
quality of romantic relationships contribute to the happiness of emerging adults
above and beyond the influence of one’s personality? The two studies reported in the
present empirical report addressed this question. Additionally, study 2 investigated
identity formation as a potential moderator of the relationship between relationship
quality and happiness and examined the strongest feature of romantic relationship
quality that predicts happiness.

1.1 Emerging adulthood and romantic relationships

Participants of the present study were college students who are described as
emerging adults. The construct of emerging adulthood came to light as an important
and valuable framework to study the lives of those individuals between the ages of
18 and 29, who are neither adolescents nor adults but who are in the process of
becoming an adult (Arnett, 2000, 2004). This age period is demographically, sub-
jectively and psychologically different than other life-span periods that involve a
deeper and more serious level of explorations in the areas of love, work and
worldviews (Arnett, 2000). Present studies were concerned with exploration in the
area of love.
Formation and maintenance of romantic relationships are central to the lives of
emerging adults (Kan & Cares, 2006; Roisman, Masten, Coatsworth, & Tellegen,
2004). College environment provides a context where the important developmental
task of this age could be explored. Supporting this notion are findings that romantic
relationships constitute an important part of the everyday lives of college students
(Gable, Reis, Impett, & Asher, 2004; Lokitz & Sprandel, 1976) and most college
students consider their romantic involvements as the closest relationships they have
(Berscheid, Snyder, & Omoto, 1989). One important issue to highlight is that the
romantic relationships experienced and explored during emerging adulthood are
different from those of the adolescent period. During adolescence, romantic rela-
tionships are mostly pursued with the intent of having fun and experiencing com-
panionship and do not last very long (Feiring, 1996; Roscoe, Dian, & Brooks, 1987).
In contrast, romantic relationships during emerging adulthood become serious, more
intimate and committed (Arnett, 2000; Montgomery, 2005; Prager, 1995). Emerging
adults are searching for a lifelong partner and this has the potential to shape the
intensity and commitment of love relationships experienced during this time period.
On the other hand, many middle-aged adults are married (Arnett, 2004; Noller,
Feeney, & Peterson, 2001). Research pertinent to the overall satisfaction and quality
of lasting marriages among middle-aged adults suggests a relatively stable pattern
(Weishaus & Field, 1988); even though some report different patterns (e.g., curvi-
linear; see Berscheid & Regan, 2005). In the present studies, the quality of romantic
relationships was investigated.
As for relationship quality, theoretical work in this area suggests that individuals
seek and/or experience certain provisions in their close relationships (Weiss, 1974).
These features include but are not limited to companionship, help, affection, inti-
macy and emotional security. Available instruments in the field assess features that

123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 259

are theoretically identified (Fletcher, Simpson, & Thomas, 2000; Furman & Buhr-
mester, 1992). The common practice in the literature is to sum the means of different
features with the overall score being labeled relationship quality (Bagwell et al.,
2005; Fletcher et al., 2000). We relied on this overall score in the studies reported.

1.2 Happiness, personality and romantic relationships

The outcome investigated across the studies was happiness. There were two reasons
for this. First, people rate personal happiness as very important in their lives
(Diener, Suh, Smith, & Shao, 1995). Second, happiness is associated with success in
different life domains (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005) and is related to positive
mental health (Taylor & Brown, 1988).
Research in the last three decades identified several variables related to happiness
(see Argyle, 2001; Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Of the variables posited to be
associated with happiness, personality traits and temperamental characteristics, re-
ferred to as set-point variables (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005), have been shown to be
the major predictors of happiness, accounting for as high as 50% of the variance in
happiness. In the studies reported, our focus was on personality and assessed it with
the Big Five framework.
Prior research has shown that all dimensions of the Big Five framework are
associated with happiness to differing degrees (Compton, 1998; DeNeve & Cooper,
1998; Furnham & Cheng, 1997; McCrae & Costa, 1991). Among the big five, extro-
version and neuroticism were consistent predictors of happiness, extroversion being
positively correlated to happiness and neuroticism being negatively correlated to
happiness (Argyle, 2001; Cheng & Furnham, 2001). It was also found that consci-
entiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience were slightly positively cor-
related with happiness (for a review see Diener et al., 1999). Together, these
personality dimensions account for between 20 and 50% of the variance in happiness.
Close relationships are another source of happiness and received considerable
attention in the field as well (Argyle, 2001; Myers, 2000). Indeed, the role of close
relationships in happiness has been called as the ‘‘deep truth’’ (Myers, 1992). In the
present studies, we took the theoretical perspective that close relationships are a
source of happiness (Ryan & Deci, 2001) rather than a dimension of well-being
(Ryff, 1989).
A considerable amount of research has shown that romantic relationships
(involvement in and/or quality of) are an important source of happiness (Argyle,
2001; Berry & Willingham, 1997; Diener, Gohm, Suh, & Oishi, 2000; Khaleque
& Rohner, 2004; see Keyes and Waterman (2003) for a review). For instance, in a
recent study Dush and Amato (2005) showed that involvement in committed
romantic relationships and relationship quality were related to happiness across the
life-span. In another line of research, individuals were asked to list the benefits of
romantic relationships or things that make them happy (Crossley & Langdridge,
2005; Demir, Linley, Kumbul, & Grishkina, 2003; Sedikides, Oliver, & Campbell,
1994). Supporting the research cited earlier, it was found that individuals consider
romantic relationships as an essential source of happiness. Thus, the available lit-
erature suggests that romantic relationships play a vital role in happiness.
Personality is also related to the quality of romantic relationships. It has been
argued that personality influences the quality of and satisfaction with romantic

123
260 M. Demir

relationships (Bradburry & Fincham, 1988). Supporting the theoretical arguments,

prior research has shown that all dimensions of the Big Five were related to romantic
relationship experiences (e.g., satisfaction) (Karney & Bradburry, 1995; Kelly
& Conley, 1987; Kwan, Bond, & Singelis, 1997; White, Hendrick, & Hendrick, 2004).
Specifically, extroversion and agreeableness were positively and neuroticism and
openness to experience negatively related to romantic relationship quality. The
relationship between conscientiousness and relationship constructs was not consis-
tent (see White et al., 2004). Even though the relationship between personality and
relationship quality was not the main focus of the present study, we nevertheless
examined whether our findings would be consistent with the literature.

