Panimalar Engineering College 23EC1201 – ELECTRONIC DEVICES

UNIT – I
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
PN junction behavior, PN junction diode, Current equations, Energy Band diagram, Diffusion and
Drift current densities, forward and reverse bias characteristics, Transition and Diffusion
Capacitances, Switching Characteristics, Breakdown in PN Junction Diodes.
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INTRODUCTION:
The study of the motion of electrons in an electronic device is called electronics. An electron
device controls the movement of electrons. The materials are classified as
1. Conductors [Ex:] Copper, aluminum
2. Insulators [Ex:] Wood, glass, mica
3. Semiconductors [Ex:] Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si)
The semiconductors have special features than others
1. Its conductivity is less than conductors and greater than insulators.
2. The conductivity of semiconductors can be changed by adding impurities and increasing
temperature.
3. Semiconductor devices like transistors are used to amplify the weak signal,
PN diodes are used for clipper and clamper circuits,
Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators,
Thyristors are used as controlled switches.
4. These semiconductors are smaller in size and have less power consumption.

1.1 ATOMIC THEORY:

The most fundamental unit of all matter is an atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of that element. This gives a unique structure to each element.
An element or matter consists of 3 fundamental particles, which are named electron, proton, and
neutron.
Electron: It is a negatively charged particle
Proton: It is a positively charged particle.
Neutron: uncharged particle.

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According to Bohr’s atomic theory, atoms have a planetary type of structure. It consists of a
nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. The nucleus consists of positively charged particles
‘protons’ and uncharged particles ‘neutrons’. The negative particle ‘electrons’ are tightly bound to
the nucleus.
Each atom has a certain number of electrons and protons that distinguish it from other atoms
or elements.
All the elements are arranged in an order according to their atomic number. The atomic
number means the total number of electrons or protons in an atom. But the entire atom has an equal
number of electrons and protons in it.

Atom Model
Under ideal conditions, the net charge of an atom is zero. Because of the equal number of
electrons and protons in an atom cancels its charges.

Name of the particle Nature of charge Magnitude of charge Mass (Kg)

Neutron No charge ------ 11.675x10-27

Electron Negative -1.6x10-19 9.107x10-31
Proton Positive 1.6x10-19 1.672x10-27

The electrons revolve around the nucleus and are arranged in different orbits or shells at a
fixed distance from the nucleus. Each orbit contains a fixed (‘2n2’) number of electrons in each orbit,
where n is the orbit number.
If n=1, then the number of electrons in orbit- 1 is 2
If n=2, then the number of electrons in orbit- 2 is 8

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Each orbit has a different energy level associated with it and it depends on the number of
electrons in each orbit. The energy level increases if the distance from the nucleus increases.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom have the highest energy level and are more
loosely bound to the nucleus than those closer to the nucleus. This is because the force of attraction
between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons decreases with increasing
distance from the nucleus. These outermost orbit electrons are known as valance electrons.
When atoms link together, they form molecules of matter; this bonding takes place through
the interconnection called bonding. This bonding takes place through the interconnection of valance
electrons.
Types of bonding –
1. Ionic bonding:
Ionic bonding occurs between a pair of atoms when one of the atoms gives up its valence
electrons to the other. The result is that both atoms have filled shells.

Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding:
Electrons are shared between two or more atoms so that each atom has a stable electronic
configuration (completely filled outermost shell).
Ex: H has one electron, which needs 2 to be stable. O has 6 electrons in its outer shell and needs 2 to
be stable. So, 2 H atoms bond to 1 O to form H2O, with all atoms sharing electrons, and each atom
having a stable electronic configuration

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1.2 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:

The atoms of a solid are arranged in a regular repeated geometric pattern and the electrons of
the atoms rotate around their nuclei in certain permitted energy levels. The electrons that revolve in
the outermost orbit have greater energy than that of electrons revolving in the innermost orbit.
The electrons in each orbit have the same energy level. The difference between the energy
levels of any orbit is known “energy gap”.

Discrete levels in isolated atomic structures

In practice, only two upper bands of energy levels are considered, because these two bands
only have considerable electrical properties even though there are many bands below the valence
band. The uppermost band is the conduction band and the lower one is the valence band. These two
bands are separated by a gap which is known as the forbidden energy gap.

Valance band
The electrons in the inner shells are strongly bonded to their nuclei, while the electrons in the
outermost shells are not strongly bonded to their nuclei.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.

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 The valance band may be defined as a band that is occupied by the valance electrons or a band
having the highest occupied band energy.
 The valance band may be partially or completely filled depending upon the nature of the crystal.
This band can never be empty.
 The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
 The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a material.
 When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the material is usually a metal
and a conductor. Examples are sodium, magnesium, and aluminum, which have 1, 2, and 3
valence electrons respectively.
 When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material is usually a non-
metal and an insulator. Examples are nitrogen, sulfur, and neon, which have 5, 6, and 8 valence
electrons respectively.
 When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4 the material has both metal and non-metal
properties and is usually a semi-conductor. Examples are carbon, silicon, and germanium.

Free Electrons:
 The valence electrons of different materials possess different energies. The greater the energy of a
valence electron, the lesser it is bound to the nucleus.
 In certain substances, particularly metals, the valence electrons possess so much energy that they
are very loosely attached to the nucleus.
 The loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the material and are called free
electrons.
The valence electrons, which are loosely attached to the nucleus, are known as free electrons.

Energy Level Diagram

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Conduction band
 Electrons in the conduction band are either escaped from their atoms (free electrons) or only
weakly held to the nucleus. Thereby the electrons in the conduction band may be easily moved
around within the material by applying a relatively small amount of energy (either by increasing
the temperature or by focusing light on the material etc.) This is the reason why the conductivity
of the material increases with an increase in temperature.
 The free electrons are responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor, and hence also
called conduction electrons.
 The conduction band may be defined as a band that is occupied by the conduction electrons.
 The conduction band may be empty or partially filled depending upon the nature of the crystal.
 In the conduction band, the electrons can move freely. When a substance has an empty
conduction band the current conduction is not possible. Insulators have an empty conduction
band.

The separation between the conduction band and the valance band is known as the “forbidden
energy gap”.

Classification of materials based on Energy band theory:

Based on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are broadly classified as conductors,
Insulators and semiconductors.

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Comparisons of Insulators, semiconductors, and conductors:

S. No Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

Conduct current less than

2 Does not conduct any
the conductor greater than Easily conduct current
current
the insulator
More than 4 valence Less than 4 valence
3 It has 4 valence electrons
electrons in the electrons in the
in its outermost orbit
outermost orbit. outermost orbit.
4 Covalent bond between
Ionic bond Metallic bond
atoms

Valence bond and Valence bond and

Valence bond and covalent
5 covalent bond are covalent bond are
bond are separated by the
separated by an energy overlapped
forbidden energy gap
gap greater than 5eV
6 Resistance is very
Resistance is very high Resistance is high
small
7 It has a negative It has a negative It has a positive
temperature coefficient temperature coefficient temperature coefficient
8 Ex: Copper, silver,
Ex: Mica, paper, glass Ex: Silicon, germanium
aluminum

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

Semiconductors may be classified as –
1. Intrinsic semiconductor (pure)
2. Extrinsic semiconductor (Impure), is divided into N-type and P-type
(1) Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an Intrinsic semiconductor.
The impurity content is very small 1:108 part of the semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, germanium.

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Both silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence electrons).

Each atom forms a covalent bond or electron pair bond with the electrons of the neighboring atom.
The structure is shown below.

Crystalline structure of Germanium (or Silicon)

At low temperatures:
• At low temperatures, all the valence electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus hence no free
electrons are available for conduction.
• The semiconductor therefore behaves as an Insulator at absolute zero temperature.
At room temperature:
• At room temperature, some of the valence electrons gain enough thermal energy to break up
the covalent bonds to jump across the forbidden energy gap between the valence and
conduction band.
• This breaking up of covalent bonds sets the electrons free and are available for conduction.

