Raheela Syeda

PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

The Role of Grammar

8.1 Introduction
Most people, including learners and teachers, believe the main job of a language teacher is to
teach grammar and correct mistakes. However, today, the role of grammar in the classroom is
not so clear. New methods like communicative language teaching, and research on how people
learn second languages, have changed ideas about grammar.
This chapter discusses important questions about grammar teaching, including:

 What is the "contrastive hypothesis" and what does it mean for grammar teaching?
 What were the "morpheme order studies" and what did they teach us?
 Why do some grammar points appear in a fixed order when learned?
 What is "grammatical consciousness-raising" and how is it different from traditional
grammar teaching?
 How does systemic-functional linguistics help grammar teaching?
 What are "pedagogical grammars" and how can teachers use them?
 What is the difference between inductive and deductive grammar teaching?

8.2 The Traditional Language Classroom

In the past, language classes mainly focused on teaching grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation step-by-step. Teachers showed new grammar rules and gave students practice
activities.

The contrastive hypothesis guided teaching. It said that a learner's first language affects how they
learn a second language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English might put adjectives
after nouns ("house big") because that's how it works in Spanish.
Mistakes like these were seen as "negative transfer." Sometimes, first language helped ("positive
transfer"). But later, research showed this hypothesis could not explain all the mistakes learners
made.

8.3 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Research and Its

Impact
In the 1970s, studies called the morpheme order studies looked at how people learn grammar in a
second language. They found that learners from different first languages often learned grammar
rules in the same order. This suggested that internal, natural learning processes were at work, not
just the influence of the first language.

Researchers like Krashen said:

 Language learning follows natural processes.

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PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

 Learners need real communication to learn better.

 Comprehending (understanding) meaning is key.
 Silent periods (no speaking at first) can help.
 Emotions and motivation affect learning.
 First language influence on grammar is small.

Because of these findings, many teachers started to focus less on grammar and more on
communication. However, morpheme studies were later criticized for their research methods and
assumptions.

Even so, later studies confirmed that certain grammar rules are learned in a natural sequence,
which teaching cannot easily change. This led to different opinions:
Some experts said grammar teaching should be minimized, while others said grammar should be
taught following the natural order.

Applying this research is not easy. Learners are often at different levels and progress at different
speeds. Also, some grammar is needed early to help communication even if learners cannot fully
produce it yet.

8.4 Grammatical Consciousness-Raising (CR)

Grammatical consciousness-raising (CR) means helping learners notice and understand grammar
through activities, rather than just giving rules. Grammatical consciousness-raising (CR) involves
engaging learners in tasks that prompt them to notice, analyze, and understand grammatical features
without being explicitly taught the rules upfront. It’s a key approach in communicative language teaching
and draws on theories like Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis.

Inductive learning?
It:

 Focuses on linking grammar forms to their functions in real communication.

 Uses real-life texts, not invented examples.
 Encourages learners to discover rules themselves (inductive learning).
 Accepts that grammar learning is an ongoing process, not immediate.
 Helps learners "notice the gap" between their language and native speaker language.

There are many ways to do CR activities, such as using maps, conversation skeletons, or
analyzing texts for grammar patterns.

8.5 Systemic Functional Linguistics and Pedagogical

Grammars
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) sees grammar as connected to the context and purpose of
communication.
Instead of teaching grammar rules separately, teachers using SFL:
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

 Start with whole texts and work down to grammar.

 Show how language changes depending on situation, audience, and purpose.

Teaching grammar in this way improves literacy, gives students a shared vocabulary to discuss
language, and strengthens writing skills.

No one denies the importance of grammar, but researchers debate the best way to teach it:
Should grammar rules be taught directly? Or should learners pick them up naturally through
communication?

Pedagogical grammars are grammars written for teachers and learners. They are simpler and
more practical than theoretical grammars.

Different authors suggest different ways to teach grammar:

 McKay (1987): Teaching grammar should help learners use the language correctly and
appropriately.
 Ur (1988): Grammar should be taught explicitly but through meaningful activities.
 Frank and Rinvolucri (1987): Grammar practice should be interactive, involving
learners emotionally and creatively.

8.6 Teaching Materials and Techniques

Modern grammar teaching often uses fun, game-like activities that combine practice and
meaning.
Activities may include:

 Detective games (guessing who "stole" an object using target grammar).

 Chain storytelling (adding sentences using past tense verbs).
 Role-plays and discussions.

