UNIT II SIMPLE BENDING

2.1. Introduction

The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries transverse loading; that is, the
applied forces are perpendicular to the bar. In a beam, the internal force system
consists of a shear force and a bending moment acting on the cross section of the bar.
As we have seen in previous chapter, axial and torsional loads often result in internal
forces that are constant in the bar, or over portions of the bar. The study of beams,
however, is complicated by the fact that the shear force and the bending moment usually
vary continuously along the length of the beam. The internal forces give rise to two kinds
of stresses on a transverse section of a beam: (1) normal stress that is caused by the
bending moment and (2) shear stress due to the shear force.

2.2. Supports and loads

Beams are classified according to their supports. A simply supported beam, shown in Fig.
2.1(a), has a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other end. The pin support
prevents displacement of the end of the beam, but not its rotation. The term roller support
refers to a pin connection that is free to move parallel to the axis of the beam; hence, this
type of support suppresses only the transverse displacement. A cantilever beam is built
into a rigid support at one end, with the other end being free, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). The
built-in support prevents displacements as well as rotations of the end of the beam. An
overhanging beam, illustrated in Fig. 2.1(c), is supported by a pin and a roller support, with
one or both ends of the beam extending beyond the supports. The three types of beams
are statically determinate because the support reactions can be found from the equilibrium
equations.

Fig. 2.1 Statically determinate beams.

A concentrated load, such as P in Fig. 2.1(a), is an approximation of a force that

acts over a very small area. In contrast, a distributed load is applied over a finite
area. If the distributed load acts on a very narrow area, the load may be
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approximated by a line load. The intensity 𝒘 of this loading is expressed as force
per unit length (N/m, etc.). The load distribution may be uniform, as shown in Fig.
2.1(b), or it may vary with distance along the beam, as in Fig. 2.1(c). The weight of
the beam is an example of distributed loading, but its magnitude is usually small
compared to the loads applied to the beam.

2.3. Shear-Moment Equations and Shear-Moment Diagrams

The determination of the internal force system acting at a given section of a beam
is straightforward: We draw a free-body diagram that exposes these forces and
then compute the forces using equilibrium equations. However, the goal of beam
analysis is more involved—we want to determine the shear force 𝑽 and the bending
moment 𝑴 at every cross section of the beam. To accomplish this task, we must
derive the expressions for 𝑽 and 𝑴 in terms of the distance 𝒙 measured along the
beam. By plotting these expressions to scale, we obtain the shear force and
bending moment diagrams for the beam. The shear force and bending moment
diagrams are convenient visual references to the internal forces in a beam; in
particular, they identify the maximum values of 𝑽 and 𝑴.

➢ Sign conventions

For consistency, it is necessary to adopt sign conventions for applied loading,

shear forces, and bending moments. We will use the conventions shown in Fig. 2.2,
which assume the following to be positive:

➢ External forces that are directed downward; external couples that are
directed clockwise.
➢ Shear forces that tend to rotate a beam element clockwise.
➢ Bending moments that tend to bend a beam element concave upward (the
beam ‘‘smiles’’).

The main disadvantage of the above conventions is that they rely on such
adjectives as ‘‘downward,’’ ‘‘clockwise,’’ and so on. To eliminate this obstacle, a
convention based upon a Cartesian coordinate system is sometimes used.

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 FIG. 2.2 Sign conventions for external loads, shear force, and bending moment.

Sample Problem 1: The simply supported beam in Fig. (a) carries two
concentrated loads. (1) Derive the expressions for the shear force and the
bending moment for each segment of the beam. (2) Draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams. Neglect the weight of the beam. Note that the support
reactions at A and D have been computed and are shown in Fig. (a)

Sample Problem 2: The overhanging beam ABC in Fig.(a) carries a concentrated

load and a uniformly distributed load. (1) Derive the shear force and bending
moment equations; and (2) draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Neglect the weight of the beam.