Germanium with broken covalent bond

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• When an electron escapes from a covalent bond it becomes a free electron and a vacancy is
created in a covalent bond as shown in the figure above. Such a vacancy is called a Hole. It
carries a positive charge and moves under the influence of an electric field in the direction of
the electric field applied.
• A combination of such a free electron and hole is known as an “Electron hole pair”.
• The number of holes is equal to the number of electrons. Since a hole is nothing but an
absence of electrons.

Energy Band diagram for Intrinsic Semiconductor:

In the energy band diagram of a semiconductor, the probability of occupancy of an energy
level by an electron is indicated by a level called Fermi level denoted as EF.
If EC is the lowest energy level of the conduction band and EV is the highest energy level of
the valence band, then the probability of finding an electron in the conduction band and the
probability of finding a hole in the valence band is the same.
Hence, the fermi level in such a case lies exactly at the center of the forbidden energy band
and is given by,
𝑬𝑪 + 𝑬𝑽
𝑬𝑭 =
𝟐
Thus the energy band diagram for intrinsic semiconductor is as shown below,

Energy band diagram for an intrinsic semiconductor

Electron current and Hole current:
When an electric field is applied to an intrinsic semiconductor, conduction band electrons
move toward the positive polarity, and valence band electrons move toward the negative polarity. The
current due to the movement of free electrons in the conduction band, is called electron current.

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When voltage is applied, the electron from the covalent bond breaks and leaves a hole. The
electron is broken from the covalent bond. It jumps into the hole in the neighboring atom and leaves a
hole there. The current due to the movement of holes in the valence band is a hole current.

Movement of electrons and holes

Total current:
• The current due to the movement of free electrons in the conduction band is called electron
current. The current due to the movement of holes in the valence band is called hole current.
Total current = hole current + electron current.
Conventional current:
• Let us connect a DC source or battery across an intrinsic semiconductor. The free electrons
which are negatively charged are attracted towards the positive terminal and holes are
attracted towards the negative terminal.
• The current flows from the positive to the negative terminal are called conventional current
direction.
• The flow of current from the negative to the positive terminal is called electron flow. The
operations of all electronic devices are explained with the help of electron movement.

(2) Extrinsic Semiconductor

The intrinsic semiconductor has a limited number of free electrons at room temperature.
Hence they do not conduct well at this temperature. When an impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, its conductivity changes.
To increase the conductivity, the number of free electrons in the semiconductor has to be
increased. This can be done by adding impurities to the intrinsic material. The process of adding
impurities to a semiconductor is known as “doping”.

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Even an addition of 1 impurity atom for every 10 million – semiconductor atoms changes the
electrical properties of the material.
When a semiconductor material is doped, it is called an extrinsic material.

Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as –
i. n-type semiconductor,
ii. p-type semiconductor.

i) N-type semiconductor:
• The number of free electrons in intrinsic silicon can be increased by adding a pentavalent atom to
it. These are atoms with five valence electrons.
• Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorus (P), etc.
Such impurities that produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor impurities because they
donate or provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.

Germanium with a free electron

• The valence electron of arsenic makes a covalent bond with the 4 valence electrons of the silicon
atoms and 1 valence electron of arsenic is left free.
• These free electrons in the valence band can easily enter the conduction band without forming any
hole. The number of free electrons will be equal to the number of impurity atoms added.
• Even at room temperature the conductivity increases. Due to the doping process, the number of
electrons increases and the number of holes decreases. This is because the large number of
electrons increases the rate of recombination of electrons with holes.
• So in an n-type semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority
charge carriers.

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Energy Band diagram for n-type material:

In n-type material, each donor atom donates one free electron, and hence donor energy level is
introduced just below the conduction band denoted as ED. This is so close to the conduction band that
even at room temperature, almost all the added electrons jump into the conduction band.
The probability of occupying energy level by an electron is very high near the conduction
band. Hence Fermi level (EF) shifts towards the conduction band.

Fermi level in a N-type Material

Conduction in N-type material:
• When a battery is connected to the n-type material. A large number of free electrons are present
along with the little holes generated due to thermal agitation.

• The free electrons move towards the positive terminal of the battery and the holes move towards
the negative terminal of the battery. This constitutes the electron current and hole current. As a
large number of free electrons are available the current due to an electron is more than hole.

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• The conduction in n-type material is due to the large number of free electrons which are called
majority carriers and the holes which are small in number are called minority carriers.

ii) P-type Semiconductors:

• The number of holes in intrinsic silicon can be increased by adding trivalent impurity to it. These
atoms have three valence electrons.
• A trivalent impurity like Boron (B), Gallium (Ga), Aluminum (Al), and Indium (In), is added to
an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon or germanium.

Germanium with a hole

• Only three covalent bonds are formed with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms and a vacancy exists
in the fourth bond constituting a hole. Holes are vacant space or positively charged particles,
which accept electrons. Therefore they are called acceptor impurities.
• The numbers of holes are controlled by the doping concentration of trivalent impurity atoms.

Fermi level in a P-type Material

• When acceptors or P-type impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, an allowable
discrete energy level is formed just above the valence band.

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• Even a very small amount of energy is enough for the valence band electrons to jump in the
acceptor energy level EA leaving a vacant space or hole in the valence band.
• The vacant space is filled by the other electrons from the neighboring atoms leaving the hole.
Large numbers of holes are present inside the P-type semiconductor along with a small number of
thermally generated electrons.
• Even at room temperature a large number of holes are created which is responsible for
conduction. Therefore in P-type semiconductor holes are the majority carriers and electrons are
the minority carriers.

Conduction in P-type semiconductors:

• When a battery is connected between the P-type semiconductor terminal, the holes are attracted
towards the negative terminal of the battery, and the free electrons which are very less in number
move towards the positive terminal of the battery. In this holes are majority carriers and electrons
are minority carriers.

Conduction in p-type material

Reasons for Si widely used

 Comparing the structure of Ge and Si Valence shell of Si is 3 shells while the valence shell of
Ge is 4 Shells. Hence Valence electrons of Ge are at a larger distance from the nucleus than
valence electrons of Si.

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 So Valence electrons of Ge are more loosely bound to the nucleus than those of silicon. Thus
valence electrons of Germanium easily escape from the atom due to very small additional
energy imparted to them. So at high temperatures, germanium becomes more unstable
than Silicon is a widely used semiconductor material.

1.4 LAW OF MASS ACTION:

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons and holes are always present in equal
concentrations.
If a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor is doped with N-type impurities, the number of free
electrons in the conduction band increases above a level and the number of holes in the valence band
decreases below a level.
Similarly, the addition of P-type impurities to a pure semiconductor increases the number of
holes in the valence band above a level and decreases the number of electrons in the conduction band
below a level. This is because the rate of recombination increases due to the presence of a large
number of free electrons (or holes).
Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the number of holes and the
number of electrons is constant and is independent of the amount of donor and acceptor impurity
doping. This relation is known as mass-action law and is given by
n.p = ni2
where, n = free electron concentration
p = hole concentration
ni = intrinsic concentration.

