THE COMMUNICATION MODEL

Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the

human communication process. The first major model for communication
was developed in 1948 by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with an
introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories.[1] Following the basic
concept, communication is the process of sending and
receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to
another (receiver).

Shannon and Weaver

The Shannon–Weaver model was designed to mirror the functioning of
radio and telephone technology. Their initial model consisted of four
primary parts: sender, message, channel, and receiver. The sender was
the part of a telephone a person speaks into, the channel was the
telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone through which
one can hear the person on the other end of the line. Shannon and
Weaver also recognized that there may often be static or background
sounds that interfere with the process of the other partner in a telephone
conversation; they referred to this as noise. Certain types of background
sounds can also indicate the absence of a signal.

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In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission
model or standard view of communication, information or content
(e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken
language) from an emissor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/
decoder. According to this common communication-related conception,
communication is viewed as a means of sending and receiving
information. The strengths of this model are its simplicity, generality, and
quantifiability. The mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver
structured this model on the basis of the following elements:
 An information source, which produces a message.
 A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
 A channel, for which signals are adapted for transmission
 A receiver, which reconstructs the encoded message from a
sequence of received signals and decodes it.
 An information destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that this concept entails three levels of
problems for communication:
1. The technical problem: how accurately can the message be
transmitted?
2. The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?
3. The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received
meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler criticizes the transmission model in the following terms: [3]
 It assumes that communicators are isolated individuals.
 It makes no allowance for differing purposes.
 It makes no allowance for differing interpretations.
 It makes no allowance for unequal power relationships.

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Berlo
In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's 1949 linear model
of communication and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver
(SMCR) Model of Communication.[4] The SMCR Model of Communication
separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by
other scholars.

Schramm
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions:
Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emissor /
sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through
which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and
Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also
examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on
the target of the message.[5] Between parties, communication includes
acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various
manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the
group communicating. Together, communication content and form
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make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be
oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or
group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes of information

transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions
and their users) and
3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and
what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two

interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set
of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense
ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal
communication via diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that
followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within
social interactions.

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Barnlund
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional
model of communication.The basic premise of the transactional model of
communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the
sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are

linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as
the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an
individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the
message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a
passage in which information travels from one individual to another and
this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A
particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's
personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending
upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the
intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "noise" on the
transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content
may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired
effect. One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is
that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and
receiver each possess something that functions as a [code-book], and that
these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical.
Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are
nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual
difficulties.

Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and

dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of
information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that
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people use different types of media to communicate and which one they
choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability
of society. His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking
at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different
properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'.
it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires
and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial
administration. The other is stone and 'Time Binding', through the
construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority
generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape
communication in their society.[7]

Constructionist
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that
authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman
(1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell's attempt to
define human communication through to this century and revolutionized
into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of
communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging
can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it
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arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style
for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over
encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the
transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity
are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication.
Lanham wrote: "If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive
is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to
the essential questions about prose style" (Lanham 10). This is saying that
rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to
what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and
deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.

Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame
to understand communication. Goffman wrote: "What does seem to be
required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to
be able to 'fill in' and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be
given" (Goffman 73), highlighting the significance of expression.

The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package
as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context
is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model.
Therefore, any look into communication theory should include the
possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and
Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.

Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the

structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while
excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory
remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other
disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably
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cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across
disciplines.

Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11-15):

 Noise; interference with effective transmission and reception of a

message.
 For example;
 physical noise or external noise which are
environmental distractions such as poorly heated rooms,
startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing some
where else, and someone talking really loudly near you.
 physiological noise are biological influences that distract
you from communicating competently such as sweaty palms,
pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech
anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in
your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a
cough.
 psychological noise are the preconception bias and
assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley
girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak
English well so you speak loudly and slowly to them.
 semantic noise are word choices that are confusing and
distracting such as using the word tri-syllabic instead of three
syllables.
 Sender; the initiator and encoder of a message
 Receiver; the one that receives the message (the listener) and the
decoder of a message

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 Decode; translates the sender's spoken idea/message into
something the receiver understands by using their knowledge of
language from personal experience.
 Encode; puts the idea into spoken language while putting their own
meaning into the word/message.
 Channel; the medium through which the message travels such as
through oral communication (radio, television, phone, in person) or
written communication (letters, email, text messages)
 Feedback; the receiver's verbal and nonverbal responses to a
message such as a nod for understanding (nonverbal), a raised
eyebrow for being confused (nonverbal), or asking a question to clarify
the message (verbal).
 Message; the verbal and nonverbal components of language that is
sent to the receiver by the sender which conveys an idea.

Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they
assign to those people or things. -"Language is the source of meaning". -
Meaning arises out of the social interaction people have with each other.

