Chapter Two:Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
By:Molla Belete
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Gafat Institute of Technology
[email protected] November 30, 2024
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Outlines
1 Electromagnetic Wave Propagatione
What is Waves in General
2 Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics
Plane Waves in Lossless Dielectrics
Plane Waves in Free Space
Plane Waves in Good Conductors
3 Power and Poynting Vector, Poynting Theorem
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Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
The existence of EM waves, predicted by Maxwell’s equations, was
first investigated by Heinrich Hertz. After several calculations and
experiments Hertz succeeded in generating and detecting radio waves,
which are sometimes called Hertzian waves in his honor.
In general, waves are means of transporting energy or information.
Typical examples of EM waves include radio waves, TV signals, radar
beams, and light rays.
All forms of EM energy share three fundamental characteristics:
They all travel at high velocity;
In traveling, they assume the properties of waves;
And they radiate outward from a source, without benefit of any
discernible (visible) physical vehicles.
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In this section, the aim is to solve Maxwell’s equations and derive EM
wave motion in the following media:
1 Free space (σ = 0, ε = ε0 , µ = µ0 )
2 Lossless dielectrics (σ = 0, ε = εε0 , µ = µr µ0 , or σ ≪ ωε)
3 Lossy dielectrics (σ ̸= 0, ε = εr ε0 , µ = µµ0 )
4 Good conductors (σ = ∞, ε = ε0 , µ = µr µ0 , or σ ≫ ωε)
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave. Case 3, for lossy dielectrics,
is the most general case and will be considered first. Once this general
case is solved, we simply derive other cases (1,2, and 4) from it as special
cases by changing the values of α, β, and γ.
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What is Wave in General
A clear understanding of EM wave propagation depends on a grasp of
what waves are in general.
Maxwell’s equations, which relate the electric and magnetic fields to
each other in a time-varying situation, are
∇ · E = ρ/ε0 (1)
∇·B =0 (2)
∂B
∇×E =− (3)
∂t
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 (J + ε0 ) (4)
∂t
where ε, µ and σ are the permittivity, permeability and conductivity
respectively.
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The parameters ε and µ can be expressed as
ε = εr ε0 (5)
µ = µ 0 µr (6)
in which εr , is the relative permittivity, µr is the relative permeability, ε0 is
the permittivity of free space and µ0 is the permeability of free space.
The derivation of 3D wave equation is as follow
∂B
∇×E=− (7)
∂t
Arbitrarily take the curl of both sides of eq. (7)
∂B
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ × (8)
∂t
Note the following vector identity
∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ∇ · A − ∇2 A
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Pay attention to the left side of (8) and apply this identity
∂B
∇ ∇ · E − ∇2 E = −∇ ×
(9)
∂t
∂
∇ ∇ · E − ∇2 E = −
∇×B (10)
∂t
Cool, now take note of the Ampere-Maxwell equation below
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + ε0 (11)
∂t
Now apply eq. (11) to (10)
∂ ∂E
∇ ∇ · E − ∇2 E = −
µ 0 J + ε0 (12)
∂t ∂t
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Assume that in free space there is no current density, J and charge (i.e
equal to zero) and apply this to (12)
∂2E
∇ ∇ · E − ∇2 E = −µ0 ϵ0 2
(13)
∂t
Assume, also, that in eq. (1)
∇·E=0
meaning that in free space the divergence of the electric field has to
necessarily be zero. Apply this assumption to (13) as well. Well look at
that! We have the wave equation!
∂2E
∇2 E = µ0 ϵ0 (14)
∂t 2
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We KNOW!
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
2
∇ = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
2
∂2 ∂2 ∂2E
∂
+ + E = µ ϵ
0 0 (15)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂t 2
This is a 3D-wave eq.
What is c?
1
= µ0 ϵ0
c2
so s
1
c=
µ0 ϵ0
which is the propagation speed of light waves, confirmed by experiment.
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Example: The electric field in free space is given by
E = 50 cos(108 t + βx)ay V /m
1 Find the direction of wave propagation.
2 Calculate β and the time it takes to travel a distance of λ/2.
3 Sketch the wave at t = 0, T /4, and T /2
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Wave Propagation in Lossy Dielectrics
A lossy dielectric is a medium in which an EM wave loses power as it
propagates due to poor conduction.
In other words, a lossy dielectric is partially conducting medium
(imperfect dielectric or imperfect conductor) with σ ̸= 0, as distinct
from a lossless dielectric (perfect or good dielectric) in which σ = 0.
Consider a linear, isotropic, homogeneous, lossy dielectric medium
that is charge free, lossy dielectric medium (ρν = 0). Assuming and
suppressing the time factor e jωt ,Maxwell’s equations become:
∇·E=0 (16)
∇·H=0 (17)
∇ × Es = −jωµHs (18)
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∇ × H = (σ + jωε)Es (19)
Taking the curl of eq. (18)
∇ × ∇ × Es = −jωµ(∇ × Hs ) (20)
Applying the vector identity
∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A (21)
to the left-hand side of eq. ((20)) and call eqs. ((16)) and ((19)), we
obtain
∇(∇ · Es ) − ∇2 Es = −jωµ(σ + jωε)Es (22)
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where
∇ · Es = 0, (23)
hence
∇ 2 Es − γ 2 Es = 0 (24)
where
γ 2 = jωµ(σ + jωε) (25)
and γ is called the propagation constant (in per meter) of the medium. By
a similar procedure, it can be shown that for the H field,
∇2 Hs − γ 2 Hs = 0 (26)
Equations (24) and (26) are known as homogeneous vector Helmholtz ’s
equations or simply vector wave equations.
