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5.1 The nuclear model of the atom : 5.1.1 The atom

Core Supplement
1 Describe the structure of an atom in terms of a positively 3 Describe how the scattering of alpha (α) particles by a sheet
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons in orbit of thin metal supports the nuclear model of the atom, by
around the nucleus providing evidence for: (a) a very small nucleus surrounded by
mostly empty space (b) a nucleus containing most of the mass
of the atom (c) a nucleus that is positively charged
2 Know how atoms may form positive ions by losing electrons
or form negative ions by gaining electrons
5.1.2 The nucleus 6 Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
Core 1 Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of as the splitting or joining of nuclei, to include the nuclide
protons and neutrons equation and qualitative description of mass and energy
changes without values

2 State the relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons 7 Know the relationship between the proton number and the
as +1, 0 and –1 respectively relative charge on a nucleus
3 Define the terms proton number (atomic number) Z and 8 Know the relationship between the nucleon number and the
nucleon number (mass number) A and be able to calculate the relative mass of a nucleus
number of neutrons in a nucleus
4 Use the nuclide notation
5 Explain what is meant by an isotope and state that an
element may have more than one isotope

Atomic Structure
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter. They are incredibly small, with a radius of about 1 × 10-10 m
An atom consists of: A positively charged nucleus at the center (made of Positive protons and Neutral neutrons)
Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus (radius of a nucleus  10-14m, much smaller
than the atom)
Helium Atom Helium nucleus

particle charge mass Relative mass Position in atom

Electron -1 e = 9.11 x 10-31 kg 1/1836 Orbiting nucleus

Proton +1 e = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg 1 In nucleus
neutron 0 1.6749 x 10-27 kg 1 In nucleus

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Describing the Nucleus

Define the terms proton number (atomic number) Z and nucleon number (mass number) A and be able to calculate
the number of neutrons in a nucleus
1. atomic number : is the number of protons inside the nucleus (symbol: Z)
• Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number Therefore, the number of protons determines
which element an atom is (different elements have different number of protons)
 For example:
• Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton (charge = +e)
• Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons (charge = +92e)

2. Neutron number: is the number of neutrons inside the nucleus (symbol: N)

3. Nucleon Number (mass number): is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (symbol A)

The mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons A=Z+N • The term nucleon means a
particle in the nucleus (either
• Nuclide Notation: Notation that describes the constituents of nuclei a proton or a neutron)

• The term nuclide is used to

refer to a nucleus with a
specific combination of
protons and neutrons

Ex: nuclide notation of a Lithium atom

Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the
number of neutrons can be different.
• Isotopes: are elements that have the same number of protons but number of
neutrons or different mass (nucleon) number.

Q: Write down the nuclide notation for each of the hydrogen isotopes shown above

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Atoms & Ions

 A neutral atom has same number of electrons as number of protons

(total charge is zero)

 An ion is an electrically charged atom and is formed when atoms loss or gain of electrons (ionization)

Neutral atom Negative ions Positive ions

• Positive ions are formed when atoms lose electrons.

There will be more protons than electrons

• Negative ions are formed when atoms gain electrons.

There will be more electrons than protons

Practicing multiple choices

1) An atom of the element lithium has a nucleon number of 7 and a proton number of 3. Which diagram
represents a neutral atom of lithium?

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2) A nucleus of helium has the symbol

Which diagram represents an atom of ?

3) The diagram represents a carbon atom.

What is the nucleon number (mass number) for this atom?

A. 6

B. 8

C. 14

D. 20

4) Which diagram could represent the structure of a neutral atom?

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5) How many neutrons are in a nucleus of the nuclide

6) Below are the symbols for five different nuclides.

nuclide 1 nuclide 2 nuclide 3 nuclide 4 nuclide 5

Which two nuclides are isotopes of the same element?
A. nuclide 1 and nuclide 2
B. nuclide 2 and nuclide 3
C. nuclide 2 and nuclide 5
D. nuclide 4 and nuclide 5
7) The charge on a proton is e. What is the charge on an electron and what is the charge on a neutron?

8) A particular nuclide has the symbol What is true for atoms of this nuclide?
A. There are 17 nucleons in the nucleus.
B. There are 17 protons in the nucleus.
C. There are 37 electrons in the nucleus.
D. There are 37 neutrons in the nucleus.

