05-BMG-PP1 Physical Principles of Geosciences I
05-BMG-PP1-1 Physics of the Solid Earth
01-00-04-PhyNMG-V/-Ü Physics for Natural Science I
Prof. Marta Perez Gussinye
[email protected] GEO R 4310
Schedule
Date Class
19/10/23 Introduction in the Physics of Solid Earth
26/10/23 -
02/11/23 Introduction to plate tectonics
Seismology I: Strength, Stress, strain, Elastic behaviour, Hooke’s law, elasticity moduli,
09/11/23
stress-strain curves, yield strength
Seismology II: Seismic waves: wavelengths, periods and frequencies, types of seismic
16/11/23
waves: body and surface waves, seismic velocities, Earth’s structure
Seismology III: Huygens and Snell principles, reflection, refraction, conversion,
23/11/23
absorption, divergence, travel time curves: 2 layers and multiple layers case
Seimology IV: Phases of a seismogram, Raypaths in Earth, shadow zones, Earth´s
30/11/23
structure from travel time paths
07/12/23 Seimology V: recording of seismic waves, principles of the seismometer
14/12/23 Seismology VI: First motion, hypocenter location, seismological grids
21/12/23 Seismology VII: seismic tomography; Seismology VIII: Prediction and geohazards
11/01/24 Deformation mechanisms I: Rheology, elasticity, plasticity, viscosity
18/01/24 Deformation mechanisms II: Rheology, mantle convection
25/01/23 SUMMARY
01/02/24 EXAM
Recap
• Seismic waves propagate elastically through Earth.
• Seismic velocities increase with depth, and decrease with
temperature and porosity.
• We can use seismic velocities to help distinguish rock type and
image the Earth´s structure.
• By looking at the seismic time arrivals, different layers with different
seismic wave speeds have been identified.
• Earth’s reference models are built with these seismic speeds and
using these reference models, density and temperature variations of
deeper layers of Earth are understood.
Seismic Waves
• An earthquake generates seismic waves that
• (1) penetrate the Earth as body waves (P & S) or
• (2) travel as surface waves (Love and Rayleigh).
• Each wave has a characteristic speed and style of motion.
https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/1component_seismogram_building_responds_to_p_s_surface_waves
Seismic wave propagation
In this lecture:
Understand how seismic waves propagate
through the Earth’s interior.
Understand what are distance-time plots
and how they can be used to calculate
velocities of different layers from seismic
records.
Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves are generated by a disturbance (example:
earthquake, explosion) resulting in local and temporal deflections of
solid material particles from their rest position at the immediate
location of disturbance.
• Due to the elastic properties of the material, the disturbance is
propagated forward.
• Waves travel in wave fronts (i.e., all particles on the wave front
oscillate in phase) perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Propagation of Seismic Waves in Media
• The Huygens principle can be used to describe the propagation of seismic, elastic waves
in a homogeneous and isotropic medium.
• Every point of a wave front is the starting point of a new elementary wave.
• The new wave front can be imagined as the superposition of all elementary wave fronts.
Direction of propagation
Propagation of Seismic Waves in Media
• The Huygens principle can be used to explain and mathematically
describe the phenomena that can be observed when a wave front hits
inhomogeneities/interfaces.
• An inhomogeneity or an interface is characterized by an abrupt change in
the physical properties, i.e. among other things the seismic velocity (𝑣p,s)
or the density (𝜌).
• The product of seismic velocity and density of a material is also called
impedance (z), i.e. an interface is characterized by an impedance contrast.
𝑧 =𝑣×𝜌
Propagation of Seismic Waves in Media
• If a wave hits an interface, the wave front is curved. Since the wave beam
is always perpendicular to the wave front, the wave beam belonging to the
wave front is refracted.
• The interface, i.e. the discontinuity, is itself the starting point of a new
elementary wave.
• When elastic waves hit an interface, the following physical phenomena
occur:
• the wave is transmitted or refracted through the interface,
• the wave is reflected,
• the wave is converted (p→ s, s→p),
• SV-wave - A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation occur in a vertical plane.
• SH-wave - A shear wave that is polarized so that its particle motion and direction of propagation are contained in a horizontal plane.
