Chapter-1

1. Sets and Set Inclusion

● Set: A collection of elements (e.g., {1, 2, 3} is a set).

● Universal Set (U): The fixed set within which elements are considered.
● Empty Set (∅): A set with no elements.
● Subset: A⊆BA \subseteq BA⊆B means every element of AAA is in BBB.
● Proper Subset: A⊂BA \subset BA⊂B means AAA is a subset of BBB but not equal
to BBB.
● Properties: Reflexivity (A⊆AA \subseteq AA⊆A), Antisymmetry (A⊆BA \subseteq
BA⊆B and B⊆A⇒A=BB \subseteq A \Rightarrow A = BB⊆A⇒A=B), Transitivity
(A⊆BA \subseteq BA⊆B and B⊆C⇒A⊆CB \subseteq C \Rightarrow A \subseteq
CB⊆C⇒A⊆C).

2. Algebra of Sets

● Union (A∪BA \cup BA∪B): Elements in AAA, BBB, or both.

● Intersection (A∩BA \cap BA∩B): Elements in both AAA and BBB.
● Complement (A′A'A′): Elements in UUU but not in AAA.
● De Morgan’s Laws:
o (A∪B)′=A′∩B′(A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'(A∪B)′=A′∩B′
o (A∩B)′=A′∪B′(A \cap B)' = A' \cup B'(A∩B)′=A′∪B′
● Difference (A−BA - BA−B): Elements in AAA but not in BBB.
● Symmetric Difference (AΔBA \Delta BAΔB): Elements in either AAA or BBB, but
not both.

3. Functions

● Function (f:X→Yf: X \to Yf:X→Y): Assigns each x∈Xx \in Xx∈X to one y∈Yy \in
Yy∈Y.
● Injective (One-to-One): f(x1)=f(x2)⇒x1=x2f(x_1) = f(x_2) \Rightarrow x_1 =
x_2f(x1)=f(x2)⇒x1=x2.
● Surjective (Onto): Every y∈Yy \in Yy∈Y has at least one x∈Xx \in Xx∈X such that
f(x)=yf(x) = yf(x)=y.
● Bijective (One-to-One Correspondence): Both injective and surjective.
● Composition: (g∘f)(x)=g(f(x))(g \circ f)(x) = g(f(x))(g∘f)(x)=g(f(x)).

4. Products of Sets

● Cartesian Product (X×YX \times YX×Y): Set of ordered pairs (x,y)(x, y)(x,y)
where x∈Xx \in Xx∈X, y∈Yy \in Yy∈Y.
● Relation: A subset of X×YX \times YX×Y.
5. Partitions & Equivalence Relations

● Partition: Divides a set XXX into disjoint non-empty subsets covering XXX.
● Equivalence Relation:
o Reflexive: xRxxRxxRx.
o Symmetric: xRy⇒yRxxRy \Rightarrow yRxxRy⇒yRx.
o Transitive: xRyxRyxRy and yRz⇒xRzyRz \Rightarrow xRzyRz⇒xRz.
● Equivalence Class ([x][x][x]): The set of elements related to xxx.

6. Countable Sets

● Countable: A set is countable if it can be matched with N\mathbb{N}N (natural

numbers).
● Examples: Integers Z\mathbb{Z}Z and rational numbers Q\mathbb{Q}Q are
countable.

7. Uncountable Sets

● Uncountable: Cannot be listed in a sequence like N\mathbb{N}N.

● Example: The real numbers R\mathbb{R}R and interval (0,1)(0,1)(0,1).
● Cantor’s Diagonalization: A method to prove uncountability.

8. Partially Ordered Sets (Posets) & Lattices

● Poset: A set with a partial order relation (≤\leq≤) satisfying:

o Reflexivity: a≤aa \leq aa≤a.
o Antisymmetry: a≤ba \leq ba≤b and b≤a⇒a=bb \leq a \Rightarrow a =
bb≤a⇒a=b.
o Transitivity: a≤ba \leq ba≤b and b≤c⇒a≤cb \leq c \Rightarrow a \leq
cb≤c⇒a≤c.
● Lattice: A poset where any two elements have:
o A least upper bound (join, ∨\vee∨).
o A greatest lower bound (meet, ∧\wedge∧).