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In Cartesian coordinates, eq. (24), for example, is equivalent to three
scalar wave equations, one for each component of E along ax , ay , and az .
Since γ in eqs. (24) to (26) is a complex quantity, we may let
γ = α + jβ (27)
We obtain α and β from eqs. (25) and (27) by noting that
γ 2 = β 2 − α2 = ω 2 µε (28)
and p
| γ 2 |= β 2 + α2 = ωµ σ 2 + ω 2 ε2 (29)
From eqs. (28) and (29), we obtain
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v " #
u r
u µε h σ i2
α = ωt 1+ −1 (30)
2 ωε
v " #
u r
u µε h σ i2
β=ω t 1+ +1 (31)
2 ωε
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Plane Waves in Lossless Dielectrics
In a lossless dielectric, σ = 0, ε = ε0 εr , µ = µ0 µr ,
ω ω 1
υ= = √ =√
β ω µε µε
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Plane Waves in Free Space
In this case, σ = 0, ε = ε0 , µ = µ0
√ ω
α = 0 β = ω µ0ε0 =
c
1 2π
υ=√ = c, λ =
µ 0 ε0 β
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Plane Waves in Good Conductors
σ
A perfect, or good conductor, is one in which σ ≫ ωε, that ωε → ∞, that
is, σ ≃ ∞, ε = ε0 , µ = µ0 µr
Hence, eqs. (30) and (31) become
r
ωµσ p σ
α=β= = πf µσ, as ≫1 (32)
2 ωε
wave velocity
s s
ω ω 2 2ω
υ=c = = q =ω = (33)
β ωµσ ωµσ µσ
2
wave length
2π
λ=
β
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1
δ= (34)
α
The skin depth is a measure of the depth to which an EM wave can
penetrate the medium.
Equation(34) is generally valid for any material medium. For good
conductors, eqs. (32) and (34) gives
1
δ=√ (35)
πf µσ
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Power and Poynting Vector, Poynting Theorem
Energy can be transported from a transmitter to a receiver by means
of EM waves.
The rate of such energy transportation can be obtained from
Maxwell’s equations:
∂H
∇ × E = −µ (36)
∂t
∂E
∇ × H = σE + ε (37)
∂t
Dotting both sides of equation (37) with E gives
∂E
E · (∇ × H) = σE 2 + E · ε (38)
εt
Use vector identity of vector A and B
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B)
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1 ∂E 2
∇ · (H × E ) = E · (∇ × H) − H · (∇ × E ) = σE 2 + ε (39)
2 ∂t
∂E 2
∇ · (H × E ) + H · (∇ × E ) = E · (∇ × H) = σE 2 + ε (40)
∂t
Dotting both sides of equation (36) with H
∂H 1 ∂H 2
H · (∇ × E ) = H · (−µ )=− (41)
∂t 2 ∂t
Substitute equation (41) in to equation (40)
1 ∂H 2 ∂E 2
− + ∇ · (H × E ) = σE 2 + ε (42)
2 ∂t ∂t
1 ∂H 2 ∂E 2
∇ · (H × E ) = + σE 2 + ε
2 ∂t ∂t
∂ 1 2 1
− ∇ · (E × H) = [ εE + µH 2 ] + σE 2
∂t 2 2
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∂ 1 2 1
[ εE + µH 2 ] − σE 2
∇ · (E × H) = −
∂t 2 2
Then taking the volume integral of both sides
Z Z Z
∂ 1 2 1
∇ · (E × H)dv = − εE + µH 2 dv − σE 2 dv
v ∂t v 2 2 v
Applying the divergence theorem to the left-hand side give
I I I
∂ 1 2 1
(E × H) · ds = − εE + µH 2 dv − σE 2 dv
s ∂t v 2 2 v
Z Z Z
∂ 1 2 1
(E × H) · ds = − εE + µH dv − σE 2 dv (43)
2
s ∂t v 2 2 v
equation (43) is refered to as Poynting theorem.
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In equation (43) various termed are involved.
The quantity E × H on the left-hand side of equation (43) is known
as the Poynting vector P in watts per square meter (W/m2); that is,
p =E ×H (44)
The first term on the right-hand side of equation (43) is interpreted
as the rate of decrease in energy stored in the electric and magnetic
fields.
The second term is the power dissipated due to the fact that the
medium is conducting (σ ̸= 0).
Poynting’s theorem states that the net power flowing out of a given
volume ν equal to the time rate of decrease in the energy stored
within ν minus the conduction losses.
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Exercise:1
1 In a nonmagnetic medium
E = 4 sin(2π × 107 t − 0.8x)az , V /m
Find
a εr , η
b The time-average power carried by the wave
c The total power crossing 100cm2 of plane
2x + y = 5
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. . . Continue
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