Propagation of Seismic Waves in Media
Incident
Reflected
Interface
t0 t1 t2
Refracted
t0 < t1 < t2
Paths of the Reflected Waves
Paths of the Reflected Waves
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐷 Over ∆t wave travels distance AD
Over ∆t wave travels distance BC 𝑣1 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Since BC=AD, AB is the same for both triangles, which means triangles ABC and ABD are the same.
Since triangles are the same, angle of incidence and reflection are the same.
i.e., Angle of incidence i = Angle of Reflection e
Paths of the Reflected and Refracted Waves
Homogenous isotropic media
Reflected P-wave
Incident P-wave
v1
Media 1
Discontinuity/Inhomogeneity/Interface
v2
Refracted P-wave
Media
M 2
v1≠v2
Law of Refraction law (using Fermat’s Principle)
Fermat's principle describes the path of a wave through a homogeneous, isotropic medium.
In contrast to Huygens, the wave is the beam instead of a wavefront.
The basic assumption is that the wave beam is always the shortest route.
Homogeneous isotropic media 𝑠 𝑠
Normal to the 𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
1 2
plane
𝑎2 +𝑥 2 (𝑑−𝑥)2 +𝑏2
𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = +
𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑡= 𝑓 𝑥
Interface 𝑑𝑡 2𝑥 2(𝑑 − 𝑥) To find the minimum of t
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2𝑣1 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 2𝑣2 (𝑑 − 𝑥)2 +𝑥 2 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2𝑥 2(𝑑 − 𝑥)
=0= −
𝑑𝑥 2𝑣1 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 2𝑣2 (𝑑 − 𝑥)2 +𝑥 2
𝑥 𝑥
0= −
𝑣1 𝑠1 𝑣1 𝑠1
t = travel time from Q to B
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑒
t1 = travel time over S1 with speed v1 0= −
t2 = travel time over S2 with speed v2 𝑣1 𝑣2
Law of Refraction
Snell’s law
v1
sin 𝑖 𝑣1
=
sin 𝑒 𝑣2
v2
The angles of incidence and emergence
of each wave at the interface are related
to their respective seismic velocities.
Law of Refraction
Snell’s law
v1
sin 𝑖 𝑣1
=
sin 𝑒 𝑣2
v2
The angles of incidence and emergence
of each wave at the interface are related
to their respective seismic velocities.
Law of Refraction – Critical Reflection
Critical distance
Subcritical reflection Supercritical reflection
sin 𝑖𝑐 𝑣1
= sin 𝑖𝑐 =
sin 90 𝑣2
Interface
Critically reflected wave is
head wave
Angle ic divides a subcritical area and a supercritical area, in which there is only reflection.
These supercritical reflections are also called wide angle reflections.
The critical angle of incidence ic provides an exit angle e = 90 °.
A guided wave forms (head wave, Mintrop wave), which moves at the interface with the speed v2 of the layer below.
The prerequisite for the formation of a head wave is that v2> v1.
Law of Refraction – Critical Reflection
Angle ic divides a subcritical area and a supercritical area, in which there is only reflection.
These supercritical reflections are also called wide angle reflections.
The critical angle of incidence ic provides an exit angle e = 90 °.
A guided wave forms (head wave or Mintrop wave), which moves at the interface with the speed v2 of the layer below.
The prerequisite for the formation of a head wave is that v2> v1.
Propagation of Seismic Waves
Snell’s Law of Refraction
• When a seismic wave hits an interface, which is characterized by an abrupt
change in the physical properties, i.e. a clear impedance contrast, the following
physical phenomena occur:
• The wave is reflected (reflection; i = e)
• The wave is transmitted through the boundary surface (transmission or refraction) with the
special case of the exit angle e = 90 ° in which a head wave (Mintrop wave) is formed.
• the wave can also be converted (conversion).
• Snell‘s law of refraction describes the reflection and refraction behavior of seismic
waves at an interface. The angles of reflection and refraction can be calculated
with the help of this law from the seismic velocities of the material at the interface.
• Media is considered layered and homogeneous. Speeds and densities vary only
with depth.
Conversion of Seismic Wave
• In addition to the reflected and
Normal to the
refracted P wave, a reflected SV
plane
wave and a refracted SV wave are
also generated.