Chapter-2
9. Definition and Examples (Page 51)

● A metric space (X,d)(X, d)(X,d) consists of a set XXX and a function d:X×X→Rd: X \times X \to
\mathbb{R}d:X×X→R, satisfying:
 1. Non-negativity & Identity: d(x,y)≥0d(x, y) \geq 0d(x,y)≥0 and d(x,y)=0 ⟺ x=yd(x, y)
= 0 \iff x = yd(x,y)=0⟺x=y.
2. Symmetry: d(x,y)=d(y,x)d(x, y) = d(y, x)d(x,y)=d(y,x).
3. Triangle Inequality: d(x,z)≤d(x,y)+d(y,z)d(x, z) \leq d(x, y) + d(y, z)d(x,z)≤d(x,y)+d(y,z).
● Examples:

o Discrete metric: d(x,y)=1d(x, y) = 1d(x,y)=1 if x≠yx \neq yx =y, otherwise 000.

o Usual metric on R\mathbb{R}R: d(x,y)=∣x−y∣d(x, y) = |x - y|d(x,y)=∣x−y∣.
o Metric on C\mathbb{C}C: d(z,w)=∣z−w∣d(z, w) = |z - w|d(z,w)=∣z−w∣.

10. Open Sets (Page 59)

● Open Ball: B(x0,r)={x∈X:d(x,x0)<r}B(x_0, r) = \{x \in X : d(x, x_0) < r\}B(x0,r)={x∈X:d(x,x0)<r}.

● A subset GGG is open if for every x∈Gx \in Gx∈G, there exists r>0r > 0r>0 such that
B(x,r)⊆GB(x, r) \subseteq GB(x,r)⊆G.
● Theorem: Every open ball in a metric space is an open set.

11. Closed Sets (Page 65)

● A set FFF is closed if its complement X∖FX \setminus FX∖F is open.

● Properties:
o XXX and ∅\emptyset∅ are closed.
o Intersection of any number of closed sets is closed.
o Union of finitely many closed sets is closed.
● Theorem: FFF is closed iff it contains all its limit points.

12. Convergence, Completeness, and Baire’s Theorem (Page 70)

● Convergence: xn→xx_n \to xxn→x if d(xn,x)→0d(x_n, x) \to 0d(xn,x)→0 as n→∞n \to

\inftyn→∞.
● Cauchy Sequence: ∀ϵ>0,∃n0\forall \epsilon > 0, \exists n_0∀ϵ>0,∃n0 such that
d(xm,xn)<ϵd(x_m, x_n) < \epsilond(xm,xn)<ϵ for all m,n≥n0m, n \geq n_0m,n≥n0.
● Complete Space: Every Cauchy sequence converges.
● Baire’s Theorem: In a complete metric space, the intersection of countably many dense
open sets is dense.

13. Continuous Mappings (Page 75)

● A function f:X→Yf: X \to Yf:X→Y is continuous at x0x_0x0 if:

o ∀ϵ>0,∃δ>0\forall \epsilon > 0, \exists \delta > 0∀ϵ>0,∃δ>0 such that
dX(x,x0)<δ⇒dY(f(x),f(x0))<ϵd_X(x, x_0) < \delta \Rightarrow d_Y(f(x), f(x_0)) <
\epsilondX(x,x0)<δ⇒dY(f(x),f(x0))<ϵ.
● Equivalent Conditions:
o f−1(G)f^{-1}(G)f−1(G) is open in XXX for every open GGG in YYY.
o f−1(F)f^{-1}(F)f−1(F) is closed in XXX for every closed FFF in YYY.
o If xn→x0x_n \to x_0xn→x0 in XXX, then f(xn)→f(x0)f(x_n) \to f(x_0)f(xn)→f(x0) in
YYY.

14. Spaces of Continuous Functions (Page 80)

 ● B(X,R)B(X, \mathbb{R})B(X,R): Set of all bounded real-valued functions on XXX.
● Uniform Metric: d(f,g)=sup⁡x∈X∣f(x)−g(x)∣d(f, g) = \sup_{x \in X} |f(x) - g(x)|d(f,g)=supx∈X
∣f(x)−g(x)∣.
● Uniform Convergence: fn→ff_n \to ffn→f if sup⁡x∈X∣fn(x)−f(x)∣→0\sup_{x \in X} |f_n(x) -
f(x)| \to 0supx∈X∣fn(x)−f(x)∣→0.
● Baire’s Theorem: If XXX is compact, then C(X)C(X)C(X) (continuous functions on XXX) is
complete.