-Meaning is not inherent in objects but it is negotiated through the use of

language, hence the term symbolic interactionism. As human beings, we
have the ability to name things. Symbols, including names, are arbitrary
signs. By talking with others, we ascribe meaning to words and develop a
universe of discourse A symbol is a stimulus that has a learned/shared
meaning and a value for people Significant symbols can be nonverbal as
well as linguistic.

-Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing. -Our

expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated,
resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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Linear
It is a one to and way model to communicate with others. It consists of
the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the
presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback which may allow for
a continuous exchange of information. This form of communication is a
one-way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or
response, and noise. (F.N.S. Palma, 1993)

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Interactive/convergence
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels
a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and
channels a message to the original sender. This model has added
feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a two way
process. It also has "field of experience" which includes our cultural
background, ethnicity geographic location, extent of travel, and general
personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw
backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.

The Interactive Model

 For example, – instant messaging. The sender sends an IM to the
receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the IM from the
original receiver to react. Or a question/answer session where you just
ask a question then you get an answer.

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Communication Theory Framework
Main article: Theory of communication
Communication theory can be seen from one of the following viewpoints:
 Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect
transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in
the diagram above)
 Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of
sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the
receiver upon interpreting the message.
 Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view
considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing
and creating meaning. The Constructionist View can also be defined as,
how you say something determines what the message is. The
Constructionist View assumes that "truth" and "ideas" are constructed
or invented through the social process of communication. Robert T.
Craig saw the Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it's
called in his article, as "…an ongoing process that symbolically forms
and re-forms our personal identities." (Craig, 125). The other view of
communication, the Transmission Model, sees communication as
robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees
communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the
perfection of that. But, the Constructionist View sees communications
as, "…in human life, info does not behave as simply as bits in an
electronic stream. In human life, information flow is far more like an
electric current running from one landmine to another" (Lanham, 7).
The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of
communication because it involves the interacting of human beings
and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas. Daniel Chandler looks to
prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of communicating by
saying "The transmission model is not merely a gross over-
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 simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the
nature of human communication" (Chandler, 2). Humans do not
communicate simply as computers or robots so that's why it's essential
to truly understand the Constructionist View of Communication well.
We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we take facts
and data and they acquire meaning through the process of
communication, or through interaction with others.
 Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new
messages created via "through-put", or what happens as the message
is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
 Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power
and oppression of individuals and social groups.
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on
the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.

Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological,

epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.

Ontology
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, the theorist is
examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer
usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist
sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social
constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing
that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions.
Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of
one's cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists
straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that
reality is what we create together.

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Epistemology
Epistemology is an examination of the approaches and beliefs which
inform particular modes of study of phenomena and domains of expertise.
In positivist approaches to epistemology, objective knowledge is seen as
the result of the empirical observation and perceptual experience. In the
history of science, empirical evidence collected by way of pragmatic-
calculation and the scientific method is believed to be the most likely to
reflect truth in the findings. Such approaches are meant to predict a
phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on
situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology
such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically
developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world.

Axiology
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory
development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three
axiological approaches. The first approach recognizes that values will
influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set
aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings
is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual
researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations.
The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from
any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not
try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of
their values so that they understand how those values contextualize,
influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the
idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects
the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted

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by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is
to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological
approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those
values in their research and theory development.

ORGANIZATION COMMUNICATION
In a workplace situation, a worker interacts with people occupying
different position that is from janitor to manager. Likewise,
communication is the best, to give receive and have a feedback on the
ideas being communicated. As part of the organization, it is very
important to be aware on how a message flows in a company.

In this case, organizational communication would be applied to observe

proper communication in the workplace. It may be oral or written
depending on the content of the message. There are four types of
organizational communication:
1. Downward communication which is the top-to-bottom
communication from the management not only clears job directions
and safety rules but also facts about organizational goals, products and
view-points on important controversial issues. The following media
tools of internal communication can be used to carry information down
to its intended receiver: 1) memo 2) letters 3) orientation manuals 4)
pay envelope inserts 5) annual report 6) public address system 7)
human channels, like supervisor or foreman.

2. Upward communication gives management with feedback needed

for proper planning, decision-making and controlling. On the part of the
employees communication up to management maybe a form of release
from emotional tensions and pressures, a means to offer valuable ideas
to management or simply to show whether directions or policies are
understood and acceptable to the employees. Tools that can be used in
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upward communication are: memos, suggestion systems (in a form of
box or face to face, and guidance counselor as human channel.

3. Horizontal or lateral communication takes place between sections,

divisions, or departments of the same level. Keep employees aware of
activities in a related department, like for example one supervisor with
another, one worker with another and so forth. The tools used in
horizontal or lateral are: meetings and conferences; seminars and
workshops; telephones and intercoms; social and other similar
activities.

4. Diagonal communication takes place from one level to another level

without passing through traditional channels.

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 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Developing Effective Communication Skills

Effective communication skills are fundamental to success in many

aspects of life. Many jobs require strong communication skills and people
with good communication skills usually enjoy better interpersonal
relationships with friends and family.