• An incident SH wave generates
two types of waves: a reflected SH
wave and a refracted SH wave.
Interface
• Conversion means that the energy
of the incident wave is divided into
four wave types in the most
general case. The energy
distribution depends on the angle
of incidence and the impedance
contrast and is determined by the
Zoeppritz equation described.
Paths of the Reflected and Refracted Waves
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑝,1 𝛼1
• Reflected P-wave = =
sin 𝑒𝑟,𝑝 𝑣𝑝,1 𝛼1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑝,1 𝛼1
• Reflected S-wave = =
sin 𝑒𝑟,𝑠 𝑣𝑠,1 𝛽1
Boundary surface 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑝,1 𝛼1
• Refracted P-wave = =
sin 𝑒𝑝 𝑣𝑝,2 𝛼2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑝,1 𝛼1
• Refracted S-wave = =
sin 𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑠,2 𝛽2
Zoeppritz Equation
• In the case of a vertically incident P wave, the proportion of the respective wave types is
calculated from the impedance contrast (Z):
A0 = amplitude of the incident wave
A1 = amplitude of the reflected wave
A2 = amplitude of the refracted wave
r1 = density of the first layer
r2 = density of the second layer
v1 = P-wave velocity of the first layer
v2 = P-wave velocity of the second layer
• The reflection coefficient R indicates the amplitudes of the reflected wave.
• R is positive when the seismic velocity increases at a boundary layer.
• R is negative when the speed is decreasing.
• The transmission coefficient T indicates the amplitudes of the refracted wave.
Distribution of the Energy
Energy Loss - Absorption of Seismic Waves
• Part of the energy of a seismic wave is converted into heat by the frictional losses of the
particles, i.e. this energy is 'lost' to the wave.
• Energy of a seismic wave decreases with increasing distance from the source.
• The absorption can be described by:
with
• A(r) = the amplitude at the distance r
• A0 = the amplitude at the source
• q = the absorption coefficient of the medium
• f = the frequency of the wave
• λ = the wavelength of the seismic wave.
• ν = speed of seismic wave
• The absorption increases with increasing frequency.
• The earth is therefore also referred to as a low-pass filter.
• Since earthquake waves contain a whole spectrum of wavelengths, the
absorption leads to a filtering of the signal: the further you are from the source,
the wider and smoother the signal becomes.
Energy Loss - Spherical Divergence
• The energy E0 of a spherical wave, radiated from
source Q, decreases with distance r due to an
increasing spherical surface.
i.e. the energy per area decreases inversely with
distance 𝑟 2
𝐸0
𝐸(𝑟)~ 2
𝑟
• At a later time moment t > t0, less energy is available
per unit area.
• This has to be taken into account when analyzing the
amplitude of the seismic waves:
𝐴0
𝐴(𝑟)~
𝑟
Decreasing amplitude with time
Runtime Diagram of Direct Wave
• Travel time of the direct wave from the source to the receiver
is calculated as follows:
𝑆𝑅 𝑥
𝑡 𝑥 = = (1)
𝑣1 𝑣1
Runtime Diagram of Reflected Wave
• Travel time of the reflected wave from the source to the
receiver is calculated
𝑆𝑂 𝑂𝑅
𝑡 𝑥 = +
𝑣1 𝑣1
• Distances SO and OR can be calculated
𝑥 2
𝑆𝑂 2 = 𝑂𝑅 2 = + ℎ12
2
• Combining equations (2) and (3):
1
𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 4ℎ12
𝑣1
• Equation (4) can be rewritten as:
𝑣12 𝑡 2 (𝑥) 1 2
2 − 2𝑥 = 1 (2)
4ℎ1 4ℎ1
Equation of hyperbola with vertex at x=0
Runtime Diagram of Reflected Wave
• Initial time moment at distance x = 0 is
2ℎ1
𝑡 𝑥 |𝑥=0 = 𝑡0 = (3)
𝑣1
• This corresponds to the time that the reflected ray incident
normal to the interface takes to travel back to the same point
(x=0).
• The running time 𝑡0 is also known as zero-offset time.