Charge densities in N-type and P-type semiconductors:

In a semiconductor, the magnitude of positive charge density must be equal to the magnitude
of negative charge density.
Since acceptor atoms and electrons have a negative charge, the magnitude of negative charge
density is NA+n.
Similarly, the donor atoms and holes have a positive charge; the magnitude of positive charge
density is ND+p.
ND+p = NA+n ---------------- (1)

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N-type semiconductor:
In N-type semiconductors, there is no acceptor doping. ie., NA = 0 and the number of electrons
is much greater than the number of holes (n >> p).
Hence, ND ≈ n ---------------- (2)
Thus in N-type material, the free electron concentration is approximately equal to the density
of donor atoms.
To distinguish the concentration of free electrons in N and P regions, we add the subscript n
or p for an N-type or a P-type substance respectively.
Thus, nn and pn are the electron and hole concentrations in the n-type semiconductor.
Eqn (2) is written as,
ND ≈ nn ---------------- (3)
Now the concentration pn of holes in N-type material can be obtained from mass action law, which
can be now written as,
nn.pn = ni2
𝐧𝟐𝐢
pn =
𝒏𝒏

𝐧𝟐𝐢
pn ≈ ---------------- (4)
𝑵𝑫

P -type semiconductor:
In P-type semiconductor, there is no donor doping. ie., ND = 0 and the number of holes is
much greater than the number of electrons (p >> n).
Hence, NA ≈ p ---------------- (5)
Thus in P-type material, the hole concentration is approximately equal to the density of
acceptor atoms.
Eqn (4) is written as,
NA ≈ pp ---------------- (6)
From mass action law,
Pp.np = ni2
𝐧𝟐𝐢 𝐧𝟐𝐢
np = np ≈ ---------------- (7)
𝒑𝒑 𝑵𝑨

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1.5 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION CURRENTS:

The flow of charge, i.e., current, through a semiconductor material is of two types, namely
drift current and diffusion current.
Drift current:
When a small applied field is applied across a semiconductor bar, the electrons always try to
move in a straight line towards the positive terminal of the battery. But, due to continuous collision
with the atoms, they change the direction of flow. Each time the electron strikes an atom it bounces
back in a random direction. The applied voltage does not stop the collision and random motion of
electrons, but it causes the electrons to drift towards the positive terminal.

Drift Current
The combined effect of the movement of holes and electrons constitutes an electric current,
which is known as a drift current.
The drift current density Jn due to free electrons is given by
Jn= qnµn E A/cm2
The drift current density Jp due to holes is given by
Jp= qpµp E A/cm2
where, n = No of electrons /m3
p = No of holes /m3
µn = mobility of electrons m2/V-s
µP = mobility of holes m2/V-s
E = Applied electric field intensity
q = Charge of an electron= 1.6 x 10-19 columns
As the semiconductor contains both types of carriers, the total drift current

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J = qnµn E + qpµp E
J = σE
where, σ = qnµn + qpµp

Diffusion current:
Diffusion is a process of movement of carriers from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration.
An electric current flows in a semiconductor even in the absence of the applied voltage
provided a concentration gradient exists in the material.
Since there exists a concentration gradient, the charge carriers tend to move from the region of
high concentration to a region of lower concentration. Thus the resulting current due to this
movement of charge carrier is called diffusion current.

Diffusion current

Diffusion current density due to holes, Jp is given by

𝑑𝑝
Jp = − 𝑞𝐷𝑝 A/cm2 (Negative sign indicates concentration decreases with increase in ‘x’)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
where, DP = diffusion constant for holes, = Holes concentration gradient
𝑑𝑥
Diffusion current density due to electrons, Jn is given by
𝑑𝑛
Jn = 𝑞𝐷𝑛 A/cm2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛
where, Dn = diffusion constant for electrons, = Electron concentration gradient
𝑑𝑥
Total current in a semiconductor:
The total current density = Drift current + diffusion current.

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For a P-type semiconductor, the total current per unit area ie., the total current density is given by
𝒅𝑷
Jp = q pµP E − q DP
𝒅𝒙

For a N-type semiconductor, the total current density is given by

𝒅𝒏
Jn = q nµn E + q Dn
𝒅𝒙

1.6 EINSTEIN RELATIONSHIP FOR SEMICONDUCTOR:

There exists a definite relationship between the mobility and diffusion coefficient of a
particular type of charge carrier in the same conductor. The higher the value of mobility of a charge
carrier, the greater will be its tendency to diffuse. The equation which relates mobility,‘µ’, and
diffusion Coefficient ‘D’ is known as the Einstein relationship.
The Einstein relationship is expressed as,
𝑫𝒑 𝑫𝒏 𝒌𝑻
= = = 𝑽𝑻
𝝁𝒑 𝝁𝒏 𝒒
The importance of the Einstein relationship is that it can be used to determine Dp (or Dn), if
the mobility of holes (or electrons) is measured experimentally.

1.7 CARRIER LIFETIME:

The electrons have a limited lifetime (τn) in the conduction band and periodically fall back to
the valance band so that a mobile electron-hole pair disappears in the recombination process with the
energy of excitation appearing as heat energy. On average, an electron will exist for τn seconds and a
hole for τp seconds before recombination.
Thus, the carrier lifetime is defined as the time for which, on average, a charge carrier will
exist between recombination with a carrier of the opposite charge. Its value varies from nanoseconds
to hundreds of microseconds and depends on temperature & impurity concentration in semiconductor
material.
τ = L2 / D
Where, L - diffusion length
D - Diffusion Coefficient

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1.8 THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:

1.8.1 PN junction diode in Equilibrium with no applied voltage (Open Circuit):
• In a piece of semiconductor material, if one half is doped by a P-type impurity and the other
half is doped by an N-type impurity, a PN junction is formed.
• The plane dividing the zones is called the PN junction.

pn junction with equal doping

• N-type material has a concentration of electrons of free electrons while P-type material has a
high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction, there is a tendency for free electrons to
diffuse over to the P-side and holes to the N-side. This process is called diffusion.
• As the free electrons move across the junction from N-type to P-type, the donor ions become
positively charged. Hence a positive charge is built in the N-side of the junction.
• The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling in the
holes. Therefore net negative charge is established on the P-side of the junction.
• This net negative charge on the P-side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the P-side.
• Similarly, the net positive charge on the N-side repels the holes crossing from the P-side to the
N-side. Thus a barrier is set up near the junction which prevents further movement of charge
carriers.
• As a consequence of the induced electric field across the layer, an electrostatic potential
difference is established between P and N regions, which is called barrier potential.
V0 = 0.30 V Ge
V0 = 0.72 V Si
• This PN junction over which all the mobile or free charge carriers are depleted. This region is
called the depletion region, space charge region, or transition region.

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• The shape of charge density depends upon how the diode is doped. The width of the depletion
region width is about (0.5 -1µm).
• There are no mobile carriers in this very narrow depletion layer. Hence no current flows
across the junction and the system is in equilibrium.
• If the P-side is more heavily doped than the N-side, then the depletion layer thickness on the
N-side is more than that of the P-side. Similarly, if the N-side is heavily doped, then the
depletion layer thickness on the P-side is more than that of the N-side.

pn junction with doping in p-side more than n-side

1.8.2 Calculation of Depletion Width:

The charge density to the left of the PN junction is negative, whereas the charge density to the
right of the PN junction is positive. This creates an electric field in the depletion region establishing a
potential barrier V which obstructs the flow of electrons and holes across the junction.
Since the number of holes in the P-side is equal to the number of acceptor ions and the
number of electrons on the N-side is equal to the number of donor ions, we can write
p ≅ NA
n ≅ ND
If q is the charge of holes and electrons, the space charge density in the depletion region may
be described as,
ρ = − q NA for 0 > x > xp
ρ = q ND for xn > x > 0
ρ= 0 elsewhere. ---------- (1)

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The potential variation in the space charge region can be calculated by using Poisson’s equation.
𝑑2𝑉 −𝜌
= ---------- (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜀

Applying the above equation to the P-side of the junction, we get

𝑑2𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴
= ---------- (3)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜀
Integrating twice, we get
𝑑𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥
= +C ---------- (4)
𝑑𝑥 𝜀

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𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥 2
V= + Cx+ D ---------- (5)
2𝜀
where C and D are constants of integration.
Applying the following boundary conditions we obtain the values of constants C and D.
From Figure.,
We have V=0 at x = 0 and
Hence D= 0
When x < 𝑥𝑝 on the P-side the potential is constant.
𝑑𝑉
So, = 0 at x = 𝑥𝑝
𝑑𝑥
Hence, −𝒒𝑵𝑨
C= 𝒙𝒑
𝜺