9) is a nuclide of carbon. What is the composition of one nucleus of this nuclide?

10) Which statement is correct for the nucleus of any atom?

A. The nucleus contains electrons, neutrons and protons.

B. The nucleus contains the same number of protons as neutrons.
C. The nucleus has a total charge of zero.
D. The nucleus is very small compared with the size of the atom.

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11) A certain element has several isotopes. Which statement about these isotopes is correct?

A. They must have different numbers of electrons orbiting their nuclei.

B. They must have the same number of neutrons in their nuclei.
C. They must have the same number of nucleons in their nuclei.
D. They must have the same number of protons in their nuclei.
12) A neutral atom consists of electrons orbiting a nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
Which statement about the atom must be correct?

CBCBBADBCDDBDA
A. The number of electrons is equal to the number of neutrons.
B. The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
C. The number of neutrons is equal to the number of protons.
D. The number of electrons, neutrons and protons are all different.
13) A nucleus X has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. Which notation is correct for this nucleus?

14) A nuclide is represented by the notation shown. How many nucleons are there in one atom of this
nuclide?

 Rutherford's nuclear model: In 1909 a group of scientists were investigating the Plum Pudding
model:
Physicist, Ernest Rutherford was instructing two of his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden to carry out the
experiment. This involved the scattering of alpha (α, 𝟒𝟐𝐇𝐞) particles by a sheet of thin metal (thin gold foil)

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Observations and conclusions:

 Observation and conclusion:
Most alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil undeflected.
 Conclusion:
the atom is mostly empty space (most of alpha particles do not pass close to the nucleus).

 Observation and conclusion :

Some alpha particles are deflected by small angles.
 Conclusion:
Nucleus is positively charged (positively alpha particles are repelled)

 Observation and conclusion :

Few proportion of alpha particles were deflected by more than 90°.
 Conclusion:
Nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom (mass of alpha particles is much smaller than the mass
of the gold atom)

1) A very important experiment increased scientists’ understanding of the structure of matter.

In the experiment, particles scattered as they passed through a thin metal foil.
Which particles were used, and to which conclusion did the experiment lead?

2) The scattering of α-particles by a thin metal foil supports the nuclear model of an atom. Why are α-
particles used rather than neutrons?

A. because they always travel more slowly

B. because they are heavier
C. because they are larger in diameter
D. because they have a positive charge

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3) Which diagram represents an experiment that provided evidence for the nuclear atom?

In Geiger and Marsden’s α-particle scattering experiment, α-particles were directed at a very thin gold
foil.
Fig. 11.1 shows five of the nuclei of the atoms in one layer in the gold foil. Also shown are the paths of
three α-particles directed at the foil.

0625/04/SP/16

(a) On Fig.11.1, complete the paths of the three α-particles. [3]

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(b) State the result of the experiment that shows that an atom consists of a very tiny, charged core,
containing almost all the mass of the atom. [1]

(ii) State the sign of the charge on this core. ...................................................................... [1]

(iii) State what occupies the space between these charged cores. [1]

(c) The nuclide notation for an α-particle is 4 α. 2

State the number of protons and neutrons in an α-particle

protons =
neutrons =

[Total: 7]

Nuclear radiations and radioactivity

5.2.2 The three types of nuclear emission
• Describe the emission of radiation from a nucleus as spontaneous and random in direction
• Identify alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) emissions from the nucleus by recalling: (a) their nature (b) their
relative ionising effects (c) their relative penetrating abilities (β+ are not included, β-particles will be taken to
refer to β– )

• Describe the deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation in electric fields and magnetic fields (S)
• Explain their relative ionizing effects with reference to: (a) kinetic energy (b) electric charge (S)

5.2.3 Radioactive decay

• Know that radioactive decay is a change in an unstable nucleus that can result in the emission of α-particles or
β-particles and/or γ-radiation and know that these changes are spontaneous and random

• State that during α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different element Supplement

• Know that isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to an excess of neutrons in the nucleus and/or the
nucleus being too heavy (S)
• Describe the effect of α-decay, β-decay and γ-emissions on the nucleus, including an increase in stability and a
reduction in the number of excess neutrons; the following change in the nucleus occurs during β-emission(S)

neutron → proton + electron

• Use decay equations, using nuclide notation, to show the emission of α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation(S)