1.3 Importance of the inquiry: Theoretical considerations

The question of whether romantic relationship quality predicts happiness above and
beyond the influence of personality is theoretically important and deserves attention.
Theory and empirical research suggest that quality of close relationships is an
important source of happiness (Argyle, 2001; Berscheid & Regan, 2005; Reis, 2001).
Likewise, personality is a major predictor of happiness (Diener et al., 1999). It is
proposed here that one major limitation of the available literature that documents an
association between the quality of romantic relationships and happiness is that they
do not control for personality. It could be that the relationship between social
experiences and happiness might disappear once personality is taken into account.
Support for this contention comes from studies investigating the relationship between
extroversion and happiness. Specifically, research suggests that extroversion and an
extrovert’s greater sensitivity to rewards might be the main factor predicting happi-
ness (Diener & Lucas, 1999; Lucas & Diener, 2001; Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh,
& Shao, 2000). This raises the possibility that extroverts’ closer romantic relationships
with their partners (e.g., White et al., 2004) might be attributed to their sensitivity to
rewards and close relationships would not emerge as a predictor of happiness.
Are there any theories that might offer a prediction to the question at hand? Other
than major meta-theories positing that romantic relationships are important for
happiness (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995), we do not know of any specific
hypothesis regarding the role of relationships in happiness above and beyond the
influence of personality. Nevertheless, there are studies that might give the reader an
idea. First of all, Lu (1999), in a longitudinal study, reported that social support from
close others (the source of support was not clear) predicted happiness above and
beyond the influence of baseline happiness and personality (extroversion and neu-
roticism). Second, Demir and Weitekamp (in press) found that best friendship quality
contributed to the happiness of emerging adults while controlling for personality
(dimensions of Big Five). Thus, there is evidence suggesting that close relationships
have the potential to contribute to happiness regardless of one’s personality.
In the present studies, the predictive ability of romantic relationships was sub-
jected to a strict test. If the quality of romantic relationships does not contribute to
one’s happiness while controlling for personality, then, relationship scholars would
need to revise their arguments with regard to the importance of close relationships
for the happiness of individuals. This would mean that an important developmental
task of emerging adulthood (formation of romantic relationships) does not have
implications for happiness. On the other hand, finding that quality of romantic

123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 261

relationship still predicts happiness while controlling for personality would bolster
confidence to the theoretical arguments regarding the importance of close rela-
tionships in happiness.
One final note is on gender. Considering the research showing that gender is
weakly related to happiness (see Diener et al., 1999), it was not the focus of the
present studies.

2 Study 1

The aim of the first study was to investigate the role of romantic relationship quality
in predicting happiness above and beyond the influence of personality. In doing so,
the global perceived quality of romantic relationships and the global happiness of
emerging adults were assessed. In the light of the literature, the following hypotheses
were developed:
(a) Romantic relationship quality would be positively related to happiness.
(b) Extroversion (positively) and neuroticism (negatively) would be related to
happiness.
(c) Extroversion and agreeableness would be positively related to romantic
relationship quality, whereas neuroticism and openness to experience would
be negatively related.
(d) Romantic relationship quality would contribute to happiness above and
beyond the influence of personality.

2.1 Method

2.1.1 Participants

The original sample consisted of 246 (61 men) college students attending a Mid-
western university in the USA who were involved in a romantic relationship. The
mean age of the sample was 23.79 (SD = 6.50), with a range from 19 to 40 years of
age. The ethnic distribution of the sample was as follows: 55% Caucasian (n = 133),
33% Black (n = 88), 7% Asian (n = 17) and 5% other (n = 10). In the sample, 90%
(n = 221) of the participants were currently involved in a dating relationship and
10% (n = 25) were either engaged or married. Considering the possibility that
inclusion of engaged/married adults might confound the findings and make com-
parisons across studies difficult, they were excluded from the analysis. Thus, the final
sample consisted of 221 (56 men) dating emerging adults (mean age = 22.49
(SD = 4.65) with a range from 19 to 28 years of age.
The average length of the dating relationships was 24.56 months (SD = 22.92)
and ranged from 1 to 79 months.

2.1.2 Procedure

A psychology student pool was used to recruit participants involved in a romantic

relationship. Announcements were made in classrooms and flyers were posted in the
psychology department. Those who were interested in the study completed the
questionnaire packet in our lab. The packet included a consent form, a basic
123
262 M. Demir

demographic information sheet and a battery of questionnaires. To ensure privacy,

participants were given envelopes to enclose the completed surveys. Completion of
the survey lasted approximately 30 min and participants earned extra credit for their
psychology classes.

2.1.3 Measures

Global Perceived Romantic Relationship Quality. A six-item version of the Perceived

Relationship Quality Component (PRQC) (Fletcher et al., 2000) was used to mea-
sure global perceived romantic relationship quality. The PRQC measures six rela-
tionship quality components (relationship satisfaction, commitment, intimacy, trust,
passion and love) and participants were instructed to rate their current romantic
relationship. Each component was assessed with one item. Sample items include
‘‘How intimate is your relationship?’’ and ‘‘How much do you trust your partner?’’
Six items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale (ranging from 1 = not at all to
7 = extremely). The internal consistency of the scale in the present study was high
(a = .88). The mean of six items was used as an index of romantic relationship quality.
Personality. The Big Five Inventory (BFI) (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991; John
& Srivastava, 1999) was used to assess personality. The BFI consists of 44 items and
assesses five personality dimensions (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
neuroticism and openness). Participants are asked to rate their agreement with each
BFI item on a 5-point scale (ranging from 1 = disagree strongly to 5 = agree
strongly). Sample items include ‘‘ I see myself as someone who is talkative’’ and
‘‘I see myself as someone who is get nervous easily.’’ The reliabilities of the scales
were as follows: a = .80 for extroversion; a = .79 for agreeableness; a = .75 for
conscientiousness; a = .72 for neuroticism; and a = .79 for openness.
Happiness. The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999)
was used to assess the global happiness of the participants. Two items ask respondents
to compare themselves relative to their peers using absolute ratings and two items
offer brief descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals and ask respondents the
extent to which each characterization describes them. Rating is made on a 7-point
scale. The internal consistency of the scale in the present study was high (a = .89).

2.2 Results and Discussion

The correlations between the study variables can be seen in Table 1. Supporting the
hypothesis (a), romantic relationship quality was positively related to happiness.
Moreover, in line with the hypothesis (b), extroversion and neuroticism were related
to happiness in the expected directions. Additionally, agreeableness and conscien-
tiousness were found to be significant (positive) correlates of happiness. Finally, the
relationship between personality and relationship quality were mostly in line with
the hypothesis (c), with the exception of openness to experience not showing any
relationship with romantic relationship quality. These findings are consistent with
the literature (Argyle, 2001; Diener et al., 1999; White et al., 2004).