Therefore equation (5) becomes,

𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥 2 −𝑞𝑁𝐴
V= +( 𝜀 𝑥𝑝 ) 𝑥 + 0
2𝜀
𝑞𝑁𝐴𝑥2 𝑞𝑁𝐴
= − 𝑥. 𝑥𝑝
2𝜀 𝜀
𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥 2
V= ( − 𝑥. 𝑥𝑝 )
𝜀 2

At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑝 , 𝑉 = 𝑉1
2
𝑥𝑝
𝑞𝑁𝐴
V1 =
𝜀
( 2 − 𝑥𝑝2 )
−𝒒𝑵𝑨 𝒙𝟐𝒑
V1= ---------- (6)
𝟐𝜺
Similarly, if we apply the above procedure to the N-side we get
𝒒𝑵𝑫 𝒙𝟐𝒏
V2= ---------- (7)
𝟐𝜺
The barrier potential, V0 = V2 – V1
𝒒
= (𝑵𝑫 𝒙𝟐𝒏 + 𝑵𝑨 𝒙𝟐𝒑 ) ---------- (8)
𝟐𝜺
We know the fact that the positive charge on the N-side must be equal in magnitude to the
negative charge on the P-side for the Neutral specimen. Hence,
𝑥𝑝 NA = 𝑥𝑛 ND ---------- (9)

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𝑁𝐷
Substituting 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑥𝑛 in eqn (8) we get,
𝑁𝐴
𝑞 𝑁2
V0 = (𝑁𝐷 𝑥𝑛2 + 𝑥𝑛2 𝑁𝐷 )
2𝜀 𝐴

𝑞 𝑁𝐷
V0 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑥2𝑛 (1 + )
2𝜀 𝑁𝐴

2𝜀𝑉0
𝑥𝑛2 = 𝑁
𝑞𝑁𝐷 (1+ 𝐷 )
𝑁𝐴

𝟐𝜺𝑽𝟎 𝑵𝑨
𝒙𝟐𝒏 = ---------- (10)
𝒒𝑵𝑫 (𝑵𝑨 +𝑵𝑫 )

Similarly,
𝟐𝜺𝑽𝟎 𝑵𝑫
𝒙𝟐𝒑 = ---------- (10)
𝒒𝑵𝑨 (𝑵𝑨 +𝑵𝑫 )

The depletion width = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑝

1⁄ 1⁄
2𝜀𝑉 𝑁 2 2𝜀𝑉 𝑁
𝐷 2
= (𝑞𝑁 (𝑁0 +𝑁
𝐴
) + (𝑞𝑁 (𝑁0 +𝑁 )
𝐷 𝐴 𝐷) 𝐴 𝐴 𝐷)
1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
2𝜀𝑉 2 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
0
= (𝑞(𝑁 +𝑁 ) ((𝑁𝐴 ) + (𝑁𝐷) )
𝐴 𝐷) 𝐷 𝐴

𝟏
𝟐𝜺𝑽𝟎 (𝑵𝑨 +𝑵𝑫 ) ⁄𝟐
= ( ) ---------- (11)
𝒒𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫

1.8.3 Operation of PN junction diode:

P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor joined together to form a PN junction. This
PN junction is called a diode. Because it has two electrodes one for the P region named as anode and
the other for the N region named as cathode.

PN junction diode

• The diode is the basic element of all electronic devices.

• The working principle PN junction diode can be determined by applying biasing voltage.
“Biasing” means providing minimum external voltage and current to activate the device to study
its characteristics.

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There are two types of biasing for PN junction

1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
An ideal diode should offer zero resistance in forward bias and infinite resistance in reverse bias. But
in practical, no diode can act as an ideal voltage, it resists the flow of current through it.
(i) Under Forward Bias:
When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and the negative terminal is
connected to the n-type of the PN junction diode. This bias is called forward bias.

Operation:
• In an unbiased PN junction, there is no flow of current. When an external voltage is applied to
the PN junction, in such a way that it cancels the potential barrier and permits the current flow
through it.

Forward bias

• Under the forward bias condition, the applied positive potential repels the holes in
P-region So that the holes move towards the junction and the applied negative potential repels
the electrons moving towards the junction.
• Eventually, when the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the depletion
region and internal potential barrier disappear.
• As the forward voltage (VF) is increased for VF < V0, the forward current IF is almost zero
because the potential barrier prevents the holes from the P-region and electrons from the N-
region from flowing across the depletion region in the opposite direction.

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VI Characteristics under forward bias

• For VF > V0, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence the holes
cross the junction from the P-type to the N-type and the electrons cross the junction in the
opposite direction, resulting in a relatively large current flow in the external circuit.
• Cut in voltage:
The cut-in or threshold voltage below which the current is very small. At the cut in voltage,
the potential barrier is overcome and current through the junction starts to increase rapidly.
Cut in voltage, V = 0.3 V for Ge diode
V= 0.7 V for Si diode
Forward resistance of diode:
The resistance offered by the PN junction diode in forward bias condition is called forward
resistance.
(i) Static forward resistance (Rf):
It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current, V/I, in the forward bias characteristics of
the PN junction diode. It is calculated at a particular point.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑅𝑓 = =
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
(ii) a.c. or dynamic resistance (rf):
It is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉𝑓
𝑟𝑓 = = =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝐼 ∆𝐼𝑓

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(ii) Under Reverse Bias:

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and the positive terminal
is connected to the n-type of the PN junction diode. This bias is called reverse bias.
Operation:

Reverse bias
• Under applied reverse bias, holes are the majority carriers from the P-side and are attracted by
the negative terminal of the battery and electrons are the majority carriers from the N-side and
are attracted by the Positive terminal of the battery. Hence the width of the depletion region
increases and mobile carriers are depleted.

VI Characteristics under forward bias

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Panimalar Engineering College 23EC1201 – ELECTRONIC DEVICES

• Thus the electric field produced by applied reverse bias is in the same direction as the electric
field of the potential barrier. Hence the resultant potential barrier is increased which prevents
the flow of majority carriers in both directions.
• Therefore theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit But, practically a very
small current (µA) flows under reverse bias.
• Under reverse bias conditions, the thermally generated holes in the P-region are attracted
towards the negative terminal of the battery, and the electrons in the N-region are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery.
• Consequently, the minority carriers, electrons in the P-region, and holes in the N-region
wander over to the region and flow towards their majority carrier side giving rise to a small
reverse current. This current is known as reverse saturation current (I0). This current is µA in
Ge diodes and nanoAmp in Si diodes.

Reverse resistance of diode:

The PN junction offers large resistance in the reverse biased condition called reverse
resistance.
(i) Reverse static resistance (Rr):
It is defined as the ratio of applied reverse voltage to the reverse saturation current, I0.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑅𝑟 = =
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
(ii) Reverse dynamic resistance (rr):
It is the ratio of change in reverse applied voltage to the corresponding change in reverse
current.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉𝑟
𝑟𝑟 = = =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝐼 ∆𝐼𝑟

Reasons for reverse saturation current:

1. Under reverse bias, Electrons forming covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms in the P-
Type and N- Type regions may absorb sufficient energy from heat and light to cause the
breaking of some covalent bonds. Hence electron-hole pairs are continually produced in both
regions.

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2. Under the reverse bias condition, the thermally generated holes in the P-region are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery. Hence reverse saturation current flown diode
under reverse bias. This magnitude depends on junction temperature.
3. For large reverse bias, the free electrons from the N-type moving towards the positive
terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with a high velocity to dislodge
valence electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal. These newly liberated electrons in
turn acquire sufficient energy to dislodge other parent electrons. Thus a large number of free
electrons are formed which is commonly called an avalanche of free electrons. This leads to a
very large reverse current.
4. The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as breakdown voltage
(VBR).