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 Radioactive Decay
• Some atomic nuclei are unstable. When the atoms of an element have extra neutrons or protons it creates
extra energy in the nucleus and causes the atom to become unbalanced or unstable.
• Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too many or too few
neutrons
 Ex: Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable It has two extra neutrons compared to stable
carbon-12

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas

carbon-14 is unstable. This is
because carbon-14 has two extra
neutrons

• The unstable nucleus of radioactive atoms emit radiation (nuclear radiation). When this occurs, the radiation
moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it. This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
and nucleus becomes more stable (increasing the stability of the nucleus).

• This process is called radioactive decay (disintegration).

• It continues emitting radiations until eventually the forces in the unstable nucleus are balanced

• Types of Radioactive Decay

There are different types of radiation (ionizing radiation) that can be emitted: (they can damage living
cells. The energy carried by the radiation can kill cels and cause mutation and cancer

• Alpha (α) particles

• Beta (β-) particles
• Gamma (γ) radiation
 The emission of the nuclear radiation is:
• Spontaneous
• Random in direction
 Random: It cannot be predicted when or which a
particular unstable nucleus will decay
• There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
• It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
• It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will
decay.

 Spontaneous: The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions such as

pressure and temperature

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Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

Types of radiation alpha beta gamma

Nature

……..  .…… 
Symbol in nuclear …….. …….
equations ……..
…….. 𝐻𝑒 …….. …….. γ
…….. …….. 𝑒
Electric charge

…….. 𝑛
• Neutron is a subatomic particle that has zero charge and its symbol in nuclear equations is ……..
…….. 𝑃
• Proton is a subatomic particle that has a charge of +1e and its symbol in nuclear equations is ……..

• Ionization and penetration power.

The different types of radiation are often compared in terms of their penetrating power, their ionising power and
how far they can travel in the air.

Type of Alpha Beta Gamma

radiation
ionization Strong Weak compared to alpha particles Very weak
(moderately ionising)
Penetration Not very penetrating: Penetrating: Very penetrating
power Can be stopped by a thick sheet of Penetrate paper, but stopped by Few centimeters of
paper or by skin few millimeters of aluminum or Lead or few meters
other metal of concrete
Range in air Few centimeters Serval meters ≈ or ˂ 1 kilometer
Less than 10 cm centimeter (cm) (km)

Magnetic and Deflected (charge +2e) Deflected (charge -e) Not deflected
electric fields In magnetic field: In magnetic field: Because it has no
deflection (large radius: small curvature (small radius: large curvature charge
compared to beta particles) compared to alpha particles)

Nuclear radiations are sometimes called ionizing radiation if they have enough energy to knock off electrons
from the atoms

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Deflecting electric in and magnetic fields

 Effects of electric field: • Effects of magnetic field:

• Alpha particles are attracted to the negative terminal Direction of deflection of the charged particles can
because they are positively charged. be determined using FLHR. Uncharged particles are
• Beta particles are deflected in the opposite direction undeflected.
as they are negatively charged. • Deflection is greater for slower and smaller mass
• (deflection is more because they have smaller mass) particles
• Gamma rays are undeflected as they don’t have a
charge

Why alpha particles are the most ionizing but the least penetrating ?
• greater charge
• Large mass
• Move slower
• Greater kinetic energy
• Alpha particles are more ionizing than beta particles because they have greater
charge (exert greater force on the electrons).

• Also alpha particles are heaver than beta particles, so they are slower so they spend
more time close to any electron they pass (They can cause multiple ionisations
within a very small distance)
• the grater the number of ionization per second, the faster they lose energy and the
less penetrating power.

• Gamma radiations (zero mass and zero charge), weakly ionizing so they are highly
penetrating radiations

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Q: Of the three types of radiation, , , and γ which:

a) causes the most ionization

b) causes the least ionization

c) is the most penetrating

d) is the most easily absorbed

e) has a positive charge

f) has a negative charge

g) is most easily deflected in a magnetic field

h) cannot be deflected in an electric field?