• With the help of (3) the depth of the interface h1 can be
calculated:
𝑡0 𝑣1
ℎ1 = (4)
2
• Wavespeed (𝑣1 ) can be calculated from eq. (1) but also from eq (2):
𝑡0
2 2 𝑥12 4ℎ12 𝑥22 4ℎ12
𝑡 𝑥1 − 𝑡 𝑥2 = 2 + 2 − 2 − 2
𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣1
𝑥12 −𝑥22
𝑣1 = (Known as x²-t² method)
𝑡 2 𝑥1 −𝑡 2 𝑥2
Runtime Diagram of Critically Reflected Wave
• The travel time of the critically refracted wave from the
source to the boundary layer, along the boundary layer and
back to the receiver is calculated from:
𝑆𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑅
𝑡 𝑥 = + +
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣1
ℎ1
𝑆𝐴 = 𝐵𝑅 = Critical angle ic (Note: Only possible if v2 > v1)
cos(𝑖𝑐 )
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥 − 𝐶𝐴 − 𝐵𝐸 = 𝑥 − 2ℎ1 tan(𝑖𝑐 )
𝑣1 𝑣1 2
Then considering that sin 𝑖𝑐 = (slide 21) and cos 𝑖𝑐 = 1− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑖𝑐 = 1−
𝑣2 𝑣2
2
2ℎ1 𝑣1 𝑥
𝑡 𝑥 = 1− + (x>=xcrit) (5)
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣2
Runtime Diagram of Critically Reflected Wave
• The travel time of the critically refracted wave from the
source to the boundary layer, along the boundary layer and
back to the receiver is calculated from:
2
2ℎ1 𝑣1 𝑥
𝑡 𝑥 = 1− + (x>=xcrit) (5)
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣2
Critical angle ic (Note: Only possible if v2 > v1)
The critical distance xcrit at which the refracted wave appears
in the seismogram for the first time:
𝑣1
𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 2ℎ1 tan 𝑖𝑐 = 2ℎ1 (6)
2 2
𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Travel time curve of the critically refracted wave is a straight
line helps us calculate 𝑣2 and is given by:
1 (7)
𝑣2
xcrit
Runtime Diagram for a simple 2 layer model
The distance xcross at which the refracted wave "overtakes"
the direct wave, i.e. from which the refracted wave appears
as a first. The distance is obtained by equating the
equations of the direct wave (1) and the refracted wave (5)
2
𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 2ℎ1 𝑣1
= + 1−
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑣2 + 𝑣1
𝑥𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 2ℎ1
𝑣2 − 𝑣1
Paths of the Reflected and Refracted Waves
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model
• Paths of the reflected and transmitted (refracted) waves in a
horizontally layered Earth (The Earth represents a horizontally
layered half-space consisting of layers of finite thickness.)
The beam path is calculated according to Snell's law:
but applied for multiple layers
• At a certain depth the critical angle is reached and the wave Energy is reflected,refracted (and
does not penetrate deeper into the subsurface. This is also converted) at each boundary layer.
called the immersion depth of the wave or the maximum
penetration depth.
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model - Beam Parameter
• Assumptions:
• Earth consists of a multitude of thin, horizontal
layers of finite thickness of constant speed, the
speed of which increases with depth.
• Number of layers increases with a simultaneous
decrease in the thickness of the individual layers.
• continuous increase in speed with the given depth.
• Snell‘s law applies to every boundary layer:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛
= = =⋯= = 𝑝 𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣𝑛
• The speed of the lowest layer can be calculated
from p:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 1
𝑝= = =
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model
• With the help of the x²-t² method,
the speed of the individual layers in
the subsurface can be determined
from the gradients of the reflected
waves.
• Once the speed is known, along
with t0, the depth of the layer can
be found (Refer to slide 32).
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model
x
A x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Z1
Z2
Multi-Layer Case - Critically Reflected Waves
• In a horizontally layered medium in which the speed
increases with depth, the transit time curve consists of
short transit time branches, the gradient of which
decreases with increasing distance, as the speed in the
subsurface increases more and more.
• The seismic velocities of the respective layers can be
determined from the increases in the individual,
critically refracted runtime branches.
• The length of the runtime branches depends on the
thickness of the layers.