1.8.4 PN Diode applications

An ideal PN junction diode is a two-terminal polarity sensitive device that has Zero resistance
(Diode conducts) which is forward biased and infinite resistance (Diode does not conduct) when
reverse biased.
Due to these characteristics diode used in the following applications
1. Rectifiers in d.c power supply
2. Switch in digital logic circuits
3. Clamping circuits
4. Clipping circuits
5. Demodulation circuits
PN junction with different doping concentrations used in the following applications
1. Detectors (Avalanche photodiodes, PIN diodes) in optical communication circuits.
2. Zener diodes in voltage regulators.
3. LED in digital display
4. LASER diode
5. Tunnel diode used in relaxation oscillator at microwave frequencies.

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1.9 ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES OF OPEN-CIRCUITED PN JUNCTION:

When a P region and N region are brought into close physical contact to form a PN junction,
the energy band diagrams of these two regions undergo relative shifts to equalize the Fermi level.
The Fermi level, EF should be constant throughout the specimen at equilibrium.
If the Fermi level had not equalized, electrons on one side of the junction would have an
average energy greater than those on the other side, and this causes the transfer of electrons and
energy until the Fermi levels on the two sides get equalized. Equalization of Fermi levels in the P and
N materials of a PN junction is similar to equalization of levels of water in two containers on being
joined together.

The energy band diagram for a PN junction is shown above, where the Fermi level EF is closer
to the conduction band edge Ecn in the N-type material while it is closer to the valance band edge Evp
in the P-type material.
Ecn, Ecp = Conduction band in N-type and P-type
Evn, Evp = Valance band in N-type and P-type
E1, E2 = Shift in the Fermi level from intrinsic conditions in the P and N materials.

Then the total shift in the energy level E0 is given by

E0 = E1+E2 = Ecp – Ecn = Evp – Evn -------- (1)
This energy E0 is the potential energy of the electrons at the PN junction and is equal to qV0,
where V0 is the contact potential or barrier potential.

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Contact difference of potential:

A contact difference of potential exists across an open-circuited PN junction.
1
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 = 2 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐸1 -------- (2)
1
𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 = 2 𝐸𝐺 − 𝐸2 -------- (3)

From Eqn (2),

1
𝐸1 = 2 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) -------- (4)

From Eqn (3),

1
𝐸2 = 2 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 ) -------- (5)

Combining Eqn (4) and (5),

1 1
E0 = E1+ E2 = 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) + 2 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 )
2

E0 = 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) − (𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 ) --------- (6)

The concentration of free electrons and holes is given by,
−(𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 )⁄
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 )⁄
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−𝐸𝐺⁄
𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑁𝐶 . 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

We know that, 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2 (Mass-action law)

−𝐸𝐺⁄
𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑁𝐶 . 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−𝐸𝐺⁄ 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉

Taking natural log on both sides,

𝐸𝐺 𝑛𝑖 2
− = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉
𝐸𝐺 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉
= 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑖
𝑵𝑪 𝑵𝑽
∴ 𝑬𝑮 = 𝒌𝑻𝒍𝒏 ( ) --------- (7)
𝒏𝒊 𝟐

For N-type material:

−(𝐸𝑐𝑛 −𝐸𝐹 )⁄
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

n ≅ 𝑁𝐷

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−(𝐸𝑐𝑛 −𝐸𝐹 )⁄
𝑁𝐷 = 𝑁𝐶 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−(𝐸𝑐𝑛 −𝐸𝐹 )⁄ 𝑁𝐷
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =( )
𝑁𝐶
Taking natural log on both sides,
(𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑁𝐷
− = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐶
(𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑁𝐶
= 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐷
𝑵
∴ (𝑬𝒄𝒏 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = 𝒌𝑻𝒍𝒏 (𝑵 𝑪 ) --------- (8)
𝑫

For P-type material:

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣𝑝 )
⁄
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑉 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

p ≅ 𝑁𝐴
−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣𝑝 )
⁄
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑉 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

−(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣𝑝 )
⁄ 𝑁𝐴
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =( )
𝑁𝑉
Taking natural log on both sides,
(𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) 𝑁𝐴
− = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑉
(𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) 𝑁𝑉
= 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐴
𝑵
∴ (𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬𝒗𝒑 ) = 𝒌𝑻𝒍𝒏 (𝑵𝑽 ) --------- (9)
𝑨

Substituting from Eqns (7), (8), and (9) into Eqn (6)
E0 = 𝐸𝐺 − (𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑣𝑝 ) − (𝐸𝑐𝑛 − 𝐸𝐹 )
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑁𝑉 𝑁𝐶
= kT ln 2
– kT ln – kT ln
𝑛𝑖 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
= kT [ln 𝑛𝐶 2 𝑉 – ln 𝑁𝑉 – ln 𝑁 𝐶 ]
𝑖 𝐴 𝐷
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
= kT ln [ 𝑛𝐶 2 𝑉 . 𝑁𝐴 . 𝑁𝐷]
𝑖 𝑉 𝐶

𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
E0 = kT ln( ) --------- (10)
𝒏𝒊 𝟐

E0 is expressed in electron volts.

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As E0 = qV0 , then barrier voltage given by

𝐸0 𝐾𝑇 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
V0 = = ln --------- (11)
𝑞 𝑞 𝑛𝑖 2

V0 is expressed in volts.
The contact difference of potential (V0) is numerically equal to E0 depends on the equilibrium
concentrations and not on the charge density in the transition region.

Alternative Expression:

The other form of E0 is obtained as,

For N-Type:
𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑛𝑛 ≅ 𝑁𝐷
𝑛𝑖 2
∴ 𝑝𝑛 =
𝑁𝐷

For P-Type:
𝑛𝑝 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖 2
𝑃𝑝 ≅ 𝑁𝐴
𝑛𝑖 2
∴ 𝑛𝑝 =
𝑁𝐴

Thermal equilibrium state, equation (10) becomes

𝑃𝑃0 𝑛𝑛0
E0 = kT ln = kT ln --------- (12)
𝑝𝑛0 𝑛𝑝0

where, subscript 0 represents the thermal equilibrium condition.

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1.10 QUANTITIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE CURRENT:

To derive the expression for the total current as a function of applied voltage assuming that
the width of the depletion region is zero. When a forward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected
from the P-side into the N-side. Due to this, the concentration of holes in the N-side (pn) is increased
from its thermal equilibrium value (pno) and injected hole concentration [Pn(x)] decreases
exponentially with respect to distance (x).
−𝑥
⁄𝐿𝑝
Pn(x) = pn – pno = Pn(0)𝑒
where, LP is the diffusion length for holes in the N-material.
−𝑥
⁄𝐿𝑝
pn(x) = pno + Pn(0)𝑒 ----------------- (1)
Injected hole concentration at x = 0 is
Pn(0) = pn(0) – pno ----------------- (2)
These several components of hole concentration in the N-side of a forward-biased diode are
shown below, in which the density pn(x) decreases exponentially with distance (x).

Let pp and pn be the hole concentration at the edges of the space charge in the P and N-sides
respectively.
Let VB = (V0 –V), be the effective barrier potential across the depletion region.
Then, 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑛 𝑒 𝑉𝐵 ⁄𝑉𝑇 ----------------- (3)
where, VT is the Volt equivalent of temperature.
This is Boltzmann’s relation to kinetic gas theory. This equation is valid as long as the hole
current is small compared with diffusion or drift current. This condition is called low-level injection.