Effective communication is a key interpersonal skill and learning how we

can improve our communication has many benefits.

Communication is a two way process, so improving communication

involves both how we send and receive messages.

The following list includes links to other pages at Skills You Need that can
help you further improve your communication skills.

Learn to Listen
Listening is not the same as hearing; learn to listen not only to the words
being spoken but how they are being spoken and the non-verbal
messages sent with them. Use the techniques
of clarification and reflection to confirm what the other person has said
and avoid any confusion. Try not to think about what to say next whilst
listening; instead clear your mind and focus on the message being
received. Your friends, colleagues and other acquaintances will appreciate
good listening skills.

Be Aware of Other People's Emotions

Be sympathetic to other people's misfortunes and congratulate their
positive landmarks. To do this you need to be aware of what is going on
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in other people’s lives. Make and maintain eye contact and use first
names where appropriate. Do not be afraid to ask others for their
opinions as this will help to make them feel valued.

Consider the emotional effect of what you are saying and communicate
within the norms of behaviour acceptable to the other person.

Take steps to become more charismatic. See our page: Emotional

Intelligence for more information.

Empathize
Empathy is trying to see things from the point-of-view of others. When
communicating with others, try not to be judgmental or biased by
preconceived ideas or beliefs - instead view situations and responses from
the other person’s perspective. Stay in tune with your own emotions to
help enable you to understand the emotions of others.

If appropriate, offer your personal viewpoint clearly and honestly to avoid

confusion. Bear in mind that some subjects might be taboo or too
emotionally stressful for others to discuss.

Encourage
Offer words and actions of encouragement, as well as praise, to others.
Make other people feel welcome, wanted, valued and appreciated in your
communications. If you let others know that they are valued, they are
much more likely to give you their best. Try to ensure that everyone
involved in an interaction or communication is included through effective
body language and the use of open questions.

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Learn to Communicate Effectively
Do not say the first thing that comes into your head but instead take a
moment and pay close attention to what you say and how you say it.

Focus on the meaning of what you want to communicate.

Aim to increase understanding by considering how your message might
be received by the other person. By communicating clearly, you can help
avoid misunderstandings and potential conflict with others. By speaking
eloquently you will come across as more intelligent and mature.

Be aware of the messages you are sending via non-verbal channels: make
eye contact and avoid defensive body language. Present information in a
way that its meaning can be clearly understood. Pay particular attention
to differences in culture, past experiences, attitudes and abilities before
conveying your message. Avoid jargon and over-complicated language;
explain things as simply as possible. Request clarification if unclear about
a message. Always avoid racist and sexist terms or any language that
may cause offence.

More on Verbal Communication and Non-verbal communication - also

see Effective Speaking and Building Rapport.

Use Humour
Laughing releases endorphins that can help relieve stress and anxiety;
most people like to laugh and will feel drawn to somebody who can make
them laugh. Don’t be afraid to be funny or clever, but do ensure your
humour is appropriate to the situation. Use your sense of humour to
break the ice, to lower barriers and gain the affection of others. By using
appropriate humour you will be perceived as more charismatic.

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See our page: Developing a Sense of Humour for more information.

Treat People Equally

Always aim to communicate on an equal basis and avoid patronizing
people. Do not talk about others behind their backs and try not to
develop favourites: by treating people as your equal and also equal to
each other you will build trust and respect. Check that people understand
what you have said to avoid confusion and negative feelings. Encourage
open and honest feedback from the receiver to ensure your message is
understood and to avoid the receiver instead feeding back what they think
you want to hear. If confidentiality is an issue, make sure its boundaries
are known and ensure its maintenance.

Attempt to Resolve Conflict

Learn to troubleshoot and resolve problems and conflicts as they arise.
Learn how to be an effective mediator and negotiator. Use your listening
skills to hear and understand both sides of any argument - encourage and
facilitate people to talk to each other. Try not to be biased or judgemental
but instead ease the way for conflict resolution.

Our section: Conflict Resolution and Mediation can help here.

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Maintain a Positive Attitude and Smile
Few people want to be around someone who is frequently miserable. Do
your best to be friendly, upbeat and positive with other people. Maintain a
positive, cheerful attitude to life: when things do not go to plan, stay
optimistic and learn from your mistakes. If you smile often and stay
cheerful, people are more likely to respond positively to you.

See our pages on Personal Presentation and Positive Thinking for more.

Minimize Stress
Some communication scenarios are, by their nature, stressful. Stress can
however be a major barrier to effective communication, all parties should
try to remain calm and focused.

For tips and advice about stress relief and avoidance see our
pages: Avoiding Stress and Tips for Relieving Stress. It is also important to
learn how to relax we have a series of pages covering Relaxation
Techniques.

Only Complain when Absolutely Necessary

People will not be drawn to you if you are constantly complaining or
whinging. If something makes you angry or upset, wait for a few hours
and calm down before taking action. If you do complain, do so calmly, try
to find some positive aspects to the situation and avoid giving
unnecessary criticism.