2.4. Stresses in beams

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Here we introduce the third fundamental loading: bending. When deriving the
relationships between the bending moment and the stresses it causes, we find it
again necessary to make certain simplifying assumptions. Although these
assumptions may appear to be overly restrictive, the resulting equations have
served well in the design of straight, elastic beams. Furthermore, these equations
can be extended to the more complicated bending problems.

We use the following steps in the analysis of bending:

• Make simplifying assumptions about the deformation based upon

experimental evidence.
• Determine the strains that are geometrically compatible with the assumed
deformations.
• Use Hooke’s law to express the equations of compatibility in terms of
stresses.
• Derive the equations of equilibrium. (These equations provide the
relationships between the stresses and the applied loads).

2.4.1. Bending stress

a. Simplifying assumptions

The stresses caused by the bending moment are known as bending stresses, or
flexure stresses. The relationship between these stresses and the bending
moment is called the flexure formula. In deriving the flexure formula, we make
the following assumptions:

• The beam has an axial plane of symmetry, which we take to be the 𝒙𝒚 -

plane (see Fig. 2.3).
• The applied loads (such as F1, F2, and F3 in Fig. 2.3) lie in the plane of
symmetry and are perpendicular to the axis of the beam (the 𝒙-axis).
• The axis of the beam bends but does not stretch (the axis lies somewhere
in the plane of symmetry; its location will be determined later).
• Plane sections of the beam remain plane (do not warp) and perpendicular to
the deformed axis of the beam.
• Changes in the cross-sectional dimensions of the beam are negligible.

Because the shear stresses caused by the vertical shear force will distort(warp)
an originally plane section, we are limiting our discussion here to the deformations
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caused by the bending moment alone. However, it can be shown that the
deformations due to the vertical shear force are negligible in slender beams (the
length of the beam is much greater than the crosssectional dimensions) compared
to the deformations caused by bending.

FIG. 2.3 Symmetrical beam with loads lying in the plane of symmetry

The above assumptions lead us to the following conclusion: Each cross section of
the beam rotates as a rigid entity about a line called the neutral axis of the cross
section. The neutral axis passes through the axis of the beam and is perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry, as shown in Fig. 2.3. The 𝒙𝒛 −plane that contains the
neutral axes of all the cross sections is known as the neutral surface of the beam.

b. Compatibility

Figure 2.4 shows a segment of the beam bounded by two cross sections that are
separated by the infinitesimal distance 𝒅𝒙. Due to the bending moment 𝑀 caused
by the applied loading, the cross sections rotate relative to each other by the
amount 𝒅𝜽. Note that the bending moment is assumed to be positive according to
the sign conventions established in Fig. 2.2. Consistent with the assumptions made
about deformation, the cross sections do not distort in any manner.

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 FIG. 2.4 Deformation of an infinitesimal beam segment.

Because the cross sections are assumed to remain perpendicular to the axis of
the beam, the neutral surface becomes curved upon deformation, as indicated in
Fig. 2.4. The radius of curvature of the deformed surface is denoted by 𝝆. Note
that the distance between the cross sections, measured along the neutral surface,
remains unchanged at 𝒅𝒙 (it is assumed that the axis of the beam does not change
length). Therefore, the longitudinal fibers lying on the neutral surface are
undeformed, whereas the fibers above the surface are compressed and the fibers
below are stretched.

Consider now the deformation of the longitudinal fiber 𝒂𝒃 that lies a distance 𝑦
above the neutral surface, as shown in Fig. 2.4. In the deformed state, the fiber
forms the arc 𝒂’𝒃’ of radius −𝒚 , subtended by the angle 𝒅𝜽. Therefore, its
deformed length is

𝒂’𝒃’ = (𝝆 − 𝒚)𝒅𝜽

The original length of this fiber is 𝒂𝒃 = 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝆𝒅𝜽. The normal strain of the fiber
is found by dividing the change in length by the original length, yielding

Assuming that the stress is less than the proportional limit of the material, we
can obtain the normal stress in fiber 𝒂𝒃 from Hooke’s law:

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 (2.1)

This equation shows that the normal stress of a longitudinal fiber is proportional
to the distance 𝑦 of the fiber from the neutral surface. The negative sign
indicates that positive bending moment causes compressive stress when 𝒚 is
positive (fibers above the neutral surface) and tensile stress when 𝒚 is negative
(fibers below the neutral surface), as expected.

c. Equilibrium

To complete the derivation of the flexure formula, we must locate the neutral
axis of the cross section and derive the relationship between 𝝆 and 𝑴. Both tasks
can be accomplished by applying the equilibrium conditions.