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 Decay Equations: Alpha decay (emission) equation

When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, these changes happen:
• the mass number decreases by 4
• the atomic number decreases by 2
• the nuclear charge decreases by 2
• During decay equations the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be the same as the
sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction

Example: uranium-238 decays into Thorium-234 by emitting an alpha particle. This is the balanced equation for the reaction:

• U-238 loses two protons and two neutrons to become Th-234:

• the mass number of the nucleus decreases by 4, from 238 to 234

• the atomic number of the nucleus decreases by 2, from 92 to 90

• The unstable uranium nucleus emits an alpha particle, causing its mass and charge to decrease. Because protons
number is changed, Uranium changes into a new element (Thorium)
Example: Radon-219 decays into polonium-215 by emitting an alpha particle. This is the balanced equation for the reaction:

• the mass number of the nucleus decreases by 4, from 219 to 215

• the atomic number of the nucleus decreases by 2, from 86 to 84
• the numbers at the top and bottom give the same totals on both sides

 beta minus ( −𝟏𝟎𝛃 or 𝟎

−𝟏𝐞) decay (emission) equation

• During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron (neutron → proton + electron)

When a nucleus emits a beta particle, these changes happen:

• the mass number stays the same
• the atomic number increases by 1
• the nuclear charge increases by 1

• Isotopes of an element may be radioactive due to an excess number of neutrons in the nucleus.
• Emiting β-particles increase the stability by reducing the number of excess neutrons

neutron → proton + electron

Example: Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 by emitting a beta particle. This is the balanced equation for the
reaction:
Notice that:
• the mass number of the nucleus stays the same, 14
• the atomic number of the nucleus increases by 1, from 6 to 7
• the numbers at the top and bottom give the same totals on both sides, as (7 - 1) = 6
• Nitrogen nuclei have 7 protons, so their nuclear charge is +7. They have one more
proton than carbon nuclei, which have 6 protons and so a nuclear charge of +6.

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 Gamma decay (γ-rays)

• Gamma rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. There is no change in mass or charge for this
type of decay.

• Gamma radiation transfers energy from the nucleus, so the symbol may appear in some balanced
equations.

• Practicing multiple choices

1) A radioactive nucleus emits either an α-particle or a β-particle. What are the products of these two
types of radioactive emission?

2) Which row describes the nature of α-particles and of γ-rays?

3) The diagram shows the paths of three different types of radiation, X, Y and Z.
Which row in the table correctly identifies X, Y and Z?

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4) Which row gives the properties of the radiation from radioactive materials?

5) Which statement about α-radiation is correct?

A. It is a stream of fast-moving electrons.
B. It is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
C. It is more highly ionizing than γ-radiation.
D. It is more penetrating than β-radiation.
6) α, β and γ-radiations are emitted by radioactive substances. Which statement is correct?
A. α-radiation consists of charged particles and is the most highly ionizing radiation.
B. β-radiation consists of charged particles and is the most penetrating radiation.
C. β-radiation consists of uncharged particles and is the least highly ionizing radiation.
D. γ-radiation consists of uncharged particles and is the least penetrating radiation.

7) Which row shows the nature and the penetrating ability of β-particles?

8) Which row shows the relative ionizing effects and penetrating abilities of α-particles and β-particles?

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9) A radioactive nucleus emits β-particle. What happens to the proton number (atomic number) of the
nucleus?

A. It stays the same.

B. It increases by 1.
C. It decreases by 2.
D. It decreases by 4.

10)The arrangement shown is used to check whether the flour inside a cardboard packet is above a
certain level. If it is above this level, the flour absorbs the radiation from the source so that it doesn’t
reach the detector.
Which type of radiation is suitable to use?
A. α-particles only
B. β-particles only
C. either α-particles or β-particles
D. γ-rays only

11) A radioactive decay can be represented as shown. The equation is incomplete. In this decay, the
nucleus changes by

A. absorbing a neutron.
B. absorbing a proton.
C. emitting an α-particle.
D. emitting a β-particle.

12) A nucleus of a radioactive substance undergoes an α-decay followed by a β-decay. What are

the nucleon (mass) number and proton (atomic) number of the nuclide formed after both decays have
happened?