There are two approaches to grammar learning:

 Deductive: The teacher explains rules first, then students practice.

 Inductive: Students discover rules themselves from examples.

Different books and teachers prefer different styles depending on students' needs and grammar
points.

8.7 Investigating Grammar Teaching and Learning

Teachers and researchers are encouraged to:

 Record grammar lessons and analyze them.

 Compare how different textbooks introduce grammar.
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

 Experiment with different methods (explicit teaching vs. learning through tasks).
 Study how students perform with or without grammar instruction.

8.8 Conclusion
Grammar remains important in language learning, but how it is taught has changed.
Modern approaches link grammar to real communication and context.
Grammar learning is seen as an organic, flexible process, not a strict step-by-step sequence.
More research is still needed to understand the best ways to balance grammar teaching and
communication in the classroom.
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Glossary
Term Explanation
The unconscious process of learning a language naturally
Acquisition
through exposure and use.
The process of retrieving information from memory,
Active recall
helping strengthen learning.
Real-life texts, audio, or videos not designed for teaching,
Authentic materials
used to expose learners to real language.
Bilingual Syntax Measure A tool used in morpheme order studies to elicit specific
(BSM) grammatical structures from learners.
Language comprehension that starts with understanding
Bottom-up processing
smaller language units like sounds and words.
A test where words are removed from a passage and the
Cloze test learner must fill them in, testing comprehension and
grammar.
The ability to use language correctly and appropriately to
Communicative competence
achieve communication goals.
Communicative Language An approach that emphasizes interaction and real
Teaching (CLT) communication over formal grammatical teaching.
Activities designed to make learners aware of language
Consciousness-raising (CR)
features without explicit teaching of rules.
The theory that errors in second language learning are
Contrastive hypothesis caused by differences between the first and second
languages.
Teaching where the teacher presents grammar rules first,
Deductive approach
and learners apply them later.
The study of errors made by learners to understand language
Error analysis
acquisition processes.
Knowledge of language rules that a learner can consciously
Explicit knowledge
explain and discuss.
The process where incorrect language use becomes a
Fossilization
permanent feature of a learner’s language.
Teaching that draws learners’ attention to the grammatical
Form-focused instruction
form of language.
Knowledge of the rules of grammar needed to form correct
Grammatical competence
sentences.
Grammatical consciousness- Activities that help learners notice and think about grammar
raising without direct teaching of rules.
Grammar-Translation A traditional language teaching method focusing on
Method grammar rules and translating sentences.
A method where learners discover grammar rules by
Inductive approach
observing language examples.
Input hypothesis Krashen's idea that language learners acquire language best
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
when exposed to language slightly beyond their current
level ("i+1").
Term Explanation
A learner’s evolving language system that combines
Interlanguage
elements of their native language and the target language.
Language awareness Learners' conscious understanding of how language works.
The influence of a learner's first language on their second
Language transfer
language performance.
Knowledge of vocabulary and the ability to use words
Lexical competence
appropriately.
Memory system where information like vocabulary and
Long-term memory
grammar is stored permanently.
Metalinguistic awareness The ability to think about and discuss language and its rules.
Research showing that language learners acquire certain
Morpheme order studies
grammatical structures in a predictable sequence.
The theory that learners acquire grammatical structures in a
Natural order hypothesis
natural, predictable sequence.
Errors in the second language caused by interference from
Negative transfer
the first language.
The process where learners consciously observe features of
Noticing
the language input.
A non-linear view of language acquisition where skills
Organic learning
develop in complex, natural ways.
The idea that language production (speaking/writing) helps
Output hypothesis
in learning a language.
Students working together to practice and learn language
Peer interaction
through communication.
When similarities between the first and second languages
Positive transfer
help the learning process.
A flexible syllabus focused on developing skills through
Process syllabus
tasks rather than pre-set content.
A syllabus organized around a list of structures or functions
Product syllabus
that learners must master.
Skills related to understanding language, such as listening
Receptive skills
and reading.
Temporary support given by a teacher or peer to help a
Scaffolding
learner achieve a task.
Second Language The process of learning a language after the first language is
Acquisition (SLA) already established.
Speech processing Limits on how much linguistic information learners can
constraints handle at one time, affecting language development.
Term Explanation
Structural syllabus A syllabus that organizes language teaching around
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PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
grammar structures.
Learning that happens naturally, without focused attention
Subconscious learning
on language rules.
Target language (TL) The language that a learner is trying to learn.
An approach where students learn language by completing
Task-based learning (TBL)
meaningful tasks.
Teaching grammar Helping learners find grammar rules by examining
inductively examples instead of giving rules directly.
Teaching grammar Explaining grammar rules first, then giving learners
deductively examples and practice.
Mistakes in a second language caused by applying first
Transfer errors
language rules incorrectly.
Zone of Proximal The difference between what a learner can do alone and
Development (ZPD) what they can do with help (Vygotsky’s theory).
The process where a learner notices feedback or correction
Uptake
and uses it to improve their language.
Interaction where speakers work together to understand
Negotiation of meaning
each other, adjusting language as needed.
Activities that focus on real-life communication and
Communicative tasks
meaning rather than just form.
A repetitive language exercise to practice pronunciation or
Drill
structure.
Fixed expressions or chunks of language learned as a whole
Formulaic language
(e.g., "How are you?").
A language error that has become a permanent part of a
Fossilized error
learner's speech.
Teacher or peer response pointing out an error to help a
Corrective feedback
learner correct it.
A natural order through which language learners acquire
Developmental sequence
grammatical forms.
A teaching technique where the teacher draws responses
Elicitation
from students instead of providing answers directly.