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Under open circuit condition: (V=0)

pp = ppo; pn = pno and VB = V0
Now above equation changed into
ppo = pno 𝑒 𝑉0 ⁄𝑉𝑇 ----------------- (4)

Under forward bias condition:

Let V be the applied voltage, then the effective barrier voltage
VB =V0 – V
The hole concentration throughout the P-side is constant and equal to the thermal equilibrium value
pp = ppo. The hole concentration varies exponentially with the distance into the N-side.
At x = 0, pn = pn(0)
Eqn (3) can be changed into,
ppo = pn(0) 𝑒 (𝑉𝑜 −𝑉)⁄𝑉𝑇 ----------------- (5)
Comparing Eqn (4) and Eqn (5),
pn(0) 𝑒 (𝑉𝑜 −𝑉)⁄𝑉𝑇 = pno 𝑒 𝑉0 ⁄𝑉𝑇
pn(0) 𝑒 (−𝑉)⁄𝑉𝑇 = pno
pn(0) = pno 𝑒 𝑉⁄𝑉𝑇 ----------------- (6)
This boundary condition is called the law of the junction.
Submitting this into eqn (2), we get
Pn(0) = [pno 𝑒 𝑉⁄𝑉𝑇 ] – pno
= pno ( 𝑒 𝑉⁄𝑉𝑇 − 1) ----------------- (7)

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The diffusion hole current in the N-side is

𝑑𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)
Ipn(x) = –AqDp
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑥
⁄𝐿𝑝
= –AqDp [pno + Pn(0)𝑒 ]
𝑑𝑥
1 −𝑥
⁄𝐿𝑝
= –AqDp (− 𝐿 )[Pn(0)𝑒 ]
𝑝

AqDp Pn (0) −𝑥⁄𝐿

= 𝑒 𝑝
𝐿𝑝

Forward Currents:
The hole current crossing the junction into the N-side with x=0 is
AqDp Pn (0)
Ipn(0) =
𝐿𝑝

From eqn (7),

AqDp pn0
Ipn(0) = ( 𝑒 𝑉⁄𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝑝

The electron current crossing the junction into the P-side with x=0 is
AqDn Np (0) AqDn np0
Inp(0) = = ( 𝑒 𝑉⁄𝑉𝑇 − 1)
𝐿𝑛 𝐿𝑛

The total diode current,

I= IPn(0) + Inp(0) = I0 ( 𝒆𝑽⁄𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)
AqDp Pn0 AqDn np0
where, I0 = ( + ) = reverse saturation current
𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑛

If we consider carrier generation and recombination in the space charge region, the diode
current equation is given by,

I = I0 ( 𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)

where V = external voltage applied to the diode, η = constant (1 for germanium and 2 for silicon)
Reverse saturation currents:
𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
We know that pn = and np =
𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴

Applying these relationships in the above equation of reverse saturation current, I0

𝐃𝐩 𝐃𝐧
I0 = Aq ( + ) 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝑳𝒑 𝑵𝑫 𝑳𝒏 𝑵𝑨

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1.11 DIODE CURRENT EQUATION:

The diode current equation relating the voltage V and current I is given by
I = I0 ( 𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)
where, I = diode current
I0 = diode reverse saturation current at room temperature
V = external voltage applied to the diode
η = constant (1 for germanium and 2 for silicon)
𝑘𝑇
VT =
𝑞

where, k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10 –23 J/K)

q = charge of the electron (1.602 x 10 –19 C)
T = temperature of the diode junction (K) = (°C + 273°)
At room temperature, (T= 300°K),
VT = 26mV
Substituting this value in the current equation, we get
I = I0 [𝑒 (40𝑉⁄𝜂) − 1]
Therefore, for the germanium diode, I = I0 [𝑒 40𝑉 − 1], since η = 1
for silicon diode, I = I0 [𝑒 20𝑉 − 1], since η = 2
If the value of the applied voltage is greater than unity, then the equation of diode current for
germanium,
I = I0 (𝑒 40𝑉 )
and for silicon, I = I0 (𝑒 20𝑉 )
When the diode is reverse biased, its current equation may be obtained by changing the sign
of the applied voltage V. Thus, the diode current with reverse bias is,
I = I0 [𝒆(−𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻) − 𝟏]
If V ≫ VT, then the term, 𝑒 (−𝑉⁄𝜂𝑉𝑇 ) ≪ 1, therefore I ≈ I0, termed as reverse saturation current, which
is valid as long as the external voltage is below the breakdown voltage.

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1.12 TRANSITION OR SPACE CHARGE CAPACITANCE (CT):

Under reverse bias conditions, the majority carriers move away from the junction, thereby
uncovering more immobile charges. Hence the width of the space-charge layer at the junction
increases with the reverse voltage.
This increase in uncovered charge with applied voltage is considered a capacitive effect. The
parallel layers of opposite charged immobile ions on the two sides of the junction form the
capacitance (CT), which is expressed as
𝑑𝑄
CT =| |, dQ is the increase in charge caused by a change in voltage dV.
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑄
A change in voltage ‘dV’ in a time ‘dt’ will result in a current, I =
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑽
I = 𝑪𝑻 ------------------- (1)
𝒅𝒕
CT is called the transition, space-charge, barrier, or depletion region capacitance.

Charge density and potential variation of PN junction

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Consider a PN diode in which the acceptor impurity density is assumed to be much smaller
than the donor concentration.
Since the net charge is zero, then
qNAWp = qNDWn
If ND ≫ NA, then Wn ≪ Wp ≅ 𝑊
The relationship between potential and charge density is given by the Poisson’s equation,
𝑑2𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝜀
Integrating the above equation twice,
𝑑𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜀
𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑥 2
Therefore, 𝑉= ------------------- (2)
2𝜀
At x = Wp ≈ W, V = VB, the barrier potential appears across the uncovered acceptor ions.
Thus
𝒒𝑵𝑨 𝑾𝟐
𝑽𝑩 = ------------------- (3)
𝟐𝜺
Here VB = V0 − V,
where, V = applied voltage (negative value due to reverse bias)
V0 = contact potential
Hence the width of the depletion layer increases with the applied reverse voltage
VB ∝ W2
∴ W ∝ √𝑉𝐵
The total charge density of a p-type material with the area of junction, A is given by
Q = qNA WA
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t V, we get
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑊
CT = | | = 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝐴 | | ------------------- (4)
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Differentiating Eqn (3) w.r.t V, we get
𝑞𝑁𝐴 2𝑊 𝑑𝑊
1= | |
2𝜀 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑊 𝜀
Therefore, | |= ------------------- (5)
𝑑𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑊

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Substituting eqn (5) in eqn (4),

𝑑𝑄 𝜀
CT = | | = 𝐴𝑞𝑁𝐴
𝑑𝑉 𝑞𝑁𝐴 𝑊

Therefore, 𝑨𝜺
𝑪𝑻 =
𝑾 ------------------- (6)
where, 𝜀 = Permittivity of the material
A = Area of cross-sectional of the junction
W= Width of the depletion layer over which the ions are uncovered

1.13 DIFFUSION (OR STORAGE) CAPACITANCE (CD):

The capacitance that exists in a forward-biased junction is called diffusion or storage
capacitance (CD), whose values are usually much larger than CT, which exists in a reverse-biased
junction.
It is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with the applied voltage.
𝒅𝑸 ------------------- (1)
CD =
i.e., 𝒅𝑽

where, dQ = change in the number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion region
dV = change in voltage across the diode.

Calculation of CD:
Let us assume that the P- material in one side of the diode is heavily doped compared with N-
side. Since the holes move from the P to the N side the holes current I ≈ 𝐼𝑝𝑛 (0).
The excess minority charge Q existing on the N- side is given by
−𝑥 ∞
−𝑥
∞ − 𝐴𝑞𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 𝐿𝑝
𝑄 = ∫0 𝐴𝑞𝑃𝑛 (0)𝑒 𝐿𝑝
dx =[ 1⁄ ]
𝐿𝑝
0
𝑄 = 𝐿𝑝 𝐴𝑞𝑃𝑛 (0)
Differentiating the above equation, we get
𝑑𝑄 𝑑[𝑃𝑛 (0)]
𝐶𝐷 = = 𝐴𝑞𝐿𝑝 ------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
−𝑥
𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑛 (0) 𝐿𝑝
We know that the diffusion hole current in the N-side is 𝐼𝑝𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑒
𝐿𝑃

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The hole current crossing the junction into the N-side with x = 0 is
𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑛 (0)
𝐼𝑝𝑛 (0) =
𝐿𝑃
Therefore,
𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝 𝑃𝑛 (0)
𝐼=
𝐿𝑃
𝐼𝐿𝑃
𝑃𝑛 (0) =
𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝

Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. “V”, we get

𝑑[𝑃𝑛 (0)] 𝑑𝐼 𝐿𝑃
=
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝

Substitute the above equation in eqn (2)

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐼 𝐿𝑃
CD = = 𝐴𝑞𝐿𝑝 𝑑𝑉 𝐴𝑞 𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝐼 𝐿2𝑝
CD =
𝑑𝑉 𝐷𝑝

Therefore, CD = gτ,
𝑑𝐼
Where, g = is the diode conductance
𝑑𝑉
𝐿2𝑝
τ= is the mean lifetime of holes in the N-region.
𝐷𝑝

𝐼
From the current diode equation, g =
𝜂𝑉𝑇

Therefore,
𝝉𝑰
CD =
𝜼𝑽𝑻

where, τ is the mean lifetime of holes and electrons.

