Subject: Turbo Machinery

Course Code: MEC602

Syllabus:
Module No 1: (8hrs.)
1.1 Steam Generators:
Layout of Thermal Power Plant, Classification of boiler, Difference
between Fire tube and Water tube boiler with examples, low pressure
and high pressure boilers, once through boiler, important features of
HP boilers, Mountings and accessories, Equivalent evaporation of
boilers, Boiler performance, Boiler efficiency.
1.2 Introduction to turbo machines:
1.2.1 Review of Thermodynamic principles, compressible gas flow
relations, estimation of non-dimensional performance parameters for
incompressible flow, specific speed.
1.2.2 Basic Euler’s theory of turbo machines and it application to
pumps, turbines and compressors.

Note: Weightage as per the hour allotted to Module: 25 marks (Max)

Definition of Turbo Machines:
A turbo machine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a
flowing fluid and rotating element due to dynamic action. This results in
change of pressure and momentum of the fluid.

1.1 Steam Generators:

A steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water is
heated, vaporized and converted into steam at a pressure higher than the
atmospheric pressure. The heat energy required for steam generation is
produced by burning fuel in the furnace. The steam produced in the boiler
may be used for producing power, for industrial processes or for heating
purposes.

 Layout of Thermal Power Plant:

Fig. 1
 Layout of Thermal Power Plant:

The entire arrangement for the thermal power plant is divided into the four
main circuit.
a) Coal and ash circuit
b) Air and flue gases circuit
c) Feed water and steam circuit
d) Cooling water circuit

a) Coal and ash circuit:

• In coal and ash circuit, coal received in a coal storage yard of power
station is transferred to the furnace by coal handling plant. After
necessary preparation of the coal, from coal handling plant is taken to
the boiler bunkers by means of a bucket conveyers. Then the coal is
stored in the bunkers.
• Coal from bunkers fall into the hoppers by gravity and finally the
requisite quantity of coal either goes on falling directly on a great or
where the coal spreaders are provided, coal is spread in the great up to
rear end with help of a cold spreaders.
• Ash is product of a coal combustion in the furnace, along with flue
gases. About 20% of the Ash falls in the bottom ash hopper of a boiler
and is periodically remove mechanically.

b) Air and flue gases circuit:

• In air flue gases circuit, the air is taken from the atmosphere by the
action of a force draught fan and passed through an air preheater where
it is preheated by the flue gases. The preheated air is supplied to the
furnace in order to provide air for combustion of fuel. Due to
combustion of fuel, hot gases are produced.
• The flue gases from the furnace pass over boiler tubes and superheater
tube. Then flue gas is passed through economizer in which water is
heated and air preheater in which air is heated. Flue gases is then passed
 through a dust and fly ash collecting device where suspend dust and fly
ash are removed from it. The fly ash is separated from flue gases by
means of an ash precipitator and flue gases is exhausted to the
atmosphere through chimney.

c) Feed Water and Steam Circuit:

• The steam from turbine is condensed in the condenser, then it is heated
in a closed feed water heater by means of extracted steam from the low
pressure extraction point of the turbine. This heated water then passes
through evaporator and few more water heaters before it is made to go
to the boiler through the economizer.
• The reduced quantity of water is made up by adding water in the feed
water system. Raw water from river or canal system passes through
evaporator, is heated to steam and condensed into water in the
evaporator and then passes through feed water pump into the feed water
system in the boiler.
• In the boiler drum and tubes water circulates, steam which contains
particles of water from the boiler drum is further heated in the
superheater before used for turbines.
• The steam then expands in the high pressure turbine and is taken to the
reheat boiler where its temperature is increased or it is superheated and
then passed to low pressure turbine, from this turbine it is exhausted
through the condenser into the hot well.
d) Cooling Water Circuit:
• Ample quantity of cooling water is required to condense the steam from
turbines in the condenser and maintaining low pressure in it.
• If river or canal is nearby, cooling water may be taken from the upper
side of the river or canal and after passing it through the condenser may
be discharged to the lower side of the river or canal; such a system will
be possible only when ample water is flowing through the river or canal
throughout the year.
• When sufficient quantity of water is not available, water from the
condenser may be used either in a cooling pond or cooling towers and
reused.