15. Euclidean and Unitary Spaces (Page 85)

● Euclidean Space Rn\mathbb{R}^nRn: Set of all nnn-tuples of real numbers.

● Euclidean Metric: d(x,y)=∑(xi−yi)2d(x, y) = \sqrt{\sum (x_i - y_i)^2}d(x,y)=∑(xi−yi)2.
● Unitary Space Cn\mathbb{C}^nCn: Set of all nnn-tuples of complex numbers.
● Unitary Metric: d(z,w)=∑∣zi−wi∣2d(z, w) = \sqrt{\sum |z_i - w_i|^2}d(z,w)=∑∣zi−wi∣2.
● Both Rn\mathbb{R}^nRn and Cn\mathbb{C}^nCn are complete metric spaces.

Chapter-3
16. Definition and Examples (p. 92)

● A topology T\mathcal{T}T on a set XXX is a collection of subsets satisfying:

1. ∅,X∈T\emptyset, X \in \mathcal{T}∅,X∈T (contains empty set and whole set).
2. Arbitrary unions of sets in T\mathcal{T}T are in T\mathcal{T}T.
3. Finite intersections of sets in T\mathcal{T}T are in T\mathcal{T}T.
● The sets in T\mathcal{T}T are open sets in (X,T)(X, \mathcal{T})(X,T).
● Examples:

o Usual topology on R\mathbb{R}R (unions of open intervals).

o Discrete topology: All subsets are open.
o Indiscrete topology: Only ∅\emptyset∅ and XXX are open.
o Custom finite topology on X={a,b,c}X = \{a, b, c\}X={a,b,c}, e.g.,
T={∅,{a},{b,c},X}\mathcal{T} = \{\emptyset, \{a\}, \{b, c\}, X\}T={∅,{a},{b,c},X}.

17. Elementary Concepts (p. 95)

● Closed set: A subset FFF is closed if X∖FX \setminus FX∖F is open.

● Closure (Aˉ\bar{A}Aˉ): Smallest closed set containing AAA.
● Interior (A∘A^\circA∘): Largest open set inside AAA.
● Boundary (∂A\partial A∂A): Aˉ∖A∘\bar{A} \setminus A^\circAˉ∖A∘.
● Dense set: AAA is dense if Aˉ=X\bar{A} = XAˉ=X.

18. Open Bases and Open Subbases (p. 99)

● A base B\mathcal{B}B for a topology T\mathcal{T}T satisfies:

1. Every x∈Xx \in Xx∈X is in some B∈BB \in \mathcal{B}B∈B.
2. If x∈B1∩B2x \in B_1 \cap B_2x∈B1∩B2, there exists B∈BB \in \mathcal{B}B∈B such
that x∈B⊂B1∩B2x \in B \subset B_1 \cap B_2x∈B⊂B1∩B2.
● A subbase S\mathcal{S}S generates T\mathcal{T}T if finite intersections of sets in
S\mathcal{S}S form a base.
19. Weak Topologies (p. 104)

● Given a set XXX and mappings fi:X→Yif_i: X \to Y_ifi:X→Yi, the weak topology on XXX is the
coarsest topology making each fif_ifi continuous.
● An open subbase for the weak topology is {fi−1(Gi)}\{ f_i^{-1}(G_i) \}{fi−1(Gi)}, where
GiG_iGi is open in YiY_iYi.
● A function g:Z→Xg: Z \to Xg:Z→X is continuous if fi∘g:Z→Yif_i \circ g: Z \to Y_ifi∘g:Z→Yi is
continuous for all iii.

20. Function Algebras C(X,R)C(X, \mathbb{R})C(X,R) and C(X,C)C(X, \mathbb{C})C(X,C) (p. 106)

● C(X,R)C(X, \mathbb{R})C(X,R): Set of continuous real-valued functions on XXX.

● C(X,C)C(X, \mathbb{C})C(X,C): Set of continuous complex-valued functions on XXX.
● These sets form algebras under pointwise addition, multiplication, and scalar multiplication.
● If g(x)≠0g(x) \neq 0g(x) =0 for all xxx, 1/g1/g1/g is also continuous.