Diffusion capacitance, CD increases exponentially with the forward bias and it is proportional
to the diode forward current.
• The value of CD ranges from 10 to 100 pF
• CD is negligible for a reversed biased PN junction
1
• CD ∝ 𝑓 , CD is high for low frequency, CD is low for high frequency

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1.14 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON PN JUNCTION DIODES:

The rise in temperature increases the generation of electron-hole pairs in semiconductors and
increases their conductivity. As a result, the current through the PN junction diode increases with
temperature as given by the diode current equation.
𝑽⁄
I = I0 [𝒆 𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏]

The reverse saturation current I0 of the diode increases approximately 7 percent/°𝐶 for both
germanium and silicon. Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10°𝐶 rise in
temperature. Hence, if the temperature is increased at a fixed voltage, the current, I increases. To
bring the current I to its original value, the voltage V has to be reduced.
𝑑𝑉
At room temperature for either germanium or silicon, ≈ −2.5 mV/°𝐶 to maintain the
𝑑𝑇
current, I to a constant value.
At room temperature, ie at 300K, the value of barrier voltage or cut-in voltage is about 0.3 V
for germanium and 0.7V for silicon. The barrier voltage is temperature dependent and it decreases
by 2 mV/°𝐶 for both germanium and silicon. This may be expressed as,
(𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 )⁄
IO2 = IO1 × 𝟐 𝟏𝟎

where, IO1 = saturation current of the diode at temperature (T1)

IO2 = saturation current of the diode at temperature (T2)

Effect of temperature on the diode characteristics

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1.15 BREAKDOWN IN PN JUNCTION DIODE:

• The diode equation predicts that under reverse bias conditions, a small constant reverse
saturation current I0 flows due to minority carriers, which is independent of the applied
reverse voltage.
• There is a gradual increase of reverse current with increasing bias voltage. Hence there is a
sudden increase in reverse current due to some breakdown. This voltage is called breakdown
voltage (VBD).
Two types of breakdown
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown
Once breakdown occurs, the diode is no longer blocking current and the diode current can be
controlled only by the resistance of the external circuit.
Avalanche breakdown
• The breakdown occurs due to the avalanche effect in which thermally generated minority
carriers cross the depletion region and acquire sufficient kinetic energy from the applied
potential to produce new carriers by removing valence electrons from their bonds.
• These new carriers will in turn collide with other atoms and will increase the number of
electrons and holes available for conduction.
• This multiplication effect of free carriers may be represented by
1
𝑀=
𝑉 𝑛
1 − (𝑉 )
𝐵𝐷

where, M = carrier multiplication factor,

V = applied reverse voltage,
VBD = reverse breakdown voltage,
n = constant, for N-type silicon, n≈4, and for P-type, n≈2.

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As V= VBD, the M=∞ and there is a rapid increase in carrier density and a corresponding
increase in current.
• Because of the cumulative increase in carrier density after each collision, the process is
known as avalanche breakdown.

Breakdown in PN junction diodes

Zener Breakdown
• To initiate breakdown through a direct rupture of the bonds because of the existence of a
strong electric field in the thin PN junction. This breakdown is called the Zener breakdown.
• When the P and N regions are heavily doped, direct rupture of the covalent bond takes place
because of the strong electric field at the junction of the PN diode.
• The new electron-hole pairs so created increase the reverse current in a reverse-biased diode.
• Due to heavy doping PN regions, the depletion region width becomes very small and for an
applied voltage of 6V or less, the field across the depletion region becomes very high of the
order of 107 V/m. This makes the zener breakdown.
• The breakdown voltage for a particular diode can be controlled by altering the doping level
of the PN junction.

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Comparisons of breakdown mechanism:

S.No Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
1 The breaking of covalent bonds is The breaking of covalent bonds is due to the
due to an intense electric field collision of accelerated charge carriers
across the depletion region. This having large velocities and kinetic energy
generates a large number of free with adjacent atoms. This process is called
electrons to cause a breakdown. carrier multiplication.
2 VBD < 6V VBD > 6V
3 Negative temperature coefficient Positive temperature coefficient ie., VBD
ie. VBD decreases as junction increase as junction temperature increases
temperature increases
4 Very sharp breakdown Not sharp breakdown
5 Heavily doped diodes Lightly doped diodes

Why to avoid Reverse Breakdown?

Large Reverse voltage appears across the diode and large current flows through the diode in
reverse breakdown condition. So large power gets dissipated, which appears in the form of heat at the
junction. This increased junction temperature beyond the safe limits and this may damage the diode
permanently.

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1.16 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS:

PN Diode Switching times:
Whenever a diode changes its state (i.e.,) from forward bias to reverse bias or from reverse
bias to forward bias, then there is a transient response and a definite time elapses, before it returns to
a steady state. This is called recovery time (tr).
Two types of recovery time are
(i) Forward Recovery time (tfr)
(ii) Reverse Recovery time (trr)

Forward Recovery time (tfr):

The tfr is defined as the time required for a forward voltage or current to reach a specified
value after switching the diode from its reverse to forward bias state.

Reverse Recovery time (trr):

It is the time required for the injected (or) excess minority carrier density P n – Pn0 to drop to
zero when the external voltage is suddenly reversed in the diode circuit.
a) At 0 < t < t1:
𝑽𝑭
For the applied forward voltage VF, the forward current is, 𝑰𝑭 = 𝑹

b) At t = t1:
• The applied voltage is suddenly reversed & Reverse voltage, VR is applied to the circuit.
Ideally, the diode must be OFF from the ON state instantly. But this does not happen
instantly.
• The number of minority carriers takes time to reduce from Pn – Pn0, to zero at the junction.
• Due to this at t1, the current just reverses & remains at the reversed value –IR till the minority
𝑽𝑹
carrier reduces to zero. This current is given by, −𝑰𝑹 = − 𝑹

Storage Time (ts):

During time t1 to t2, the minority charge carriers remain stored and decrease slowly to zero.
This time is called storage time denoted as ts.
a) At time t ≥ t2 :
The diode voltage starts to reverse and the diode current starts decreasing.
b) At time t = t3 :
The diode state completely gets reversed and attains a steady state in reverse bias conditions.

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Transition Time (tt):

The time from t2 to t3 i.e. time required by the diode current to reduce to its reverse saturation
value (where the diode recovered fully) is called the transition time denoted as tt.

Reverse Recovery time (trr):

The total time required by the diode which is the sum of storage time and transition time, to
recover completely from the change of state is called as reverse recovery time of the diode and is
denoted as trr.
trr = ts +tr
The reverse recovery time depends on RC time constant where C is transition capacitance of a diode.