 Main components of a thermal power plant:

Boiler: It is a closed pressure vessel in which the water is converted into
steam with the help of a heat produced by the burning of a coal. The
modern high pressure boilers are all water tube boilers in which water
flows through the tubes and the combustion gases flow across the tubes.
Super heater: It is used to rise the temperature of a steam above its
saturation temperature. The superheater is located at hottest part of the
boiler in the furnace so that heat is transferred to steam by superheater
from the hot gases.
Reheater: It is used to raise the temperature of the steam after it has
expanded in the high pressure turbine. After reheating the steam supplied
to the low pressure steam turbine.
Economizer: The function of the economizer is to increase temperature
of a feed water using waste heat of a flue gases leaving the boiler through
chimney. It is located before air preheater and after superheater.
Air preheater: The function of the air preheater is to increase the
temperature of air before it supply to the furnace using heat from flue
gases passing through chimney.
Steam turbine: The function of the steam turbine is to convert the heat
energy of a steam into turbine rotational power at turbine shaft. In modern
thermal power plant steam turbine generally has a 3 cylinder tendum
compound machine consisting of high pressure stage cylinder,
intermediate pressure state cylinder and low pressure stage cylinder.
 Generator: The function of electric generator is to convert mechanical
that is rotational power of a turbine shaft into electric energy. The
generator shaft is coupled to the turbine shaft.
Condenser: Function of a condenser is to condense the steam which
coming from the low pressure turbine. A condenser is a heat exchanger
consists of a large cylindrical vessel containing large number of a brass
tube through which cooling water circulated and steam from outside the
surface of a tube.
Cooling tower: The function of a cooling tower is to cool the hot water
coming from the condenser. In the cooling tower the hot water is cooled
with the help of the atmospheric air.
Feed water pump: It is used to supply feed water coming from the
condenser to the boiler at desired high pressure.
Circulating water pump: It is used to circulate cooling water in the
condenser and cooling tower closed circuit.
Coal handling plant: It is used to unload the coal when the coal
transported to the plant site by rail wagon. Then coal is supplied to the
boiler raw coal hunkers. Coal mill is used to pulverize the raw coal into a
fine powder before it is burnt in the boiler furnace.
Draught system: The function of draught system is to create pressure
difference which is required to introduce desired quantity of air to the
boiler furnace and to carry away the burnt product of a combustion and
discharge to atmosphere. Forced draught fan (F.D.) is placed in front of a
boiler and it is used to push the air through the air preheater and then the
furnace of the boiler whereas Induced draught fan (I.D.) is placed near the
base of a chimney and it draws flue gases through the interior of the boiler
and dust extracting equipment and the flue gases to through the chimney.
Ash precipitators: The function of s precipitator East to remove fly ash
and dust particles from the flue gases before these escape into the
atmosphere through Chimney to avoid the air pollution.
Chimney: It is Ferro concrete structure lined with fire bricks. It is used to
escape flue gases to atmosphere at 30 m above the ground.
Water treatment plant: The function of a water treatment plant is to
remove impurities of a water before water supply to the boiler.
Control room: The performance of all the plant equipment is constantly
monitored here with the help of sophisticated instrumentation and
controllers.

 Classification of Boilers:
1. According to Relative Passage of Water and Hot Gases
(a) Water Tube Boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through a
number of small tubes which are surrounded by hot combustion gases,
e.g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Benson boilers, etc.
(b) Fire Tube Boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler
tubes, which are surrounded by water
e.g., Lancashire, Cochran, locomotive boilers, etc.
2. According to Water Circulation Arrangement
(a) Natural Circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density
difference of hot and cold water
e. g., Babcock and Wilcox boilers, Lancashire boilers, locomotive
boilers etc.
(b) Forced Circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path,
therefore, the steam generation rate increases
e.g., Benson, La Mount, Velox boilers, etc.

3. According to the Use

(a) Stationary Boiler: These boilers are used for power generation in
thermal power plants or process steam in plants.
(b) Portable Boiler: These are small units of mobile boilers and are
used for temporary uses at the sites.
(c) Locomotive: These are specially designed boilers. They produce
steam to drive railway engines.
(d) Marine Boiler: These are used on ships.

4. According to Position of the Boilers

(a) Horizontal boiler: Axis of boiler shell is placed horizontally.
(b) Inclined boiler: Axis of boiler shell is placed inclined to surface.
(c) Vertical boiler: Axis of boiler shell is placed vertically.