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 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF INEFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication needs to be clear and effective in order to achieve

its aim. When it is not, all kinds of problem can result.

There are many obstacles along the way that result to ineffective
communication. These are the following:

Barriers to good communication

Barriers to good communication can make things difficult and cause
misunderstanding. Good communication is affected when the sender and
the receiver do not understand the message in the same way.

Good communication can be affected by:

 Non-verbal communication which sends the opposite message to
what is being said. Remember that what we see is different to what
we hear, the non-verbal communication always delivers the
strongest message. For example; if you tell your supervisor that you
are happy to work late and then spend the whole time looking at
you watch, he or she believes the non-verbal message which is
saying that you are not happy at all.
 Poor listening. Use of slang and jargon. People who work in a
particular area often talk to each other in technical jargon or slang
they have developed for their own use. This is fine for all who
speaks the language, but it makes it very hard to newcomers.
 Ambiguity. This refers to the fact that some messages have more
than one meaning. Unless the message means the same thing to
both the sender and receiver, confusion can arise. It is important to

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 be specific and exact if you are the sender and to use feedback and
questions to check the message if you are the receiver.
 People who think that they know everything and don’t
listen. They neither give nor ask for feedback and then complain
that others send confusing message.
 Making assumption about what people do or don’t know. It is
important to clear about what information people already have. To
do this, we should put ourselves in place of the receiver and ask
ourselves what they need to know in order to understand our
message. We then need to be clear about how we send our
message and what to include in it.
 Poor expression. These means speech or writing that is not clear,
thoughts and feeling which are presented in illogical order or
incorrect spelling punctuation and grammar.
 If people working together are not able to communicate
well. It can lead to confusion, unhappiness, frustration and
annoyance. It can also mean that the organization’s goal will not be
met.

Poor communication may lead to:

 Time being lost because work needs to be redone
 Accidents
 Poor quality service and/or product
 Wastage
 Frustration
 Mistake being made because instructions are not clear
 Teams not working well.

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 EXPRESSING IDEAS AND THOUGHTS CORRECTLY

Look at the picture closely and read the dialogue.

Mang Victor: Alfred’s father, needs help, doesn’t he? Yes, he does.
Does Alfred understand his father? Does he get the message? Why?
“Help” “Alfred the ladder!” “over here” “Coming fast”

These are short oral messages which anyone understands because they
express clear thoughts or ideas. However, when we write, we must state
our ideas completely.

Compare the word groups in column I with those in Column II

Column I Column II
Help! You help me!
Alfred, the ladder! Alfred you hold the ladder!
Over here! You come over here!
Coming fast! I’m coming fast!
Hurry up, please! You hurry up, please!

The whole expression in Column II are called sentence, because they

express complete thoughts or ideas.

Use the definition of a sentence to decide which of these word groups are
sentences.
1. Alfred held the ladder tight.
2. Don’t move it.
3. Who is fixing the house roof?
4. Here comes the real carpenter!
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5. Mr. Manuel, the architect-contractor.
6. A big townhouse in Ayala, Alabang?

Notice that the first four word groups are SENTENCES. The last two
examples may look like sentences. They begin with capital letters and end
with punctuation marks like the period, but neither one expresses a
complete thought.

See what happens when words or word groups are added to make them
both sentences.

Mr. Manuel Miguel, the architect-contractor, plans the structure of the

building.
Is Mr. Miguel building a big townhouse in Ayala, Alabang?
Do these word groups now suggest clearer, better and complete ideas?

KEEP IN MIND:
A sentence is a group of words that states a complete thought
There are many kinds of sentences. Some sentences tell or ask
something. Others give a command or express a strong feeling.

In a sentence, the beginning letter of the first word is always capitalized.

Each sentence ends with a punctuation mark, like a period, question
mark, or exclamation point.

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 REASON FOR COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE

Workplace communication is vital to an organization's ability to be

productive and operate smoothly.

1. Workplace communication improves worker productivity.

Research has shown that effective lateral and work group
communication leads to an improvement in overall company
performance. It has also been discovered that employees who were
graded as highest in production had received the most effective
communication from their superiors. For example, Gertrude works in
engineering, and her prototypes of toys receive accolades. She is an
effective communicator about her designs and how they will be
played with in real life by kids. In addition, she receives specific
guidance from her superiors, allowing her to create designs quickly
and efficiently.

2. Workplace communication can increase employee job satisfaction.

Employees feel empowered if they are able to have upward
communication. This type of communication is when information
flows upward in an organization and usually consists of feedback. If
bosses or managers are able to listen to employees and respond, this
leads to an increase in employee job satisfaction.

In addition, employees are also happy if there is intense downward

communication, which is information flowing down from superiors or
managers to direct reports. Gertrude recently sent an email to her
boss recommending that her department upgrade its design software.
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 Her upward communication feedback was not just acknowledged but
also acted upon, resulting in a very happy design team.