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13) A beam of γ-rays passes between two charged metal plates as shown in the diagram.
How do the γ-rays pass between the two charged plates?
A. The rays are deflected in a direction perpendicular to the page
B. The rays are deflected towards the negative plate.
C. The rays are deflected towards the positive plate.
D. The rays will continue in the same direction.

14) Radioactive carbon-14 decays into nitrogen by emitting a β-particle. The equation below represents
the decay. What are the values of P and Q?

15) A radioactive nucleus contains 128 nucleons. It emits a β-particle. How many nucleons are now in
the nucleus?
A) 124 B) 127 C) 128 C) 129

16)

AABCCAABBBDCDBCD

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Question:1

Question:2
(a) State, in terms of the particles in each nucleus, how the nuclei of two isotopes of the same element are
different.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................[1]

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nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

 Nuclear Fission: The splitting of a large, unstable nucleus into two smaller (less mass) nuclei

• During fission, when a slow neutron collides with an unstable nucleus, the nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei
(called daughter nuclei) as well as two or three neutrons. Gamma rays are also emitted

• The mass of the products (daughter nuclei and neutrons) is less than the mass of the original nucleus. This is
because the remaining mass has been converted into energy which is released during the fission process. Energy
transferred is from nuclear potential energy to kinetic energy

 An example of a nuclide equation for fission is:

• The above equation represents a fission reaction in which a Uranium nucleus is hit with a slow neutron and
splits into two smaller nuclei – a Krypton nucleus and a Barium nucleus, releasing three neutrons in the process

• Check if the sum of top (nucleon) numbers on the left-hand side equals the sum of top number on the
right-hand side:

• Check if this is true also for the lower (proton) numbers:

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 Nuclear Fusion: When two light nuclei join to form a heavier nucleus
• The mass of the product (fused nucleus) is less than the mass of the two original nuclei
• The difference in mass has been converted into energy which is released when the nuclei fuse

• An example of a nuclide equation for fusion is:

Comparison of Nuclear Fusion and Fission Table

fusion fission
event Two light nuclei joining together A heavy nuclei splits into smaller
forming a heavier element elements releasing neutrons

Occurs in Stars and the sun (hydrogen atoms fuse Nuclear reactors on Earth
to make helium atom)
produces Lots of energy (more energy than Lots of energy and neutrons
fission)
requires Very high temperature and pressure Normal temperature and pressure

Nuclear wastes fission produces very radioactive long does not create any long-lived
lasting waste radioactive nuclear waste
Mass of products is less than original, Mass of products is less than original,
difference in mass is converted into difference in mass is converted into
energy energy

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5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity

1 Know what is meant by background radiation
2 Know the sources that make a significant contribution to background radiation including:
(a) radon gas (in the air) (b) rocks and buildings (c) food and drink (d) cosmic rays
3 Know that ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter
4 Use count rate measured in counts/s or counts/minute
5 Use measurements of background radiation to determine a corrected count rate (suplement)

5.2.4 Half-life
• Define the half-life of a particular isotope as the time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to
decay; recall and use this definition in simple calculations, which might involve information in tables or decay
curves (calculations will not include background radiation)

• Calculate half-life from data or decay curves from which background radiation has not been subtracted

• Explain how the type of radiation emitted and the half-life of an isotope determine which isotope is used for
applications including: (a) household fire (smoke) alarms (b) irradiating food to kill bacteria (c) sterilisation of
equipment using gamma rays (d) measuring and controlling thicknesses of materials with the choice of
radiations used linked to penetration and absorption (e) diagnosis and treatment of cancer using gamma rays
5.2.5 Safety precautions
1 State the effects of ionising nuclear radiations on living things, including cell death, mutations and cancer
2 Describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe way Supplement
3 Explain safety precautions for all ionising radiation in terms of reducing exposure time, increasing distance
between source and living tissue and using shielding to absorb radiation

• Half-Life: time taken for half of the unstable nuclei to decay

Number of half lives (n) 0

Total time
Remaing percent 100%
Remaining nuclei 40 million
Decaying nuclei 0

• Helpful equation for half life: t ½ =Total time/number of halflives

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• Decay curve: half-life can be determined from an count rate–time graph:

Experimentally, the time taken for the count rate (rate of decay) of a radoactine emission to fall by half is the half-
life of the isotope.