5. According to Position of Furnace

(a) Internally Fixed: The furnace is located inside the shell
e. g., Cochran, Lancashire boilers, etc.
(b) Externally Fixed: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell
e. g., Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling boilers, etc.

6. According to Pressure of Steam Generated

(a) Low-Pressure Boiler: A boiler which produces steam at pressures of
15-20 bar is called a low-pressure boiler. This steam is used process
heating.
(b)Medium-Pressure Boiler: It has a working pressure of steam from 20
bar to 80 bar and is used for power generation or combined use of power
generation and process heating.
(c)High-Pressure Boiler: It produces steam at a pressure of more than 80
bar.

7. According to Charge in the Furnace

(a) Pulverised fuel
(b) Supercharged fuel
(c) Fluidised bed combustion boilers
Advantages of Steam Boiler:
• It is capable of supplying process heat at constant temperature while
condensing.
• It is cheap, and can be produced everywhere.
• It is a clean, odorless and tasteless source of heat energy.
• It can be used repeatedly again and again as well as first used for
power generation and then for process heating.
• Its flow rate can easily be controlled and readily distributed.

 Fire tube and Water tube boiler:

 Difference between Fire tube and Water tube boilers:

Fire-tube boiler Water-tube boiler

The hot flue gases pass through tubes and Water passes through tubes and hot flue
water surrounds them gases surrounds them
These are operated at low pressure s up to 20 The working pressure is high enough, up to
bar 250 bar in supercritical boilers.
The rate of steam generation and quality of The rate of steam generation and quality of
steam are low, hence not suitable for power steam are better and suitable for power
generation generation
Load fluctuations cannot be handled Load fluctuations are easily handled
It re quires more floor area for a given It requires less floor area for a given output
output.
They are bulky and difficult to transport. These are light in weight, hence
transportation is not
a problem
Overall efficiency is up to 75% Overall efficiency with an economizer is up
to 90%.
The drum size is large and damage caused by I f any water tube is damaged, it can be easily
bursting is large replaced or repaired
Simple in design, easy to erect and low Complex de sign, difficult to erect and high
maintenance cost maintenance cost
Less skill is required for efficient operation Skilled operators are required

The treatment of feed water is not very Treatment of feed water i s very essential as
essential, as overheating due to scale small scale deposits inside the tubes can
formation cannot burst the thick shell. cause overheating and bursting

Used in process industry Use in large power plants

 Characteristics of a Good Boiler:
• The boiler should have maximum steam generation rate with
minimum fuel consumption.
• Its initial cost, running and maintenance cost should not be high.
• Its erection time should be less and its parts should be easily
dismantable.
• The boiler should have reliable controls and safety apparatus.
• It should have high rate of heat transfer and better combustion
efficiency.
• It should be able to accommodate the load variation.
• It should occupy less floor space.
• It should be trouble free, and require less attention and less
maintenance.
• Mud should not get deposited on the heating surface. Soot or scale
should not be deposited on the tubes.
• All parts of the boiler should be accessible for cleaning and
inspection.

 Types of Fire Tube Boiler:

1) Cochran Boiler:
Construction: It is a vertical, coal or oil-fired, fire-tube boiler. It is the
modification of a simple vertical boiler with increase in the heating
surface area. The flue gases from the furnace are passed through a number
of small tubes surrounded by water. Cochran boiler consists of a
cylindrical shell with a hemispherical crown, grating, fire box,
combustion chamber, number of smoke tubes, smoke box, chimney and
various mountings. The grate is placed at the bottom of the hemispherical
furnace. The coal is fed into the grate through the fire door and ash formed
is collected in the ash pit located just below the grate, and then it is
removed manually.
Working: The fuel is burnt on grating. The hot flue gases pass through a
short flue to a combustion chamber, small horizontal smoke tubes and are
then collected in the smoke box, from where they are discharged to the
atmosphere through the chimney. The heat is transferred to water by
radiation through the dome of the fire place and by convection from the
walls of the smoke tubes. On heating, the water is vaporised and converted
into steam. The generated steam is collected in the steam space above the
water. This steam is then taken for use through the main steam stop valve.
The man hole is provided in the crown of boiler for periodic cleaning and
maintenance. A mud hole is provided at the bottom for draining out the
muddy water from the boiler. The pressure gauge, water gauge, blow off
cock, feed check valve, feed pump, fusible plug and chimney are provided
for proper functioning of the boiler.
Advantages:
• It is very compact and requires minimum floor area.
• Any type of fuel can burn in the boiler.
• It is well suited for small industries.
• It gives about 70% thermal efficiency with coal firing.
Disadvantages:
• Low rate of steam generation.
• Inspection and maintenance is difficult.
• High room head is required for its installation due to the vertical
design.
• It has limited pressure range.
 Fig. Cochran Boiler