3. Workplace communication can also have a positive effect on

absenteeism and turnover rates.
Communication flow is very important to workers. Employees have to
feel secure that they are receiving truthful and updated information
from superiors. They also want to have the ability to share ideas,
thoughts and concerns within the company. Studies have shown that
even after a layoff, companies that have excellent communication are
able to retain the surviving employees.

Gertrude did survive a corporate merger and was very concerned

about her future with the company. Her immediate managers
communicated right away that she was a huge value to the
organization and would be getting a promotion within the year. This
ultimately provided Gertrude with a reason to fully commit to a new
organizational structure.

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF VOCUBULARY: Relation to Comprehension Skill
Meaning and Distinctions of Types

Vocabulary refers to the stock or range of words available to you for

use in oral and written communication, words you understand from
listening to others speak, or from reading and which you can use in
writing.

In your reading, the problem is usually not so much to form words

but sometimes to figure out words already written which might be
unfamiliar to you. If you can recognize that a word is made up of other
words or word parts that you know you may be able to figure out the word
even if it seems unfamiliar at first. Figuring out how words are made up of
different parts, sounding them out in order to pronounce them and
examining how they are used in order to get meaning from them, are all
methods of word attack which can help you understand new or unfamiliar
words you encounter in your reading. The methods or word attack may be
referred to as reading tactics.

There are two ways of viewing vocabulary: 1). From the standpoint of the
communication skills, and 2). From the standpoint of usefulness or
purpose.
1. From the first standpoint, we have three vocabularies: one for
reading (or listening), one for writing, and one for speaking. Our
reading vocabulary in English is the largest, because we can guess
at the meaning of an isolated word by the way it is used. Our writing
vocabulary is smaller, but it is larger than our speaking vocabulary
because we have the time when writing to think of the right word
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 we want to use which we may not have when speaking. Our
speaking vocabulary is the smallest, because if the words to express
the exact shade of meaning aren’t there waiting for us, we fall back
on clichés, or words which don’t quite express our intended
meaning but will have tgo “make do”. However, this is true of
students, like Filipinos, to whom English is not the first language.
Also the listening vocabulary might in a sense be smaller than the
reading one if the listener’s grasp of correct pronunciation is
inadequate.
2. From the second standpoint vocabularies are classified either as
technical or general or as working or recognition. The technical
vocabulary consists of words from specialized fields, words like
ecology, iambic, isobar, sirocco, ionosphere, pyrometer,
isotopes, aeration, symbiosis. Your general vocabulary is made
up of words that you use in ordinary conversation and in
correspondence.

Your working vocabulary has in it the words that you use in spelling
and in writing, while your recognition vocabulary is composed of
those words that you may understand in listening and in reading. All
four, of course, overlap.

WAYS OF BUILDING A VOCABULARY

One authority suggests that to build your vocabulary you must:
1. become curious about words;
2. read more
3. develop skill in finding meaning from context;
4. set up a card system; and
5. learn the function of key prefixes, suffixes and roots

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Be curious about words - Begin by selecting from what you read today
those words which you feel are essential to you whether you read,
write, listen or speak. Then as you read more and more in the varied
field that interest you or in your particular course, notice the words
that appear again and again, for inevitably you will need to add them
to your working vocabulary. As you add these recurring words, you’ll
notice that one of the effects is greater skill in selecting words to learn
for your own use in communicating your thoughts to others and in your
chosen profession especially.

Reading More –Reading more means reading widely. It does not mean to
read more and more of the same, so be careful not to specialize.
Consider, first of all which sections and items of your newspaper you
are neglecting. Try out your curiosity on the words in an editorial as
well as those in a feature article or human interest story. Reach for a
different magazine next time you view the whole array on the shelves
in the library.

It must be remembered that reading is a habit. Once you have

developed the habit you never lose it. But you must somehow be
exposed to reading early enough in life to have it become a part of
your daily routine, like washing your face or breathing. Most school
children in our highly seasoned, electronic, picture conscious age have
never been exposed to the reading habit and cannot, therefore, read
without effort. Some modern children seldom if ever read for fun. Like
muscles that are almost never used, their concentration and interest
give way quickly. They prefer the automatic, pictorial sensation of TV
(which can be highly instructive and entertaining at times) rather than
the “tedious” movement of the eyes from left to right, from right to left
on line after line after line of un-illustrated print. “There’s a certain
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 sadness in realizing that a whopping segment of the exploding new
teen-age generation never really reads anything unless forced to do so.

Finding Meaning from Context. Suppose that in your reading you meet
a new word yet it is not something you feel you should add to either
your recognition or working vocabulary, however, its meaning will be
essential to your understanding of what you are reading. Instead of
immediately looking up such a word in your dictionary, try to figure out
what it means by considering the words and phrases around it. These
will usually throw some light on its meaning.