A specific piece of grammar, such as the past tense or
Grammatical item
articles.
Learning that happens without intentional studying, often
Incidental learning
while doing another activity.
Reading carefully to understand details and language
Intensive reading
structures.
Term Explanation
Reading a lot of material for general understanding and
Extensive reading
enjoyment.
Language input that is slightly above the current ability of
Comprehensible input
the learner but understandable with help.
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PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
The ability of students to take control of their own learning
Learner autonomy
process.
A method or technique a learner uses to acquire language
Learning strategy
more effectively.
The process of identifying and fixing mistakes in language
Error correction
learning.
A learner's emotional state that can block or support
Affective filter
language learning (Krashen’s theory).
Content-based instruction Teaching a second language through content subjects like
(CBI) history or science.
The ability to use language appropriately in different social
Pragmatic competence
situations.
The theory that language develops best through
Interaction hypothesis
conversational interaction.
Comments and suggestions given by classmates to help
Peer feedback
improve each other’s work.
Speaking or writing in the target language, helping reinforce
Output
learning.
Language input where understanding the message is more
Meaning-focused input
important than focusing on grammar or form.
Awareness and control of one’s own learning and thinking
Metacognition
processes.
Techniques used to make certain language features more
Input enhancement
noticeable to learners.
Aural comprehension Understanding spoken language.
The ability to produce and understand connected spoken or
Discourse competence
written language.
Conversations where speakers modify their speech to be
Negotiated interaction
understood better.
When a learner’s incorrect language use becomes fixed
Language fossilization
despite continued exposure to correct forms.
The language used by teachers when talking to students in
Teacher talk
class, often simplified for easier understanding.
Ongoing checks of student progress to guide future learning,
Formative assessment
not for final grading.
Term Explanation
A final evaluation of student learning at the end of a course
Summative assessment
or unit.
A phase where language learners prefer to listen and
Silent period
understand before starting to speak.
A method focusing on learning chunks and patterns of
Lexical approach
words rather than just grammar.
Input flood Providing a lot of examples of a specific language feature to
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
help learners notice it naturally.
A syllabus organized by communicative functions (like
Notional-functional syllabus
asking for help) rather than grammar points.
Language knowledge that is automatic and intuitive, not
Implicit knowledge
consciously thought about.
A grammar designed specifically for teaching and learning
Pedagogical grammar
purposes.
Language aptitude A learner’s natural ability to learn languages.
Language input that uses different forms like text, sound,
Multimodal input
and images together.
Self-monitoring A learner’s ability to notice and correct their own errors.
When students help each other by identifying and correcting
Peer correction
mistakes.
When speakers of a language gradually abandon it in favor
Language shift
of another language.
Language maintenance Efforts to keep a language alive and used by its speakers.
A view of grammar focused on how language structures are
Functional grammar
used to communicate meaning.
Repeating a task to improve fluency, accuracy, and
Task repetition
complexity in language use.
Giving students time to think and respond after asking a
Wait time
question.
Mixing two languages in communication, often common
Code-switching
among bilinguals.
Cooperative learning Students working together to achieve learning goals.
Mental techniques like summarizing or predicting that help
Cognitive strategies
learners understand and remember language.
Language production aimed at getting a message across
Communicative output
rather than focusing on correct form.
Term Explanation
A technique where a teacher repeats a student’s error
Recast
correctly without directly saying they made a mistake.
A mental framework that helps organize and interpret
Schema
information.
When incorrect language use becomes permanent despite
Error fossilization
further practice.
The ability to speak smoothly without unnecessary pauses
Oral fluency
or hesitations.
Cross-linguistic influence When one language affects learning or use of another.
Language attrition The gradual loss of a language over time due to non-use.
Using pictures, charts, or visuals to support language
Visual scaffolding
learning.
Incidental vocabulary Picking up new words naturally while focusing on other
Raheela Syeda
PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
learning activities.
Words that carry main meaning in a sentence (nouns, verbs,
Content words
adjectives, adverbs).
Words that have grammatical purposes (articles,
Function words
prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions).
Techniques related to emotions, like lowering anxiety or
Affective strategies
encouraging self-motivation in learning.
A type of feedback where the teacher subtly corrects a
Corrective recast
learner’s mistake without direct criticism.
Applying a language rule too broadly, leading to mistakes
Overgeneralization
(e.g., "comed" instead of "came").
The ability to hold and manipulate information in the mind
Working memory
for a short period, important for language processing.
Communicative competence A framework combining grammatical, sociolinguistic,
model discourse, and strategic competencies for language ability.
Paying attention to grammar during communication when
Focus on form (FonF)
needed, but not making it the main focus.
The overall ability to use a language effectively and
Language proficiency
appropriately.
Intensive listening Listening carefully to understand details and focus on form.
Listening to a lot of material for general understanding and
Extensive listening
enjoyment.
A situation where learners are placed into classes conducted
Language submersion
entirely in the second language without special support.
Term Explanation
The preferred ways in which individuals learn (e.g., visual,
Learning styles
auditory, kinesthetic).
The amount and quality of contact a learner has with the
Language exposure
target language.
Language that is adjusted (e.g., slower or clearer) to help
Simplified input
learners understand.
The process where learners' temporary language systems
Interlanguage fossilization
become fixed with errors.
Gradually reducing teacher support as learners gain
Scaffolding instruction
independence.
A language teaching method encouraging learner autonomy
Silent Way
and discovery, using minimal teacher talk.
Groups of words learned together as a single unit (e.g., “at
Language chunks
the end of the day”).
Teaching writing as a series of steps: planning, drafting,
Process writing
revising, and editing.
Krashen’s Monitor The idea that conscious learning acts only as a "monitor" or
Hypothesis editor of language output.
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PhD Scholar 2nd 29-04-2025