2) Lancashire Boiler:
Construction: The boiler consists of a large shell supported by refractory
brick masonry. Two large, horizontal and parallel flue gas tubes pass
through shell. The fire place is located in front of the flue tubes. In brick
work, a flue passage A below the boiler shell, two flue passages B and C
at the sides of boiler are formed. The flue passages B and C are connected
to a chamber and then to the chimney. The dampers in the form of sliding
doors are located at the end of side flues to control the flow of gases. These
dampers are operated by a chain passing over a pulley at the front of the
boiler. The boiler is also provided with usual mountings like pressure
gauge, water level indicator, steam stop valve, safety valve, low water and
high steam safety valve, man hole on the top of the shell. The low water
and high steam alarm gives an audio signal for low water level and high
steam pressure. The blow off cock, and feed check valve are also in front
of the boiler and the fusible plug is provided in the main flues just over
the grates to prevent the overheating of boiler tubes by extinguishing the
fire, when water level falls below a particular level.
Working: The fuel is burnt at the grating and the hot gases travel along
internal flue tubes followed by flue passage A and then in side passages
B and C. The flue gases are then collected in the chamber before they lead
to the atmosphere through a chimney. The hot flue gases transfer its
maximum heat contents to water during its long passages. The water is
converted into steam and collected in the steam space in the shell and it is
then taken out through the steam stop valve for use.

Fig. Lancashire Boiler

Advantages:
• Its heating surface area per unit volume is considerably large.
• Its maintenance is easy.
• This boiler can easily handle the load fluctuation to large steam
capacity.
• It is highly suitable for process industries.

Disadvantages:
• This boiler required more floor space.
• This boiler has a leakage problem.
• It requires more time to generate steam.
• It cannot generate high-pressure steam if required.

3) Locomotive Boiler:
Construction: It is an internally fired, horizontal, multi-tube mobile, fire-
tube boiler. It has horizontal shell, 1 .5 m is diameter and 4 m long. The
coal is fed into the fire box through the fire door and burnt on the grate.
The entire fire box is properly heated by deflecting the flue gases from the
grate by a bridge. The heat is transferred to water through the walls of the
fire box, smoke tubes and super-heater tubes.
Working:
In the locomotive boiler, first, the solid fuel (coal) is inserted on the
grate and is ignited from the fire hole. The burning of the fuel starts and
it creates hot flue gases. A fire brick arch is provided that makes the flow
of hot flue gases to a definite path before entering into the long tubes (fire
tubes). It also prevents the entry of burnt solid fuel particles into the fire
tubes.
The hot flue gases pass through the long fire tubes and heat the water
surrounding them. Due to the heating, the water gets converted into
saturated steam and gets collected at the top.
 The saturated steam from the dome enters into the main steam pipe
through the regulator valve. The steam travels in the main steam pipe and
reaches to the superheater header. Form header, the steam enters into
superheater element pipes. Here it is superheated and then the superheated
steam enters into the steam pipe of the smoke box.
The steam from the superheater goes to the cylinder containing
piston. The superheated steam made the piston moves within the cylinder.
The piston is connected to the wheels of the steam engine and the wheels
start rotating.
The exhaust steam from the cylinder enters into the blast pipe. The
burnt gases and smoke after passing through the fire tubes enter into the
smokebox. The exhaust steam coming out from the blast pipe pushes the
smoke out of the boiler through the chimney. Here the smoke cannot
escape out from the boiler on its own, so artificial draft is created by
exhaust steam coming out from the steam engine. This artificial draft
created pushes the smoke out of the smokebox and creates suction for the
hot flue gases.