Even when you do use a dictionary you will often have to pay attention
to the words around an unfamiliar word to find the word’s “exact”
meaning, to single out the one meaning that fits from among the many
dictionary meanings. It is therefore advisable to look around a strange
or puzzling word for clues to meaning. You can then arrive at the
meanings of certain words through the clues provided by the words
that surround them. Such clues could be in the form of outright
definition, an appositive, or an explanation in parenthesis or in a
subsequent statement. This process is called lo9oking for meaning
through context clues.

Word Attack Through Context Clues – What is meant by context

clues? When you look at a picture the different objects in that picture
provide you with clues which help you to understand what the picture
is all about. In a sentence there are also clues – word clues. Just as a
picture is a context because it gives you information about what an
unfamiliar word in the sentence.
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Two kinds of context clues – There are two kinds of context clues:
1) direct and 2). Indirect. The direct context clues tell you exactly what
the italicized or underlined word means. Indirect context clues are
words not found in the sentence but help you to know the meaning of
the word.

Methods of Discovering Meaning from context – There are four

methods of discovering meaning from context and these are:
a) by inference – the person skilled in vocabulary techniques does not
need to guess about the meaning of an unfamiliar word because he
can draw inferences from the way a word is used in the sentence or
paragraph he’s reading. He “reads between the lines,” finding both
what is suggested and what is said. Inference then is the process of
drawing reasonable conclusions from bits of evidence.

b) Direct Explanation – frequently, a writer will define a certain word

if he decides that it may be unfamiliar to the majority of readers, or if
he wants to emphasize the significance of the word. In your reading,
therefore, be alert to this technique. For illustration note: An ascetic,
living an austere and lonely life of self-denial, believes this existence
will lead to spiritual and intellectual perfection. It is obvious that the
writer has clearly stated the meaning of ascetic believing it might give
the read some difficulty.

c) Indirectly Explanation – another device that a writer uses to

communicate word meaning is to explain the meaning of an unfamiliar
word in a phrase or clause fitted skillfully into the main structure. To
illustrate, note:

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Sabotage, with its destruction of enemy supplies and property, was
used often by both sides during World War II.
The proposed document, filled with misleading information and vague
generalities, was completely ambiguous and prevented any positive
action by the United States.

The phrases with its destruction of enemy supplies and property and
filled with misleading information and vague generalities help to
convey the meaning of sabotage and ambiguous.

However, finding meaning by examining the context need not mean

completely replacing the use of the dictionary. You could go beyond
any contextual clues and study the dictionary entry for the one best,
the exact meaning.

By the simile – the simile, a comparison made clear by the use of the
word like or as is frequent employed to assist the reader with word
meaning. In the practicum exercises, observe how the similes help with
meaning.

Using the dictionary and card system – An effective means of

adding words to your vocabulary is to set up a file of vocabulary cards.
Acquire a pack or two of 3 by 5 or 4 by 6 inch cards- the unrolled ones-
and keep them in a box. Carry a number of blank cards with you so
that whenever you hear a word you believe essential to your
vocabulary, jot it down. Write no more than one word on a card. Should
any situation –a test, for example-fail to permit this practice, make a
mental note and put the word on a card at a more convenient time.
While you read, do the same thing; furthermore, whenever possible,
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 write down the sentence in which you found the word. Group the cards
alphabetically under separate headings, and mark each group with an
identifying tab on a plain white card so that you can find the categories
easily as you work with them.

Word Attack Through Structure and Sound:

Many of the words you encountering your reading that may seem
unfamiliar at first are made up of parts you already know. The same
basic word can be combined with other words or word parts to produce
different meanings. When you can figure out the parts that a word is
made of and from them figure out the meaning of the word you are
using the words structure to understand what it means. A word that is
a derivative is usually made up of the root with a prefix before it or a
suffix after it or both (informal).

A knowledge of prefixes or suffixes, and roots will indeed help you

figure out the meaning of many an unfamiliar word. Such knowledge
will also make increasing you vocabulary a more interesting
experience.

Roots, Prefixes, and suffixes:

Roots – The basic element in a word is called a “root” or “stem” This part
may appear alone (as a word); as an element of a compound or as a part,
expanded by a prefix, suffix, or both.

Prefix – is a form attached to the beginning of a word that changes the

meaning of the word or makes a new word. A few prefixes are single
letters, most are syllables, some are words. Prefixes have been added to
gnostic, known, meter, and ordinary, for example-giving us these words:
agnostic, unknown, perimeter and extraordinary.

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A knowledge of prefixes frequently helps a reader to grasp the meaning of
an unfamiliar word because he can see that its parts are not unfamiliar.
He knows the meaning of the prefix and he recognizes the word to which
it is attached. In short order, with or without the help of context clues, he
has the new meaning.

Suffixes – is a short form added to the ending of a word. Its function is to

indicate the part of speech of the word. Suffixes give a word new uses and
modify its meaning.

EFFECTIVE READING

When studying, especially at higher levels, a great deal of time is

spent reading.

Academic reading should not be seen as a passive activity, but an

active process that leads to the development of learning.