2.2.1 Predicting happiness

A multiple hierarchical regression analysis was performed to predict happiness. As

explained before, gender was not the focus of the study. We nevertheless controlled
123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 263

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations for the variables in study 1

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Gender – – – –.11 .15* –.05 .14* .10 –.02 –.05

2. Extroversion 3.42 .74 – –.36* .26** .16* .09 .20** .41**
3. Neuroticism 2.87 .76 – –.24** –.19** –.23* –.16** –.56**
4. Agreeableness 3.90 .58 – –.04 .25** .14* .25**
5. Openness to Experience 3.64 .59 – .12 –.06 –.06
6. Conscientiousness 3.74 .66 – .05 .18**
7. Relationship Quality 5.82 1.03 – .28**
8. Happiness 5.09 1.01 –

Note: Gender: Male = 0, Female = 1

* p < .05; ** p < .01

for gender in the analyses since a considerable amount of research documented

gender differences in romantic relationship quality (e.g., Winstead, Derlega, & Rose,
1997), with women reporting closer and more intimate relationships as compared to
men. In the regression, gender was entered in the first step, personality variables
were entered in the second step and romantic relationship quality was entered in the
third step. As can be seen from Table 2, the first step including gender was not
significant (F (1, 219) = 1.034, ns). The second step was significant and accounted for
50% of the variance in happiness (F (5, 214) = 49.867, p < .05). Extroversion,
agreeableness and neuroticism (negative) were significant predictors of happiness.
As the beta values indicate, neuroticism was the strongest predictor of happiness.
The third step, supporting our prediction (d), added significantly to the explained
variance (F (1, 213) = 15.203, p < .05) and explained an additional 3% of the vari-
ance in happiness while controlling for personality.
Findings suggest that the quality of romantic relationships contributed to the
happiness of emerging adults above and beyond the influence of one’s personality.
This finding is in line with research (Demir & Weitekamp, in press; Lu, 1999) and
suggests that the relationship between social relationships and happiness cannot be
accounted for by one’s personality. Findings also highlight that involvement in an
important developmental task of emerging adulthood has implications for one’s

Table 2 Hierarchical regression analyses predicting happiness (n = 220)

Step 1
Gender –.01
R2 = .00
Step 2
Extroversion .25**
Neuroticism –.47**
Agreeableness .22*
Openness to Experience .03
Conscientiousness .04
DR2 = .50**
Step 3
Romantic relationship quality .18**
DR2 = .03**

* p < .05; ** p < .01

123
264 M. Demir

happiness. This finding also bolsters confidence in the theoretical arguments

regarding the role of romantic relationships in well-being (Arnett, 2000; Berscheid
& Regan, 2005).

3 Study 2

Finding that romantic relationship quality was predictive of happiness above and
beyond the influence of personality is noteworthy, however, one should be cautious
about generalizing from one study. Thus, a second study was conducted to replicate
and extend the findings of the first study. In doing so, study 2 assessed happiness and
relationship quality with different instruments. Specifically, happiness was assessed
in terms of global life satisfaction, presence of positive affect and absence of negative
affect (Diener et al., 1999). In this point, it is essential to consider whether com-
ponents of subjective well-being (e.g., positive affect) might be different in different
age groups. As for life-satisfaction, considerable amount of research suggests that it
is stable across the life-span (Diener & Suh, 1998; Medley, 1980; see Diener et al.
(1999) for a review). The story is a bit different for positive and negative affect. First
of all, the affect scores of adolescents are comparable to those observed for adults
(Greene, 1990; Hussong, 2000). Second of all, research suggests that negative affect
declines across the life-span, at least until about age 60 (Carstensen, Pasupathi,
Mayr, & Nesselroade, 2000; Diener & Suh, 1998). Longitudinal studies confirm these
findings (Charles, Reynolds, & Gatz, 2001; Stacey & Gatz, 1991; see Costa et al.
(1987) for an exception). That is, young adults report relatively higher levels of
negative affect compared to middle-aged and older adults. As for positive affect,
longitudinal studies suggest a stable pattern across the life-span (Charles et al., 2001;
Costa et al., 1987; Stacey & Gatz, 1991; see Diener and Suh (1998) and Lucas and
Gohm (2000) for cross-cultural comparisons). Overall, available literature could be
summarized as suggesting that young adults differ from older age groups in terms of
reporting higher levels of negative affect.
As for relationship quality, study 2 relied on McGill Friendship Questionnaire
(MFQ; Mendelson & Aboud, 1999) to assess theoretically identified features of
relationship: companionship, help, affection and intimacy, sense of reliable alliance,
emotional security and self-validation. One might question the practice of relying on
MFQ to assess romantic relationship quality. First of all, from a theoretical stand-
point, these features (e.g., intimacy) are also sought and satisfied in romantic rela-
tionships as well (Prager, 1995; Weiss, 1974). Second, other instruments in the field
are also used to assess multiple relationships including friendships and romantic
relationships (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). Considering these two points, the use of
MFQ to assess romantic relationship quality is justified. Overall, replicating the
findings of the first study with different instruments would suggest that the role of
relationship quality in happiness while controlling for personality is robust.
Different from the first study, study 2 also investigated the most important feature
of romantic relationship that predicted happiness. Overall, relationship quality might
be important for happiness but it could be that certain features of the relationship
make more important contributions than others in predicting happiness. For instance,
the studies reported by Demir and his colleagues (Demir & Weitekamp, in press;
Demir, Özdemir, & Weitekamp, in press) showed that even though overall quality
was related to happiness, companionship and self-validation features of friendship
123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 265

were the best predictors of happiness. Considering this, study 2 attempted to identify
the strongest feature of romantic relationship quality that predicted happiness.
Study 2 aimed to extend the findings of the first study such that identity formation
was investigated as a potential moderator of the relationship between relationship
quality and happiness. Theory suggests that successful identity formation is related to
psychological well-being and promotes the formation of close relationships with
others (Erikson, 1982). Supporting theory, research has shown positive relationships
between successful identity formation and well-being (Meeus, Iedema, Hersen,
& Vollebergh, 1999; Vleioras & Bosma, 2005). Research also established a positive
association between identity formation and close relationships among adolescents
and emerging adults (Craig-Bray, Adams, & Dobson, 1988; Kacerquis & Adams,
1980; Orlofsky, Marcia, & Lesser, 1973). Research in this field could be summarized
as suggesting that identity formation has implications for the well-being and close
relationships of emerging adults. Study 2 investigated whether the degree of identity
formation moderated the relationship between romantic relationship quality and
happiness. Even though it might be possible to classify individuals with regards to
identity formation (e.g., moratorium; Marcia, 1966), theory suggests that identity
formation is a continuous process (Arnett, 2004; Erikson, 1982). This argument could
be taken to suggest that, especially during emerging adulthood, some might have a
clearer idea of who they are and what they want with their lives. Considering the
available research and theory, then, it is plausible to argue that the degree to which
one establishes his/her identity might influence the relationship between romantic
relationship quality and happiness. That is, those who are high in identity formation
might benefit more from the quality of their romantic relationships when compared to
those low in identity formation. Finding support for this argument would mean that
certain individuals might benefit more from the quality of their close relationships.
This has the potential to broaden certain theoretical arguments regarding the role of
identity in close relationships and happiness (e.g., Vleioras & Bosma, 2005).