Events during diode switching

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1.17 PROBLEMS:
Problem 1:
Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a PN junction diode having the following specifications:
T = 300 °K; NA = 1018cm-3; ND = 1015cm-3; ni = 1.5x1010cm-3.
Solution:
Given: T = 300 °K; NA = 1018cm-3; ND = 1015cm-3; ni = 1.5x1010cm-3
𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
The built-in potential barrier, V0 = ln [ ]
𝒒 𝒏𝒊 𝟐
𝑲𝑻
VT = = 0.0259 V at T = 300 °K
𝒒

(1024 )(1021 )
V0 = (0.0259) ln [ ]
(1.5×1016 )2

(1045 )
= (0.0259) ln [ ] = (0.0259) ln [4.444 × 1012 ]
(2.25×1032 )

= (0.0259) (29.123)
V0 = 0.754 V

Problem 2:
The reverse saturation current of a silicon PN junction diode is 10 µA. Calculate the diode current for
the forward bias voltage of 0.6 V at 25 °C.
Solution:
Given: I0 = 10 µA; V = 0.6 V; η = 2 for silicon; T = 25 °C = 25 + 273 °K = 298 °K
𝑲𝑻 (1.38×10−23 )(298)
VT = = (1.602×10−19 )
𝒒

= 0.025V
Using the Current diode equation,
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 (𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)
= (10 × 10−6 )[𝒆(𝟎.𝟔)⁄(𝟐×𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟓) − 𝟏]
= (10 × 10−6 )[𝒆𝟏𝟐 − 𝟏]
= (10 × 10−6 )(162.75 × 103 )
I = 1.6275 A

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Problem 3:
The diode current is 0.6 mA when the applied voltage is 400 mV and 20 mA when the applied
voltage is 500 mV. Determine η. Assume 𝑘𝑇⁄𝑞 = 25 mV.
Solution:
Given: At V1 = 400 mV, I1 = 0.6 mA
V2 = 500 mV, I1 = 20 mA
𝑲𝑻
VT = = 25 mV
𝒒

Using the Current diode equation,

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 (𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)
−𝟑 )⁄(𝜼×𝟐𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )
(0.6 × 10−3 ) = 𝐼0 [𝒆(𝟒𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏] ------------ (1)
−𝟑 )⁄(𝜼×𝟐𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 )
(20 × 10−3 ) = 𝐼0 [𝒆(𝟓𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏] ------------ (2)

In forward bias condition, 𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 >> 1 So neglecting 1,

(0.6 × 10−3 ) = 𝐼0 [𝒆𝟏𝟔⁄𝜼 ]
(20 × 10−3 ) = 𝐼0 [𝒆𝟐𝟎⁄𝜼 ]
Dividing the two equations,
0.6 𝒆𝟏𝟔⁄𝜼
= 𝟐𝟎⁄𝜼
20 𝒆
𝒆𝟏𝟔⁄𝜼 = (0.03) 𝒆𝟐𝟎⁄𝜼
Taking natural logarithms of both sides,
16 20
= ln (0.03) +
𝜂 𝜂
1
(16 − 20) = ln(0.03)
𝜂
1
(16 − 20) = −3.5065
𝜂
1
= 0.8766
𝜂
⸫ η = 1.1407

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Problem 4:
A germanium diode has a contact potential of 0.2 V and the concentration of acceptor impurity is
3x1020/m3. The area of the cross-section of the junction is 1 mm2 and 𝜀𝑟 = 16. Calculate the width of
depletion region and transition capacitance for reverse bias of a) 0.1 V and b) 10 V. (Assume charge
on each electron as 1.6x10-19 C)
Solution:
Given: V0 = 0.2 V, NA = 3x1020/m3; A = 1mm2; 𝜀𝑟 = 16
a) V = − 0.1 𝑉 (Negative as reverse bias)
𝜺 = 𝜺𝟎 . 𝜺𝒓 𝜖0 = 8.854 × 10−12
= (8.854 × 10−12 ). (16)
𝛆 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎

W.K.T., 𝑽𝑩 = (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽)
VB = 0.2 – (– 0.1)
VB = 0.3 V
The width of the depletion region can be calculated from the formula,
𝒒𝑵𝑨 𝑾𝟐
𝑽𝑩 =
𝟐𝜺
(1.6 × 10−19 )(3 × 1020 )𝑊 2
0.3 =
2 × (1.416 × 10−10 )
48𝑊 2
0.3 =
(2.832 × 10−10 )
W2 = 1.7708 × 10−12
W = 1.33 µm

𝜺𝑨
The transition capacitance, CT =
𝑾
(1.416 × 10−10 )(1 × 10−6 )
𝐶𝑇 =
1.33 × 10−6
(1.416 × 10−16 )
=
1.33 × 10−6
= 106.46 × 10−12 F
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝒑𝑭

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b) V = − 10 𝑉 (Negative as reverse bias)

𝑽𝑩 = (𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽)
VB = 0.2 – (– 10) = 10.2 V
The width of the depletion region can be calculated from the formula,
𝒒𝑵𝑨 𝑾𝟐
𝑽𝑩 =
𝟐𝜺
(1.6 × 10−19 )(3 × 1020 )𝑊 2
10.2 =
2 × (1.416 × 10−10 )
48𝑊 2
10.2 =
(2.832 × 10−10 )
W2 = 6.02 × 10−11
W = 7.75 µm
𝜺𝑨
The transition capacitance, CT =
𝑾
(1.416 × 10−10 )(1 × 10−6 )
𝐶𝑇 =
7.75 × 10−6
𝑪𝑻 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕 𝒑𝑭

Problem 5:
Find the voltage at which the reverse current in a germanium PN junction diode attains a value of
90% of its saturation value at room temperature.
Solution:
Given: η = 1 for Ge; VT = 26 mV at room temperature; 𝐼 = − 0.9 𝐼0
Using the Current diode equation,
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 (𝒆𝑽⁄𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏)
−𝟑 )
− 0.9 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 [𝒆𝑽⁄(𝟏×𝟐𝟔×𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏]
−3 )
− 0.9 + 1 = 𝑒 𝑉⁄(26×10
−3 )
0.1 = 𝑒 𝑉⁄(26×10
𝑉
= ln (0.1)
26 × 10−3
𝑉 = (−2.3026)(26 × 10−3 )
⸫ 𝑽 = −𝟓𝟗. 𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝑽(The negative sign indicates the reverse voltage applied to the diode)

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Problem 6:
Determine the ideal reverse saturation current density in the silicon PN junction at T = 300 °K.
Consider the following parameters in the silicon PN junction:
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐷 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3; 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3; 𝐷𝑛 = 25 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠; 𝐷𝑝 = 10 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠; 𝜀𝑟 = 11.7
𝜏𝑝0 = 𝜏𝑛0 = 5 × 10−7 𝑠
Solution:
The reverse saturation current density,
𝑰𝟎 𝐪𝐃𝐩 𝐏𝐧𝟎 𝐪𝐃𝐧 𝐧𝐩𝟎
𝑱𝟎 = = +
𝑨 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒏
The diffusion length for the holes and electrons is given by,
𝑳𝒑 = √𝑫𝒑 . 𝝉𝒑𝟎 ; 𝑳𝒏 = √𝑫𝒏 . 𝝉𝒏𝟎

𝐿𝑝 = √(10 × 10−4 )(5 × 10−7 ) = 2.236 × 10−5

𝐿𝑛 = √(25 × 10−4 )(5 × 10−7 ) = 3.535 × 10−5

By the law of mass action;
𝒏𝟐𝒊 𝒏𝟐𝒊
𝒏𝒑𝟎 = ; 𝒑𝒏𝟎 =
𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
(1.5 × 1016 )2
𝑛𝑝0 = = 2.25 × 1010
1022
(1.5 × 1016 )2
𝑝𝑛0 = = 2.25 × 1010
1022
⸫

−19 )
10 × 10−4 × 2.25 × 1010 25 × 10−4 × 2.25 × 1010
𝐽0 = (1.602 × 10 [ + ]
2.236 × 10−5 3.535 × 10−5
𝑱𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑨/𝒎𝟐
ie., 𝟒. 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑨/𝒄𝒎𝟐

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