Count rate (counts/day)

Activity

40

Worked examples:
1. If the half life of a radioactive gas is 2 minutes, then after 8 minutes the activity will have fallen to a
fraction of its initial value. This fraction is:

A) 1/4 B) 1/8 C) 1/6 D) 1/16 E) 1/32

2. In an experiment to find the half-life of radioactive iodine, the count rate falls from 200 counts per
second to 25 counts per second in 75 minutes. What is its half life?

3. carbon-14 has a half life of 5700 years. A 10 g sample of wood cut recently from living tree has an
activity of 160 counts per minute. A piece of charcoal taken from a prehistoric composite also
weighs 10g but has an activity of 40 counts per minute. Calculate the age of the charcoal

D / 25 minutes / 11400 years

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background radiation
• There is always radiation present all around us. This is known as background radiation.

• background radiations: are small amount of radiations around us all the time because radioactive materials in
the environment

• Whenever an experiment involving radiation is carried

out, some of the radiation that is detected will be
background radiation and this must be taken into account

• Background radiation comes from

• (a) radon gas (in the air) [biggest source of background radiation]
• (b) rocks (granite) and buildings
• (c) food and drink
• (d) cosmic rays from space
• (e) medical (ex: X-rays)

COSMIC RAYS: high energy particles that flow into our solar
system from outer space : charged particles, mostly protons or
other small atomic nuclei, moving at speeds close to the speed of
light

Corrected Count Rate: ionsing nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to counter (GM-Tube)
How do we measure background radiation?
• Remove all known radioactive sources and set the the counter to zero
• Start the counter and timer (stopwatch)
• Stop the counter after 10 minutes and record the number of counts The background count rate is
• Divide number of counts by 10 to obtain the number of counts/minute not constant but keeps varying.
• Repeat the measurements and determine the average This is because radioactive
How do we measure ionising radiation from a radioactive source? decay is random process.

• Place the radioactive souce close to the detector

• Start the counter and timer (stopwatch)
• Stop the counter after 10 minutes and record the number of counts
• Divide number of counts by 10 to obtain the number of counts/minute
• Subtract the background count rate to get the corrected count rate
Ex (a) : a teacher uses a detecter to measure the background radiation. He takes reading every 10 min. He records
the following observations: 198, 180, 175 and 200. determine the average background radiation (19 counts/min)

(b) He placed a radioactive source and measured the count rate for 30 seconds. It was 1243. calculate the count rate
for the radioactive source in counts per minute (ans: 2486 count/min)

(c)Determine the corrected count rate

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 Uses of Radiation
 Radiation is used in a number of different ways:
• Smoke detectors (alarms)
• Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of cancer
• Sterilizing food (irradiating food)
• Sterilizing medical equipment
• Determining the age of ancient artefacts
• Checking the thickness of materials
• tracers

 The properties (ionization and penetration power) of the different types of

radiation in addition to the half life determine which one is used in a
particular application

1) Alpha Radiation in Smoke Detectors

• Smoke detectors have source of alpha radiation
close to 2 electrodes
• The radiation ionizes the air and a current flows
between the electrodes
• If there’s a fire, the smoke absorbs the radiation,
making the current stop flowing
• The alarm then sounds

• Q: The smoke alarm uses alpha particles NOT beta or gamma radiation. Explain why.

• Why a radioactive isotope with large half-life (greater than 20 years) is used for smoke detectors ?

the activity (count rate) remains almost constant each day. Otherwise, the current will drop and the
alarm will be triggered. Also, small quantity can last a long time
• Why its safe to use alpha particles and not beta or gamma radiations?

Alpha particles range in air is of few centimeter, and also they are weakly penetrating and cant
penetrate the skin layers so it is safer

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3) Beta particles: thickness control (Beta-particles source)

Some of the radiation is absorbed by the Aluminium foil and some radiation passes through to the detector. The
amount of radiation (count rate) reaching at the detector depends on the thickness the foil.

Why beta paricles, NOT alpha particles or gamma radiations ?

Why the source of beta pariclesshould have a long halflife?

(greater than 20 years)

3) Blood and fluid tracers

• A tracers are radioactive materials that are added to liquids to show if they are flowing correctly.
However, they are used mainly in medicine to monitor blood flow and for detecting underground
pipes leakage.
• Using a detector (G-M tube), The count rate will be found to increase where the pipe is leaking as
a larger amount of liquid containing the radioactive source will collect there.