3.1 Hypotheses

The predictions of the first study are also proposed here (e.g., romantic relationship
quality predicting happiness while controlling for personality). In an attempt to
prevent repetition, they are not specified again. Predictions pertinent to Study 2 are
reported below:
(a) Companionship and self-validation features of romantic relationship quality
would emerge as the strongest predictors of happiness.
(b) Identity formation would be positively related to happiness and romantic
relationship quality.
(c) Identity formation would moderate the relationship between romantic
relationship quality and happiness.

3.2 Method

3.2.1 Participants

The original sample consisted of 350 (222 women, 128 men) college students
attending a Midwestern university in the USA where the sample for Study 1 was
123
266 M. Demir

recruited. Of the original sample, 62% stated that there were in a romantic rela-
tionship (n = 217, 159 women, 58 men). The mean age of the sample was 22.58
(SD = 3.20), with a range from 18 to 29. The ethnic distribution of the sample was as
follows: 54% Caucasian (n = 117), 21% Black (n = 46), 5% Asian (n = 11) and 20%
other (n = 27). In the sample, 86% (n = 187) of the sample was involved in a dating
relationship and 14% (n = 30) were either engaged or married. The latter group
(e.g., engaged) was excluded from the sample in order to make possible comparisons
across studies. Thus, the final sample for the analyses reported below consisted of
187 (49 men) dating emerging adults with a mean age of 22.02 (SD = 3.02) and a
range from 18 to 29 years of age.
The average length of the dating relationships was 24.76 months (SD = 29.61)
with a range from 1 to 82 months.

3.2.2 Procedure

A psychology student pool was used to recruit participants. Announcements were

made in classrooms and flyers were posted in the psychology department. Those who
wanted to participate in the study completed the questionnaire packet in our lab.
The participants completed several questionnaires other than the ones reported
below (e.g., attachment), but only the constructs relevant for the purposes of the
present investigation are reported. Completion of the survey lasted approximately
35 min and participants earned extra credit for their psychology classes.

3.2.3 Measures

Romantic Relationship Quality. McGill Friendship Questionnaire-Friend’s Functions

(MFQ-FF, Mendelson & Aboud, 1999) was used to assess romantic relationship
quality. MFQ-FF consists of 30 items, five for each of the six functions assessed:
stimulating companionship, help, intimacy, reliable alliance, emotional security and
self-validation. The items were modified so that they referred to romantic rela-
tionship partners rather than best friends. For instance, the item reading, ‘‘my best
friend is fun to sit and talk with.’’ was read as ‘‘my romantic partner is fun to sit and
talk with.’’ Sample items include ‘‘my romantic partner is someone I can tell private
things.’’ and ‘‘my romantic partner would make me feel better if I were worried.’’
Items were rated on a 9-point scale (0–8) on which five of the points are labeled
(0 = never, 2 = rarely, 4 = once in a while, 6 = fairly often and 8 = always). The
mean of 30 items was taken to form an overall Romantic Relationship Quality
composite score. The reliability of the scale in the present study was high (a = .91).
The internal consistencies for the subscales were as follows: .89 for stimulating
companionship; .88 for help; .90 for intimacy; .85 for reliable alliance; .90 for emo-
tional security and .90 for self-validation.
It is essential to provide information about the construct validity of the scale. This
stems from the fact that we modified certain items of an instrument to assess
romantic relationship quality. Before providing relevant information, it is important
to highlight the fact that the measure assesses provisions that are sought in close
relationships (e.g., Weiss, 1974). As for validity, we provide two pieces of informa-
tion. First of all, scales assessing relationship quality in the field suggest a positive
link between quality and well-being (e.g., Hussong, 2000). In the present study, the
romantic relationship quality scale was positively related to happiness (see Table 3).
123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 267

Table 3 Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix for the variables in study 2

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Gender – – –
2. Extroversion 3.66 .64 .04 –
3. Agreeableness 3.87 .65 .14 .26** –
4. Neuroticism 2.64 .70 .17* –.31** –.20** –
5. Relationship quality 7.01 1.05 .08 .16* .15* –.03 –
6. Identity formation 3.91 .59 .29** .22** .26** –.09 .18* –
7. Positive affect 3.65 .58 –.08 .28** .28** –.23** .11 .16 –
8. Negative affect 2.09 .69 .11 –.38** .07 .46** –.15* –.30** –.07 –
9. Life satisfaction 4.69 1.33 .05 .16** .08 –.19** .29** .27** .27** –.13 –
10. Happiness –.12 1.09 .03 .40** .17* –.42** .30** .37** .68** –.59** .72** –

Note: Gender: Male = 0, Female = 1

* p < .05; ** p < .01

Furthermore, the same scale was also related to depression (negatively) in another
study (M. Demir, 2006, unpublished). Second of all, prior studies assessing multiple
relationships with the same scale report a positive association across relationships
(e.g., Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). In a separate study conducted at our lab (Demir,
2006), romantic relationship quality, as assessed with the MFQ (modified version as
used herein), was positively related to friendship quality. Even though these two
points might not provide the best examples of construct validity, the two points
raised above and the theoretical background of the scale justify the use of the
instrument to assess romantic relationship quality.
Personality. As in Study 1, personality was measured with the Big Five Inventory
(BFI) (John & Srivastava, 1999). Different from study 1, only extroversion (7 items),
neuroticism (8 items) and agreeableness (9 items) were assessed in study 2. This
practice stemmed from the findings of the first study such that only these three
personality dimensions emerged as predictors of happiness. The reliabilities of the
scales in study 2 were as follows: a = .87 for extroversion; a = .82 for agreeableness;
a = .85 for neuroticism.
Happiness. Happiness was assessed with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
(Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) and the Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule (PANAS) (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Prior studies also relied on
these instruments to assess happiness (Sheldon, Kasser, Houser-Marko, Jones, &
Turban, 2005).
The SWLS assesses the global cognitive evaluations of one’s life. The scale
consists of five items and respondents were asked to rate their agreement with the
items on a 7-point scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.)
The mean scores for the five items was used to obtain a satisfaction with life com-
posite score. The reliability of the scale for the present study was high (a = .86).
The PANAS was used to assess general positive and negative affect. The PANAS
consists of 10 mood states for positive affect (PA) (e.g., attentive) and 10 for neg-
ative affect (NA) (e.g., hostile). Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which
they feel each mood in general on a 1 (very slightly or not all) to 5 (extremely) scale.
The mean scores for the ten positive and negative affect scores were used to create a
composite positive and negative affect scores. Reliabilities for the scales in the
present study were satisfactory (a = .82 for PA; a = .81 for NA). The means and