Term Explanation
Encouraging learners to produce more complex or accurate
Output push
language through tasks and interaction.
Planning a course by starting with the desired outcomes and
Backward design
then designing activities to reach them.
Wanting to learn a language to connect with the culture and
Integrative motivation
people who speak it.
Learning a language for practical reasons like getting a job
Instrumental motivation
or passing an exam.
Understanding meaning by using background knowledge
Top-down processing
and context clues first.
Focusing on sounds, words, and grammar first to understand
Bottom-up listening
spoken language.
Cross-cultural Communication between people from different cultural
communication backgrounds.
Evaluation based on real-world tasks like writing letters or
Authentic assessment
holding conversations.
Support given within the learner’s zone of proximal
ZPD scaffolding
development to stretch their ability.
Helping learners bring prior knowledge to new learning
Schema activation
experiences.
The balance between speaking smoothly (fluency) and
Fluency vs. Accuracy
speaking correctly (accuracy).
Self-efficacy in language A learner’s belief in their ability to succeed in using a new
learning language.
Continuous process of giving and receiving feedback to
Feedback loop
improve performance.
Immersion education Teaching all or part of the curriculum in a second language.
The belief that language is best learned through interaction
Interactionist perspective
and social communication.
Activities where understanding the message is more
Focus on meaning
important than grammar form.
Different ways teachers correct errors, such as recasts,
Corrective feedback types
prompts, and metalinguistic clues.
When learners take responsibility for setting their own goals
Self-directed learning
and managing their study.
The ability to use strategies to overcome language gaps
Strategic competence
during communication.
Multilingualism The ability to use more than two languages fluently.
Language maintenance Activities and techniques to keep a learned language active
strategies and strong over time.