• The radioactive source would be

gamma emitter because it can
penetrate through the soil (and metal
pipe) and be detected at the surface.

• The gamma emitter would have a short

half-life to minimize the possible
danger to environment.

 Alpha particles are easily absorbed by

a few centimeters of air whereas beta
particles may be absorbed by a few
millimeters of aluminium.

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2) Tracers to find out if kidney is blocked or not

The patient drinks water containing a tiny amount of a radioactive substance and then a detector is
placed against each kidney.
The radioactive substance flows in and out of a normal kidney, so detector reading goes up and then
down.
For blocked kidney, the reading goes up and stays up and this is because the radioactive substance
goes into the kidney but doesn’t flow out.

 Half life should be short so that it does not remain for long time in the body.
• The radioactive source emits gamma radiation so it can be detected from outside the body

because it is highly ionizing and cant penetrate the body

because gamma rays are highly penetrating

6) Cancer treatment
Externally: gamma radiation can be beamed at the cancer cells to kill them.
The source should have a long half-life:
- To maintain the same dose of the radioactivity delivered to the tumor
- Small quantity can last for long time

Internally: alpha source with a short half-life is can be injected directly into the tumor to kill the cancer
cells.
• Why alpha not beta or gamma ?
Alpha particles are weakly penetrating particles so it stays within the tumor and does not harm the
healthy cells outside the tumor.
• Why short half-life (max. of 8 days)?
so that the radioactivity does not remain in the body for long time minimizing the risk caused by
the radiation.

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5) Sterilizing medical equipment

Medical equipment are put into a bag and beamed by a high intensity gamma rays.
High intensity: to kill as much as possible bacteria on the instruments

Why gamma, not alpha or beta ?

Alpha particles are weakly penetrating and cant pass through the bag. Beta particles have a moderate
penetrating power, it can penetrate the bag but not the instruments.
Gamma rays can penetrate both.

 social, economic or environmental issues involved in the storage of radioactive materials with very
long half-lives (very short halflife means high count rate)

• Economic: high cost of storage and need to store for a long time

• Social: causes cancer and genetic mutations. Also radiation causes sickness in people and animals

• Environmental: leakage into water supplies or pollution of atmosphere

 Safety precautions
 Nuclear radiations can damage or destroy living cells, and stops organs in the body from working
properly it also causes cells to grow abnormally and cause cancer

 Inside the body: alpha particles are the most harmful because they are the most highly ionizing)

 Outside the body: beta and gamma rays radiations are the most harmful because they can
penetrate to internal organs but alpha particles are stopped by the skin
 Safety precautions
• Given that radioactive materials are hazardous, certain precautions can be taken to reduce the risk of using
radioactive sources. These include:
• using shielding to absorb radiation. (radiation can not penetrate the shield)

• Use gloves and tongs and wear protective cloth .(prevent contamination)

• keep as far away from the source as possible.(lowering amount of energy absorbed by nearby person)

• keep exposure time to a minimum (lowering amount of energy absorbed)

• All radioactive materials should be kept in a sealed lead box (this prevents nuclear radiation from
escaping into air and prevent exposure to nuclear radiation)

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Practicing multiple choices:

1) A reading is taken every 10 minutes of the number of emissions
per second from a radioactive source. The table shows the readings.
What is the half-life of the source?

a) 10 min
b) 20 min
c) 40 min
d) 60 min

2) The graph shows how the decay rate

of a radioactive source changes with
time.

3) Radioactive materials should be handled carefully.

Which safety precaution does not reduce the risk to people using a radioactive material?

A. keeping the material a long distance from people

B. keeping the material at a low temperature
C. using lead screening between the material and people
D. using the material for only a short time

4) A scientist carries out an experiment using a sealed source which emits β-particles. The range of the
β-particles in the air is about 30 cm. Which precaution is the most effective to protect the scientist
from the radiation?

A. handling the source with long tongs

B. keeping the temperature of the source low
C. opening all windows in the laboratory
D. washing his hands before leaving the laboratory

5) A sample of a radioactive isotope has an initial rate of emission of 128 counts per minute and a half-
life of 4 days. How long will it take for the rate of emission to fall to 32 counts per minute?