123
268 M. Demir

standard deviations reported for the measures (see Table 3) were similar to those
found in other research (Demir & Weitekamp, in press; Kasser & Sheldon, 2002).
In order to simplify the presentation of happiness, an aggregate happiness score
was created by standardizing the satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect
scores and subtracting the standardized negative affect scores from the sum of
standardized satisfaction with life and positive affect scores. Others also used the
same method in creating an aggregate happiness score (Kasser & Sheldon, 2002;
Sheldon & Kasser, 2001; Sheldon et al., 2005). This procedure resulted in scores that
ranged from –5.84 to 5.12. The range obtained for the happiness score was compa-
rable to that obtained in other studies (Demir et al., in press).
Identity Formation. The identity subscale of the Erikson Psycho-Social Index
(EPSI; Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981) was used to assess identity formation.
Twelve items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from almost always
true (5) to almost never true (1), with half of the items representing successful res-
olution of the identity (versus confusion) crises and half representing unsuccessful
resolutions. Sample items include ‘‘I know what kind of person I am’’ and ‘‘The
important things in life are clearer to me.’’ Twelve items, after recoding the nega-
tively worded ones, were summed to create the Identity Formation composite score,
with high scores indicating higher identity formation. The reliability of the scale in
the current study was satisfactory (a = .88).

3.3 Results

The correlations between the study variables are reported in Table 3. As seen in the
table, relationships between the variables mostly supported the hypotheses. Of
particular importance, identity formation was positively related to happiness and
romantic relationship quality (hypothesis b of Study 2). In general, these findings are
in line with research (Argyle, 2001; Craig-Bray et al., 1988) and replicate the findings
obtained from Study 1.

3.3.1 Predicting happiness

A multiple hierarchical regression analysis was performed to predict happiness.

Gender was entered in the first step, personality variables were entered in the second
step and romantic relationship quality was entered in the third step. As can be seen
from Table 4, the first step including gender was not significant (F (1, 179) = .797, ns).
The second step was significant and accounted for 25% of the variance in happiness
(F (3, 176) = 19.096, p < .05). Extroversion and neuroticism were significant pre-
dictors of happiness. The third step was also significant (F (1, 175) = 14.351, p < .05)
and romantic relationship quality explained an additional 6% of the variance in
happiness while controlling for personality.

3.3.2 Which feature(s) of romantic relationship quality strongly predict happiness?

Another regression was computed to investigate the strongest feature of romantic

relationship in predicting happiness. In doing so, we relied on zero-order correla-
tions, beta weights and semipartial correlations. In its squared form, semipartial
correlation is the percent of full variance uniquely accounted for by the independent
variable in the dependent variable when other variables are controlled. Squared
123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 269

Table 4 Hierarchical multiple regression predicting happiness (n = 180)

Step 1
Gender .03
R2 = .00
Step 2
Extroversion .28*
Agreeableness .03
Neuroticism –.29*
DR2 = .25*
Step 3
Romantic relationship quality .24*
DR2 = .06*

Note: b weights are for the final model

* p < 0.01

semipartial correlation has been suggested to be the more useful measure of

importance of an independent variable (Tabachnik & Fidell, 1999). Even though
there are different ways to assess importance (e.g., dominance analyses, epsilon), we
focused on the three reported below since one recent study showed across several
studies that traditional ways (e.g., beta weights) of assessing the strongest predictor
were in perfect agreement with other relative importance indices (Baltes, Parker,
Young, Huff, & Altmann, 2004). Considering the fact that our interest was to
identify the most important predictor of happiness, reliance on the correlations, beta
weights and squared semipartials seems justified. Before reporting the results, it is
important to note that the correlations between the features of relationship quality
ranged from .48 to 67. The tolerance (range: .33–.51) and variance inflation factor
(VIF) (range: 1.981–2.807) values for all predictors were within acceptable ranges
(Menard, 1995; Myers, 1990), indicating that multicollinearity was not a problem.
In the regression, gender was entered in the first step as a control variable, fol-
lowed by personality variables in the second step, and companionship, help, inti-
macy, reliable alliance, self-validation and emotional security were entered in the
third step. The results for gender and personality were similar to the regression
reported in Table 4 and are not reported again. The third step including dimensions
of romantic relationship quality was significant (F (6, 169) = 5.792, p < .05) and
explained an additional 13% of variance in happiness. As it can be seen from
Table 5, of the six features, emotional security and companionship emerged as the
strongest predictors of happiness controlling for gender and personality. This finding
partially supported the hypothesis (a) in that self-validation did not emerge as a
stronger predictor of happiness.

3.3.3 Does identity formation moderate the relationship between romantic

relationship quality and happiness?

A multiple regression was employed to the data in order to investigate whether

identity formation moderated the relationship between romantic relationship quality
and happiness. Variables relevant to the question at hand were centered before
entering regression. In the regression predicting happiness, identity formation and
romantic relationship quality were entered in the first step; interaction between the
123
270 M. Demir

Table 5 Features of romantic relationship quality predicting happiness

Zero-order ba Semipartial2

Companionship .30** .22* .02

Help .16* .11 .00
Intimacy .24** .13 .00
Reliable alliance .23** .12 .00
Self-validation .24** .09 .00
Emotional security .35** .33** .04

Note: b weights are for the final model

* p < .05; ** p < .01
a
Controlling for gender and personality

two variables (identity · relationship quality) were entered in the second step. The
first step of the regression was significant and accounted for 19% of the variance
(F (2, 185) = 21.196, p < .05). Second step involving the interaction was also sig-
nificant (F (1, 184) = 2.989, p < .05) and accounted for an additional 1% of the
variance in happiness, supporting the hypothesis (c). The beta value for the inter-
action was .12. To aid in the interpretation of significant interaction effect, effects
were plotted and simple slopes were tested to evaluate if they differed significantly
from zero (Aiken &West, 1991). The interaction can be seen in Fig. 1. As seen from
the figure, high levels of romantic relationship quality was related to higher levels of
happiness at high levels of identity formation (t (183) = 3.74, p < .05) but not at low
levels of identity formation (t (183) = 1.82, ns). The interaction suggest that
emerging adults who are successful in forming their identity benefit more from the
quality of their romantic relationships.