Multi-Layer Case - Critically Reflected Waves
• If you reduce the thickness of the individual layers, the
runtime branches merge into "points" (runtimes) and
you get a continuously curved runtime curve.
• In the borderline case, one can then speak of a
continuous speed-depth function v(z).
• The slope of the runtime curve at a certain distance is
inversely proportional to the speed at a corresponding
depth.
Multi-Layer Case –Example
Seismic Refraction study to clearly identify the velocities of shallow subsurface layers.
Grevemeyer et al., Nat. Geosci., 2018
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model - Spherical Earth
• Snell's law, which applies to the propagation of rays in a plane,
horizontally layered medium, can be understanding local
structures at shallow depths
• Seismic waves pass through layered spherical Earth
a2
• If the speed in the individual spherical shells is viewed as
constant within each concentric shell, i.e., there are no lateral
variations,
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎1
=
𝑣1 𝑣2
Multiplying both sides by r1
𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎1
=
𝑣1 𝑣2
In triangles ACD and BCD,
𝑑 = 𝑟1 sin 𝑎1 = 𝑟2 sin 𝑎2
𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖2 𝑟3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖3 𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛
𝑣1
= 𝑣2
= 𝑣3
= ⋯= 𝑣𝑛
= 𝑝 (Spherical ray parameter)
Runtime Diagram for a Multi-layer model – Benndorf’s equation
• When considering a spherical Earth, the constant p is called the
spherical ray parameter.
• The spherical ray parameter has the dimension of a time.
• With a continuous increase in speed with depth, a ray reaches a
certain depth r0 at which sin(i) = 1. This is the lowest point (r = r0 =
d) that the ray reaches. At this point the ray reverses.
• For this point (the vertex of the diving wave), at which v = v (r0) = v0,
𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖1 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖2 𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖3 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝑟0
= = = ⋯= = =𝑝
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣𝑛 𝑣0
(Spherical ray parameter)
Benndorf Relationship
Multi-Layer Case –Example- Seismic Reflection
• Travel times of reflected waves off various deeper interfaces analyzed.
• Can image deeper layers of Earth.
• Requires pre-processing and interpretation of results.
Garnero and McNamara Science, 2008
Summary
• Seismic waves propagate elastically through Earth.
• Seismic waves encounter different heterogeneities/ impedance contrasts during
propagation into deep Earth.
• Due to interaction of waves at these heterogeneities, the waves get reflected,
refracted and converted (and also absorbed, resulting in energy loss).
• The travel times of waves observed from seismic records helps in understanding
the velocity and depth of various subsurface heterogeneties.
• Seismic velocities at different depths help us in creating Earth’s reference
models
Exercises
1. A plane seismic wave, travelling vertically downwards in a rock of density 2200 kg m-3 with seismic
velocity 2000 m s-1, is incident on the horizontal top surface of a rock layer of density 2400 kg m-3 and
seismic velocity 3300 m s-1. (a) What are the amplitude ratios of the transmitted and reflected waves?
2. A plane seismic wave travels vertically downwards at a velocity of 4800 m s-1 through a salt layer with
density 2100 kg m-3 . The wave is incident upon the top surface of a sandstone layer with density 2400
kg m-3 . The phase of the reflected wave is changed by 180° and the reflected amplitude is 2% of the
incident amplitude. What is the seismic velocity of the sandstone?
Exercises
3. a) Calculate the minimum arrival times for seismic reflections from each of the reflecting interfaces in the
following section. Consider the base of the lowermost bed to be also a reflector.
(b) What is the average velocity of the section for a reflection from the base of the dolomite?
(c) Using the listed densities calculate the reflection coefficient for each interface (except the base of the
dolomite). Which interface gives the strongest reflection and which the weakest?
Exercises
4. A reflection seismic record in an area of relatively flat dips gave the following data:
(a) Draw a plot of t2 - x2 for this data.
(b) Determine the vertical two-way travel-time and average velocity to each reflecting interface.
(c) Compute the depth of each reflector and the thickness of each layer.
(d) Compute the true velocity (interval velocity) of each layer.
(e) Verify your results by computing the total vertical travel-time for a wave reflected from the deepest interface.