A) 2 days B) 4 days C) 8 days D) 12 days

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6) A powder contains 400 mg of a radioactive isotope that emits α-particles.

The half-life of the isotope is 5 days. What mass of this isotope remains after 10 days?

A) 0 mg B) 40 mg C) 100 mg D) 200 mg

7) In a laboratory, a detector of ionising radiation records an

average background count rate of 8 counts per second. What is
the count rate due to radiation from the radioactive source?
A radioactive source is now placed close to the
detector. The count rate on the detector rises to
200 counts per second.
What is the count rate due to radiation from
the radioactive source?

8) A radioactive source produces a count rate on a detector of 1600 counts / s. After 32 hours the count
rate has fallen to 100 counts / s. Both count rates have been corrected for background radiation. What is
the half-life of the source?

A) 2.0 hours B) 6.4 hours C) 8.0 hours D) 16 hours

9) A radioactive isotope is placed near a detector. The readings on the detector are corrected for
background radiation and recorded every hour. The table shows the corrected readings.

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10)A student investigates how the radiation from a radioactive source changes with time. The table
shows the results from the detector used by the student.
The experiment is repeated by many other students, who also measure the count rate every two
minutes. The half-life of the source is known to be exactly 2.0 minutes.
Why is the measured count rate always greater than half the previous value?

a) Radioactive emissions occur randomly with time.

b) The detector used is very close to the source.
c) There is background radiation present.
d) The radioactive source is decaying.

11) A radioactive substance has a half-life of 2 weeks. At the beginning of an investigation, a sample of
the substance emits 3000 β-particles per minute. How many β-particles will it emit per minute after 6
weeks?

A) 0 B) 375 C) 500 D) 1500

12) The diagram shows a radioactive source, a thick aluminium sheet and a radiation detector.

The radiation detector shows a reading greater than the background reading.
Which type of radiation is being emitted by the source and detected by the detector?

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13) The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 minutes. A sample of the radioactive substance
contains 2000 nuclei.
How many radioactive nuclei were in the sample half an hour earlier?

14) A radiation detector is placed close to a source of β-particles.

Aluminium sheets of increasing thickness are placed between the source and the detector.
Eventually a sheet which is 2.0 cm thick is used.
The reading on the detector decreases, but does
not fall to zero.
Why does the reading not fall to zero?

a) Some of the β-particles go round the edges

of the sheet.
b) The detector is too close to the source.
c) There is always some background radiation.
d) The sheet can never be thick enough to
absorb all the β-particles.

15) Why are some radioactive sources stored in boxes made from lead?
A) Lead absorbs emissions from the radioactive sources.
B) Lead decreases the half-life of radioactive sources.
C) Lead increases the half-life of radioactive sources.
D) Lead repels emissions from the radioactive sources.
16) The reading on a detector placed near a radioactive material is 536 counts per second. The background count
rate is 44 counts per second. The half-life of the radioactive material is 34 hours. What is the reading on the
detector after 68 hours?

A) 44 counts per second

B) 123 counts per second
C) 134 counts per second
D) 167 counts per second
17) A laboratory worker measures the count rate from a radioactive source. He records his results in a table.
BCBACCBCCCBCDCADB

The average background radiation in the laboratory is 8 counts per second.

What is the half-life of the source?

A) 1.5 minutes
B) 2.0 minutes
C) 3.0 minutes
D) 4.0 minutes

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1.2 – 1.8 DAYS

(4)

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Q: A detector of radioactivity in a laboratory indicates an average of 16 counts /min when no radioactive samples
are present. A radioactive sample of half-life 1.5 days is placed close to the detector, which indicates a count rate of
208 counts /min. Calculate the count rate that is indicated 6 days later (ans: 28 count/min)

Q: In an experiment to find the range of α-particles in air, the apparatus in Fig. 11.1 was used. The results of this
experiment are shown below.

(i) State what causes the count rate 9 cm from the source.
(ii) Estimate the count rate that is due to the source at a distance of 2 cm.
(iii) Suggest a value for the maximum distance that α-particles can travel from the source.
(iv) Justify your answer to (iii)

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