3.4 Discussion

Study 2 replicated the findings obtained in the first study in that romantic rela-
tionship quality contributed to happiness above and beyond the influence of per-
sonality among emerging adults. Study 2 also assessed relationship quality with a
different instrument and examined the strongest feature predicting happiness.
Results revealed that emotional security and companionship were the strongest

Fig. 1 Interaction between 1.50

identity formation and
romantic relationship quality 1.00

0.50
Happiness

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
low med high
Romantic Relationship Quality
Identity Formation high low

123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 271

features of romantic relationships that predicted happiness. Our interpretation of

these findings is discussed below.
Emotional security as assessed in the present study refers to the romantic rela-
tionship partner providing comfort and giving reassurance in new and threatening
situations. This construct was assessed with items like ‘‘would make me feel com-
fortable in a new situation’’, ‘‘would be good to have around if I were frightened.’’
We believe emotional security emerging the strongest predictor of happiness could
be explained with the age of our sample and attachment formation. First, as
explained in the text, the romantic relationships experienced during emerging
adulthood are more serious and committed compared to the earlier age periods.
Most emerging adults, if not all, strive to establish and maintain a romantic rela-
tionship. Second, theory suggests that romantic relationships formed during
emerging adulthood become one’s primary attachment figure, replacing family
members (Prager, 1995), and feelings of security play an essential role during this
attachment process (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Considering these points, it is safe to
argue that belief in the romantic partner’s availability when needed and experi-
encing feelings of security, which enhances the formation of an attachment bond, has
the potential to contribute to the happiness of emerging adults.
An alternative explanation might be put forward with regards to the age differ-
ences in negative affect (an important component of happiness). Earlier, we re-
viewed evidence suggesting that young adults, compared to middle-aged and older
adults, report higher levels of negative affect (e.g., Charles et al., 2001). In this
context, it seems plausible to suggest that perceiving the romantic partner as pro-
viding emotional security might promote feelings of positive affect. Accordingly,
perceiving the romantic partner as a safe haven might offset overall negative affect
(e.g., Hazan & Shaver, 1994) and promote feelings of happiness. These are specu-
lations based on empirical evidence and future research with daily interaction record
of romantic partners has the potential to portray a clearer picture.
As for companionship, one point to highlight is that romantic partners do not
always engage in self-disclosure or provide support to each other but rather spend
considerable amount of time together in different activities (Argyle & Henderson,
1985; Hinde, 1997). Research, has established that companionship was the strongest
feature of close relationships predicting happiness (Baldassare, Rosenfield, & Rook,
1984; Demir & Weitekamp, in press). Moreover, it has been reported that com-
panionship was more important than social support, especially during nonstressful
times, in predicting well-being (Rook, 1987). Our finding is also consistent with the
model of Lyubomirsky et al. (2005), which highlights the role of activities in well-
being. It seems that what one does and with whom has the potential to change the set
point of happiness (e.g., personality) (Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003). Consid-
ering the theoretical arguments and empirical research, it is plausible to argue that
doing things together with romantic partners is an essential component of the
relationship that has implications for the happiness of emerging adults.
Although consistent with theory and research, one should be cautious about this
finding. This stems from the possible conceptual overlap between the items used to
assess companionship and happiness (especially with positive affect). For instance,
companionship was assessed with items such as ‘‘my romantic partner makes me
laugh’’ and ‘‘my romantic partner is exciting to be with.’’ Although replications of
this finding with affect-free companionship scales is necessary to establish confidence

123
272 M. Demir

in the results, it is safe to suggest that companionship is an important dimension of

romantic relationships that contributes to the happiness of emerging adults.
It might be surprising not to see intimacy, a construct that received considerable
theoretical and empirical attention (Prager, 1995; Reis & Shaver, 1988), as the
strongest feature of relationship quality predicting happiness. Two explanations
could be offered to account for this situation. First, the finding could be attributed to
the scale used to assess relationship quality. As it was explained, the scale was
originally developed to assess the quality of close friendships. Nevertheless, the
items used to assess intimacy (e.g., ‘‘is someone I can tell private things to’’, ‘‘would
understand me if I told her/him my problems’’) are similar to items used in scales
specifically designed to assess intimacy in romantic relationships (Corcoran & Fi-
scher, 2000; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Miller & Lefcourt, 1982). Second, theory
and research consider intimacy as an important component of relationship satis-
faction (Prager, 1995; Sprecher & Hendrick, 2004). It could be that intimacy might
play an important role in overall relationship satisfaction but not for happiness.
Overall, then, it is plausible suggest that conceiving romantic involvements as only
being an intimate relationship might be misleading when understanding it’s role in
happiness. Future research might benefit by taking into account relationship features
other than intimacy when predicting happiness. This argument should be interpreted
with caution because romantic relationship quality was measured with a modified
version of an instrument that was originally developed to assess friendship.
Study 2 investigated identity formation as a potential moderator of the
relationship between relationship quality and happiness and found that the degree of
identity formation influenced the extent of benefiting from the quality of romantic
relationships. Specifically, it was found that emerging adults were happier when they
experienced high quality romantic relationships at high, but not low, levels of
identity formation. This finding could be explained with the theoretical arguments
(Erikson, 1982) suggesting that identity formation promotes success in close rela-
tionships and influences well-being. This finding is theoretically important for it
suggests that the well-established relationship between romantic relationships and
happiness is likely to show individual differences. Future research might benefit by
investigating other theoretically identified constructs (e.g., satisfaction of basic
needs) to have a clearer picture of the association between romantic relationships
and happiness.

4 General discussion

One major conclusion that could be drawn from the studies reported is that the
quality of romantic relationships contributes to happiness above and beyond the
influence of personality among emerging adults. It is noteworthy that this finding was
obtained with different instruments to assess happiness and relationship quality. This
robust finding across the two studies suggests that the association between romantic
relationships and happiness cannot be accounted by personality. For instance, we
suggested earlier that extroverts’ close relationships with their romantic partners
might be attributed to their sensitivity to rewards and close relationships would not
appear a predictor of happiness. Findings of the present study and other studies done
with a focus on different relationships (Lu, 1999) suggest that this is not the case.
Moreover, theory and research pertaining to the importance of romantic
123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 273

relationships in happiness were subjected to a strict test in two studies and findings
suggests that achievement and/or involvement in this normative developmental task
has implications for happiness even when controlling for personality. Overall, then,
even though one might have certain dispositions to be happy, experiencing high
quality close romantic relationships has the potential to make a difference and
contributes to one’s happiness.
In two studies, 3–6% of the variance was accounted for by the quality of romantic
relationships. We consider these findings important and suggest that one should not
equate the amount of variance explained as unimportant or disappointing. The
findings were obtained while controlling for one of the major predictor of happiness,
personality. The task of future research, we propose, is to investigate whether the
findings reported could be obtained in different age groups and while taking into
account different ways of assessing personality (e.g., self-monitoring).