Reading for learning requires a conscious effort to make links,

understand opinions, research and apply what you learn to your studies.

This page covers the following areas: how reading develops, the
goals of reading, approaching reading with the right attitude and
developing a reading strategy.

Everything we read tells us something about the person who wrote

it. Paying close attention to how and why the author writes something will
open ourselves up to their perspective on life, which in turn enriches our
understanding of the world we live in.

How Reading Develops

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 Learning to read as a child usually results in the ability to read
simple material relatively easily.

As we develop our skills in reading, the process often becomes more

challenging. We are introduced to new vocabulary and more complex
sentence structures. Early school textbooks offer us facts or ‘truths’
about the world which we are required to learn; we are not, at this stage
encouraged to question the authority of the writers of these published
materials.

As schooling progresses however, we are led to consider a range of

perspectives, or ways of looking at a topic, rather than just one. We learn
to compare these perspectives and begin to form opinions about them.

This change in reading from a surface approach (gathering facts) to

a deep approach (interpreting) is essential in order to gain the most out of
our studies.
Reading becomes not simply a way to see what is said but to recognize
and interpret what is said, taking into account subtleties such as bias,
assumptions and the perspectives of the author.

Academic reading, therefore, means understanding the author’s

interpretation of reality, which may be very different from our own.

The Goal of Reading

Most of us read in everyday life for different purposes – you are
reading this page now, for a purpose.

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 We read to gain factual information for practical use, for example, a
train timetable or a cinema listing. For such documents we rarely need to
analyse or interpret.

We may also read fiction in order to be entertained; depending upon

the reader, a level of interpretation may be applied, and if reading fiction
as part of an English Literature degree, then analysis of the author’s
writing style, motives etc. is imperative.

Many of us read newspapers and magazines, either in print or

online, to inform us about current events. In some cases the bias of the
writer is explicit and this leads us to interpret what is said in light of this
bias. It is therefore easy to view a particular article as a statement of
opinion rather than fact. Political biases, for example, are well known in
the press.

When reading academic material such as textbooks, journals and so

on, you should be always reading to interpret and analyze. Nothing should
be taken as fact or ‘truth’. You will be engaged in, what is termed
as, critical reading.

When you read while studying an academic course, your principal

goal will be to gather information in order to answer an assignment
question or gain further information on a subject for an exam or other
type of assessment.
Underlying this is the more general theme of learning and development,
to develop your thoughts, to incorporate new ideas into your existing
understanding, to see things from different angles or view-points, to
develop your knowledge and understanding and ultimately yourself.

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 Learning, therefore, comes about not from reading and
remembering details, but from developing your understanding of the
meaning of the details. To engage with your ideas and opinions and
rethink them in a positive and constructive way.

Necessary Reading Materials

When you are engaged in formal study, for example at college or
university, there will be distinct areas of reading that you will be directed
towards.

These may include:

Course Materials
Course materials will vary considerably from one institution to another
and also across different disciplines and for different teachers.

You may be given course materials in the form of a book, especially

if you are taking a distance-learning course, or in hand-outs in lectures.
Such materials may also be available online via a virtual learning
environment (VLE).

You may be expected to make your own notes from lectures and
seminars based around the syllabus of the course. The course materials
are your main indication of what the course is about, the main topics
covered and usually the assessment required. Course materials also often
point you to other types of reading materials.

Core Texts
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Core texts are the materials, usually books, journals or trusted online
resources which you will be directed to via the course materials.

Core texts are essential reading, their aim is usually to expand on

the subjects, discussions and arguments presented in the course
materials, or through lectures etc. Remember that core texts are
primarily what you will be assessed on. You will need to demonstrate
comprehension of theories and ideas from these texts in your
assignments.

Suggested Reading
As well as indicating core texts, reading lists may also recommend other
sources of material.

Suggested reading will not only increase your comprehension of a

subject area but will potentially greatly enhance the quality of your
written work.

Other Sources
Perhaps one of the most important academic reading skills is to identify
your own additional reading materials.

Do not just stick to what you have been told to read but expand
your knowledge further by reading as much as you can around the
subjects you are studying. Keep a note of everything relevant you have
read, either in print or online, as you will need this information for your
reference list or bibliography when producing an assignment.

See our page: Academic Referencing for more information on how to

reference correctly.

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Attitudes to Reading
Often, when we begin to read books relating to a new topic, we find
that the language and style are difficult to follow.

This can be off-putting and disheartening, but persevere; specialist

subject areas will contain their own specialist ‘language’ which you will
need to learn. Perseverance will mean that you become more familiar with
the style of writing and the vocabulary or jargon associated with the
specific subject area.
More generally, academic writing tends to use a very cautious style or
language. The writer may seem to use elaborate, long sentences, but this
is usually to ensure that they are saying precisely what they mean.

See our page: Writing Styles for more information about the various
styles of writing that you are likely to encounter.