Figure 2.5 shows a typical cross section of a beam. The normal force acting on the
infinitesimal area 𝒅𝑨 of the cross section is 𝒅𝑷 = 𝝈𝒅𝑨. Substituting 𝝈 = −(𝑬⁄𝝆)𝒚,
we obtain

(a)

FIG. 2.5 Calculating the resultant of the normal stress acting on the cross section. Resultant
is a couple equal to the internal bending moment M.

Where 𝑦 is the distance of 𝑑𝐴 from the neutral axis (𝑁𝐴). Equilibrium requires
that the resultant of the normal stress distribution over the cross section must

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be equal to the bending moment 𝑀 acting about the neutral axis (𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔). In
other words,
.
− ∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝑃 = 𝑀

where the integral is taken over the entire cross-sectional area A (the minus sign
in the expression is needed because the moment of 𝑑𝑃 and positive 𝑀 have
opposite sense). Moreover, the resultant axial force and the resultant bending
. .
moment about the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 must be zero; that is, ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑃 = 0 and ∫𝐴 𝑧𝑑𝑃 = 0.

➢ Resultant Axial Force Must Vanish. The condition for zero axial force is

Because 𝑬⁄𝝆 ≠ 𝟎, this equation can be satisfied only if

(b)

The integral in Eq. (b) is the first moment of the cross-sectional area about the
neutral axis. It can be zero only if the neutral axis passes through the centroid C
of the cross-sectional area. Hence, the condition of zero axial force locates the
neutral axis of the cross section.

➢ Resultant Moment About y-Axis Must Vanish. This condition is

(c)

.
The integral ∫𝐴 𝑧𝑦𝑑𝐴 is the product of inertia of the cross-sectional area.
According to our assumptions, the y-axis is an axis of symmetry for the cross
section, in which case this integral is zero and Eq. (c) is automatically satisfied.

➢ Resultant Moment About the Neutral Axis Must Equal 𝑀. Equating the
resultant moment about the z-axis to 𝑀 gives us

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 .
Recognizing that ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional
area about the neutral axis (the z-axis), we obtain the moment-curvature
relationship

(2.2a)

A convenient form of this equation is

(2.2b)

d. Flexure formula; section modulus

Substituting the expression for 1⁄ρ from Eq. (2.2b) into Eq. (2.1), we get the
flexure formula:

(2.3)

Note that a positive bending moment 𝑀 causes negative (compressive) stress

above the neutral axis and positive (tensile) stress below the neutral axis.

The maximum value of bending stress without regard to its sign is given by

(2.4a)

where |𝑀|𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the largest bending moment in the beam regardless of sign, and 𝑐
is the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost point of the cross section,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.5. Equation (2.4a) is frequently written in the form

(2.4b)

where 𝑆 = 𝐼 ⁄𝑐 is called the section modulus of the beam. The dimension of 𝑆 is [𝐿3 ]
so that its units are 𝑚𝑚3 , and so on. The formulas for the section modulus of
common cross sections are given in Fig. 2.6. The section modulus of standard
structural shapes is listed in various handbooks.

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 FIG. 2.6 Section modulus of simple cross-sectional shapes.

Sample Problem

The simply supported beam in Fig. (a) has a rectangular cross section 120 mm wide
and 200 mm high.

(1) Compute the maximum bending stress in the beam.

(2) Sketch the bending stress distribution over the cross section on which the
maximum bending stress occurs.

(3) Compute the bending stress at a point on section B that is 25 mm below the
top of the beam

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