4.1 Limitations of the studies

The present studies were not free of limitations. First of all, even though we treated
romantic relationship quality as a predictor of happiness one cannot establish cause–
effect relationship with cross-sectional studies. It could be that being happy influences
the quality of romantic relationships. Nevertheless, the way we interpreted our find-
ings were consistent with the theoretical position we entertained (Ryan & Deci, 2001)
and with empirical research (Argyle, 2001). Second limitation involves not providing a
definition of romantic relationship to the participants. It is possible that some of the
romantic relationships assessed could be purely sexual in nature. Nevertheless, the
duration of the romantic relationships in both studies suggest that participants were
involved in romantic relationships for a considerable period of time. Third limitation is
that conflict experienced in romantic relationships was not assessed. As relationship
scholars argue (Hinde, 1997), conflict (e.g., frequency) is an inevitable part of any
relationship. Future research should assess conflict in romantic relationships and test
whether this dimension also influences the happiness of emerging adults while con-
trolling for personality. Another limitation of the present study was the ratio of wo-
men–men in the sample. There were more women than men in the analyses reported.
Studies relying on college students as their participants might inevitably face such a
problem. We believe the findings would not be different had equal number of men and
women participated in the study. This argument stems from the findings that romantic
relationships are important for both and men (Berscheid et al., 1989). Another limi-
tation was that participants across the two studies were involved in dating relation-
ships. It is possible that the findings obtained in the present studies might not be
generalizable to engaged/married adults. As such it is the task of future research to
conduct similar studies with samples of married adults. Finally, results reflect the
responses of a college-aged sample in a large Midwestern university and future re-
search might benefit greatly by benefit by conducting similar studies in different age
groups to establish confidence in the findings reported.

5 Conclusion

Two studies showed that the quality of romantic relationships contribute to the
happiness of emerging adults while controlling for personality. The findings suggest
123
274 M. Demir

that striving to satisfy an important development task of emerging adulthood has

implications for happiness even when taking personality in to account. Overall,
findings across the two studies bolster confidence to the theoretical arguments
regarding the role of romantic relationships in the happiness of emerging adults.

Acknowledgement The author would like to thank to anonymous reviewers for their valuable
comments.

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage.
Argyle, M. (2001). The psychology of happiness. London: Routledge.
Argyle, M., & Henderson, M. (1985). The anatomy of relationships. London: Heinemann.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the
twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.
Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through twenties. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Bagwell, C. L., Bender, S. E., Andreassi, C. L., Kinoshita, S. A., Montarello, S. A., & Muller, J. G.
(2005). Friendship quality and perceived relationship changes predict psychosocial adjustment in
early adulthood. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 22, 235–254.
Baldassare, M., Rosenfield, S., & Rook, K. S. (1984). The types of social relations predicting elderly
well-being. Research on Aging, 6, 549–559.
Baltes, B. B., Parker, C. P., Young, L. M., Huff, J., & Altmann, R. (2004). The practical utility of
importance measures in assessing the relative importance of work related perceptions and
organizational characteristics on work related outcomes. Organizational Research Methods, 7,
326–340.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachment
as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.
Berry, D. S., & Willingham, J. K. (1997). Affective traits, responses to conflict, and satisfaction in
romantic relationships. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 564–576.
Berscheid, E., & Regan, P. (2005). The psychology of interpersonal relationships. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Berscheid, E., Snyder, M., & Omoto, A. M. (1989). Issues in studying relationships: Conceptualizing
and measuring closeness. In C. Hendrick (Ed.), Close relationships: Vol. 10. Review of person-
ality and social psychology (pp. 63–91). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Bradbury, T. N., & Fincham, F. D. (1988). Individual difference variables in close relationships: A
contextual model of marriage as an integrative framework. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 54, 713–721.
Carstensen, L. L., Pasupathi, M., Mayr, U., & Nesselroade, J. (2000). Emotion experience in
everyday life across the adult life span. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 644–
655.
Charles, S. T., Reynolds, C. A., & Gatz, M. (2001). Age-related differences and change in positive
and negative affect over 23 years. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 136–151.
Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2001). Attributional style and personality as predictors of happiness and
mental health. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2, 307–327.
Compton, W. C. (1998). Measures of mental health and a five factor theory of personality. Psy-
chological Reports, 83, 371–381.
Corcoran, K., & Fischer, J. (2000). Measures for clinical practice: A sourcebook, Vol. 2. New York,
NY: The Free Press.
Costa, P. T. Jr., Zonderman, A. B., McCrae, R. R., Cornoni-Huntley, J., Locke, B. Z., & Barbano, H.
E. (1987). Longitudinal analyses of psychological well-being in a national sample: Stability of
mean levels. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 50–55.
Craig-Bray, L., Adams, G. R., & Dobson, W. R. (1988). Identity formation and social relations
during late adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17, 173–187.

123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 275

Crossley, A., & Langridge, D. (2005). Perceived sources of happiness: A network analysis. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 6, 107–135.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience
sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 185–199.
Demir, M., Linley, A. P., Kumbul, B., & Grishkina, T. (2003). What makes people happy? A cross-
cultural comparison of British and Turkish young adults. Poster presented at the 2nd Interna-
tional Positive Psychology Summit, October 5–7, Washington, D.C., USA.
Demir, M., Özdemir, M., & Weitekamp, L. A. (2006). Looking to happy tomorrows with friends:
Best and close friendships as they predict happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, DOI 10.1007/
s10902-006-9025-x.
Demir, M., & Weitekamp, L. A. (2006). I am so happy ‘cause today I found my friend: Friendship
and personality as predictors of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, DOI 10.1007/s10902-
006-9012-7.
DeNeve, K. M., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality
traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 197–229.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Diener, E., Gohm, C., Suh, E., & Oishi, S. (2000). Similarity of the relations between marital status
and subjective well-being across cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 419–436.
Diener, E., & Lucas, R. (1999). Personality, and subjective well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener,
& N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 213–229). New
York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being and age. An international perspective. Annual
Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 17, 304–324.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of
progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 76–302.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Smith, H. L., & Shao, L. (1995). National differences in reported well-being:
Why do they occur? Social Indicators Research, 34, 7–32.
Dush, C. M. K., & Amato, P. R. (2005). Consequences of relationship status and quality for sub-
jective well-being. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 607–627.
Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed: A review. New York: Norton.
Feiring, C. (1996). Concepts of romance in 15-year-olds. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6, 181–
200.
Fletcher, G. J. O., Simpson, J. A., & Thomas, G. (2000). The measurement of perceived relationship
quality components: A confirmatory factor analytic approach. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 26, 340–354.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of
personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 105–115.
Furnham, A., & Cheng, H. (1997). Personality and happiness. Psychological Reports, 80, 761–762.
Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., Impett, E. A., & Asher, E. R. (2004). What do you do when things go right?
The intrapersonal and interpersonal benefits of sharing of positive events. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 87, 228–245.
Greene, A. L. (1990). Patterns of affectivity in the transition to adolescence. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology, 50, 340–356.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close
relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5, 1–22.
Hinde, R. A. (1997). Relationships: A dialectical perspective. Psychology Press: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Hussong, A. M. (2000). Perceived peer context and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Research on
Adolescence, 10, 391–415.
John, O., Donahue, E., & Kentle, R. (1991). The ‘‘Big Five’’ Inventory – Versions 4a and 54.
Technical Report. Institute of Personality Assessment and Research, Berkeley, CA: University
of California, Berkeley.
John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and
theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory
and research (pp. 102–138). NewYork: Guilford.
Kacerquis, M. S., & Adams, G. R. (1980). Erikson stage resolution: The relationship between
identity and intimacy. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 117–126.
Kan, M. L., & Cares, A. C. (2006). From ‘‘friends with benefits’’ to ‘‘going steady’’: New directions in
understanding romance and sex in adolescence and emerging adulthood. In A. C. Crouter &