A useful aid to reading is to have a good quality dictionary to hand;

however, you may find a specialist dictionary is necessary for some
subject areas – there are many free online dictionaries also. Even though
a dictionary can be useful, it should not be relied upon too heavily.
Dictionaries do not often take into account the context and, therefore, you
may not fully grasp the meaning the author intended by simply looking up
a word or phrase.

Fundamentally it is important to remain detached from, and be

objective towards, what you are reading, in order to see and understand
the logic within an argument. Objectivity differs from subjectivity which
means bringing your own emotions and opinions to what you read. Being
objective allows you to stand back and be emotionally detached from your
reading. This allows you to focus attention upon what you are reading and
not on your feelings about what you read.
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 It helps if you have a genuine interest in the subject that you are
reading about. If you find that you are reading something that is
designated as relevant then it is important to try to develop an interest so
that you may get out of it what is required. You may, in such
circumstances, find it useful to ask yourself questions as you read, such
as: “Why does the author find this theme interesting or important?”,
“How does what I’m reading relate to what I already know about the
topic?”

DEALING WITH PARAGRAPH

The Technical writer should be careful about the length of his

sentences. The amount of difficulty a reader experiences in reading a
given text is positively correlated to sentence length and number of
syllables per word. Since technical subject matter often requires the use
of a complex technical vocabulary and the expression of complex ideas,
the use of shorter words and sentences simple in structure will help a lot
in the readability of difficult material.

Paragraph Structure and Length

Typically, a paragraph begins with the topic sentence which states
the main idea to be developed. The other sentences of the paragraph
develop, support, and clarify this central idea. But this topic sentence may
appear in the middle, or it may appear last as a summary or
generalization based on material already presented. Sometime, it doesn’t
appear at all, in so many words, but is implied.
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 In technical writing, the topic sentence comes first in the paragraph,
or at the very latest just after whatever transitional sentences appear.
When the writer states his thesis or main idea at the start of the
paragraph, he uses the rest of the paragraph for proof, discussion, or
other kinds of amplification. Sometimes he does the opposite and gives
his details, facts and examples at the beginning and then concludes by
stating the main idea.

Two things govern paragraph length: unit of thought and eye relief
for the readers. The use of one or more very short paragraphs achieves an
especially forceful effect. All sentences in a paragraph must be about the
same topic, but paragraphs should not be too long. One or more breaks on
every page of a report is ideal in technical writing.

Paragraph Writing for Functional Purposes

Your proficiency in English is shown by the ability to use functional
English. Functional English is the English that people use in order to
communicate with a purpose. The functional purposes that language
service in connection with rhetorical modes are generally the following:

1. Narrative
a. to tell what happened or how an incident occurred
b. to show steps in a process or sequence in procedure
c. to give direction on how to reach a place or achieve an objective

In this type of functional English use the parts of speech that

abound are verbs and adverbs.

2. Descriptive
Date Developed: Document No. NTTA-TM1-07
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 a. to describe a person or persons
b. to describe an event or idea
c. to describe a place

In this type of function the part of speech abounds is the adjective.

Narration in Description of Process

One of the most common functions of narration (not in the sense of
story-telling but of relating sequence) is in description of process,
considering that process is a series of actions done in sequence.

The careful step-by-step exposition of a process necessitates the

use of narration in the sense of observing sequence of action or order of
occurrence. In this sense the development techniques used is
chronological.

Note the following illustration and be able to answer the questions

that follow:

Salt-Making in the Ilocos

Ilocano salt takes time and effort to produce. For the salt maker it
means leaving home and building a make-shift dwelling near the
Date Developed: Document No. NTTA-TM1-07
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seashore. It entails days of hard work under the heat of the sun and nights
of tending the fire.
A least two persons must work together in producing salt.

First they stake out a portion of the sandy shore for their use. This is
usually twenty to thirty square meter in size. The sand is then sprinkled
with sea water and allowed to dry. This process is done three times.

When the sand is caked it is scraped off and deposited into an

unglazed earthen jar called burnay which has a spout at the bottom.
Additional sea water is sprayed into the jar.

The resulting saline fluid is strained and collected. This fluid is then
brought to the hurno, a large oven-like cooking place made of clay. It is
cooked for hours, sometimes overnight, under very high temperature until
salt crystals form.

The crystals are then cooled off and allowed to dry in a large
bamboo basket.
Salt made this way is very fine and almost sugar like. It is not course
nor bitter in taste which may be the result is made simply from sea water
allowed to dry until the salt crystals remain.
Producing good fine salt than means sacrifice and hard work, but is well
worth the effort.

Resources:
www.scribd.com
Nebuchadnezzar Buggy A. Sayson
http://www.brighthubpm.com/methods-strategies/79297-comparing-
various-forms-of-communication/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication
Date Developed: Document No. NTTA-TM1-07
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Date Revised:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_communication
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_communication
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/improving-communication.html
https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/effective-reading.html

Date Developed: Document No. NTTA-TM1-07

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Date Revised:
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