123
276 M. Demir

A. E. Booth (Eds.), Romance and sex in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Risks and
opportunities (pp. 241–258). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (1995). The longitudinal course of marital quality and stability: A
review of theory, method, and research. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 3–34.
Kasser, T., & Sheldon, K. M. (2002). What makes for a merry Christmas? Journal of Happiness
Studies, 3, 313–329.
Kelly, E. L., & Conley, J. J. (1987). Personality and compatibility: A prospective analysis of marital
stability and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 27–40.
Keyes, C. L. M., & Waterman, M. B. (2003). Dimensions of well-being and mental health in
adulthood. In M. H. Bornstein, L. Davidson, C. L. M. Keyes, & K. A. Moore (Eds.), Positive
development across the life course (pp. 477–497). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Asso-
ciates, Publishers.
Khaleque, A. R., & Rohner, N. (2004). Intimate adult relationships, quality of life and psychological
adjustment. Social Indicators Research, 69, 351–360.
Kwan, V. S. Y., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction:
Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73,
1038–1051.
Lokitz, B. D., & Sprandel, H. Z. (1976). The first year: A look at the freshman experience. Journal of
College Student Personnel, 17, 274–279.
Lu, L. (1999). Personal or environmental causes of happiness: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of
Social Psychology, 139, 79–90.
Lucas, R. E., & Diener, E. (2001). Understanding extraverts’ enjoyment of social situations: The
importance of pleasantness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 343–356.
Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., Grob, A., Suh, E. M., & Shao, L. (2000). Cross-cultural evidence for the
fundamental features of extraversion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 452–468.
Lucas, R. E., & Gohm, C. (2000). Age and sex differences in subjective well-being across cultures. In
E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Subjective well-being across nations and cultures (pp. 291–317).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefit of frequent positive affect: Does hap-
piness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability
and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137–155.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of
sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131.
Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego identity status. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 3, 551–558.
McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. (1991). Adding liebe and arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-
being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 227–232.
Medley, M. L. (1980). Life satisfaction across four stages of adult life. International Journal of Aging
and Human Development, 11, 193–209.
Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Hersen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity
development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419–
461.
Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis. Sage university paper series on quantitative
applications in the social sciences, 07-106. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mendelson, M. J., & Aboud, F. E. (1999). Measuring friendship quality in late adolescents and young
adults: McGill Friendship Questionnaires. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31, 130–
132.
Miller, R. S., & Lefcourt, H. M. (1982). The assessment of social intimacy. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 46(5), 514–518.
Montgomery, M. J. (2005). Psychosocial intimacy and identity: From early adolescence to emerging
adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 346–374.
Myers, R. (1990). Classical and modern regression with applications (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Dux-
bury.
Myers, D. G. (1992). The pursuit of happiness: Who is happy and why. New York: William Morrow.
Myers, D. (2000). The funds, friends and faith of happy people. American Psychologist, 55, 56–67.
Noller, P., Feeney, J. A., Peterson, C. (2001). Personal relationships across the lifespan. Hove, UK:
Psychology Press.
Orlofsky, J. L., Marcia, J. E., & Lesser, I. M. (1973). Ego identity status and the intimacy versus
isolation crisis of young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 211–219.

123
Romantic relationship quality and happiness 277

Prager, K. J. (1995). The psychology of intimacy. Guilford, CT: Guilford Publications.

Reis, H. T. (2001). Relationship experiences and emotional well-being. In C. D. Ryff & B. H. Singer
(Eds.), Emotion, social relationships and health (pp. 57–86). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Reis, H. T., Collins, W. A., & Berscheid, E. (2000). The relationship context of human behavior and
development. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 844–872.
Reis, H. T., & Shaver, P. R. (1988). Intimacy as an interpersonal process. In S. Duck (Ed.),
Handbook of research in personal relationships (pp. 367–389). London, England: Wiley.
Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging
developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.
Rook, K. S. (1987). Social support versus companionship: Effects on life stress, loneliness, and
evaluations by others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1132–1147.
Roscoe, B., Dian, M. S., & Brooks, R. H. (1987). Early, middle, and late adolescents’ views on dating
and the factors influencing partner selection. Adolescence, 22, 59–68.
Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust to intimacy: A new inventory
for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,
10, 525–537.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on
hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166.
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological
well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.
Sedikides, C., Oliver, M. B., & Campbell, W. K. (1994). Perceived benefits and costs of romantic
relationships for women and men: Implications for exchange theory. Personal Relationships, 1,
5–21.
Sheldon, K. M., & Kasser, T. (2001). Getting older, getting better? Personal strivings and personality
development across the life-course. Developmental Psychology, 37, 491–501.
Sheldon, K. M., Kasser, T., Houser-Marko, L., Jones, T., & Turban, D. (2005). Doing one’s duty:
Chronological age, felt autonomy, and subjective well-being. European Journal of Personality,
19, 97–115.
Sprecher, S., & Hendrick, S. S. (2004). Self-disclosure in intimate relationships: Associations with
individual and relationship charateristics over time. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,
23, 857–877.
Stacey, C. A., & Gatz, M. (1991). Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal change on the
Bradburn Affect Balance Scale. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 76–78.
Tabachnik, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1999). Using multivariate statistics. New York, NY: Harper Collins,
College Publishers.
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on
mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.
Vleioras, G., & Bosma, H. A. (2005). Are identity styles important for psychological well-being?
Journal of Adolescence, 28, 397–409.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of
positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
54, 1063–1070.
Weiss, R. S. (1974). The provisions of social relationships. In Z. Rubin (Ed.), Doing unto others (pp.
17–26). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Weishaus, S. W., & Field, D. (1988). A half century of marriage: Continuity or change? Journal of
Marriage and the Family, 3, 763–774.
Winstead, B. A., Derlega, V. J., & Rose, S. (1997). Gender and close relationships. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
White, J. K., Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (2004). Big five personality variables and relationship
constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1519–1530.

123