Fig. Locomotive Boiler

Advantages:
• It is portable and can be easily transported.
• It is capable of meeting sudden and fluctuating demands of steam.
• It is a cost-effective boiler.
• It has a high steam generation rate.
• It is compact in size and its operation is easy.
Disadvantages:
• It faces the problems of corrosion and scale formation.
• Unable to work under heavy load conditions because of overheating
problems.
• Some of its water spaces are difficult to clean.

4) Scotch Marine Boiler:

Construction: The boiler consists of a cylindrical shell that houses one to
four cylindrical, corrugated steel furnaces. These furnaces are internally
fired and surrounded by water. A combustion chamber is located above
the furnace and it is also surrounded by water. The boiler has a number of
tubes passing from the front plate of combustion chamber to the front plate
of the shell. These tubes are surrounded by water. It is a self-contained
boiler and supported by a cradle, securely fastened to the frame of the
ship. Adjustable stays hold the boiler in place in the cradle .
Working: The fuel burns in the furnace on the grate of fuel move to the
combustion chamber. Then they travel to the smoke box through the fire
tubes and finally get discharged to the atmosphere through uptake and
chimney. The heat is transferred to water around the furnace, combustion
chamber, and fire tubes and steam is generated. It has excellent steaming
capacity of about 1000 kg/h at a pressure of 17 bar.
Advantages:
• The Boiler is made with a lot of heating surface, normally five Square
feet of heat transfer surface per boiler HP. This produces higher
resistance and efficiency to fouling.
• It produces a higher level of energy, which allows it to generate a
higher steam flow rate with a minimum amount of pressure.
• Its large-sized shell allows more flexibility in water treatment and
blowdown maintenance.
Disadvantages:
• It requires more loads of area for a based output.
• The variations in loads cannot be easily controlled.
• Mostly used in small power plants.
• The steam rate formation and quality are not much than the water tube
boilers for suitable power generation.

Fig. Scotch Marine Boiler

 Types of Water tube Boilers:

1) Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

Construction: The main parts of this boiler are as follow.

1. Steam separator drum: This drum is situated upside of the boiler. It is

larger diameter drum in which water and steam placed together. The one
half of the drum is filled with water and the other half is remaining for
steam.
2. Water tubes: Water tubes are situated bottom side of the drum. Water
flows from the drum to the tubes.
3. Uptake header: Steam separator drum and water tubes are connected by
the two tubes. One is known as uptake header and the other one is known
as down take header. The steam from the water tubes to the drum flow by
the uptake header.
4. Down take header: The water flows form the drum to the water tubes
through down take header. When the steam flows by uptake header to the
drum, at the same time water flows from drum to the water tubes by down
take header which maintains the flow of water.
5. Grate: The place in the furnace, where the fuel is placed and burn
known as grate.
6. Furnace: The furnace is the place where the fuel burns. This is situated
at the down side of the water tubes. When the fuel burns, the flue gases
generate. This gases flow upper side and passes through water tube, which
heat the water and convert it into steam.
7. Super heater: Super heater is situated upper side of the water tube. One
end of super heater is connected to the drum and other end is for process
work. Steam flows from the drum to the super heater, where it heated by
the flue gases and send for the process work.
8. Baffles: Baffles are provided between the water tubes. The main
function of baffles is to divert the flue gases, so it flows more than one
time through the tube and more heat is transfer.
Other mounting like safety valve, blow off valve, fuel door, inspection
door, mud box, feed valve, stop valve, pressure gauge etc. are also
provided for safely working of boiler.
Working: The working of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is first the water
starts to come in the water tubes from the drum through down take header
with the help of a boiler feed pump which continues to feed the water
against the drum pressure. The water present in the inclined water tubes
gets heated up by the hot flue gases produced by the burning of coal on
the fire grate.
These fuel gases are uniformly heated the water tube with the help
of a baffle plate which works deflect the flues gas uniform throughout the
tubes which absorbed the heating maximum from the flue gases.
Continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and
water tubes to the drum is thus maintained. The circulation of water is
maintained by convective current and it’s known as Natural Circulation.
The Steam generated is moved upward, due to density difference
and through the up-take header, it gets collected at the upper side in the
boiler drum. Anti-priming pipe inside the drum which works separates the
moisture from the steam and sends it’s to the superheater.
The superheater receives the water-free steam from an anti-priming
pipe. It increases the temperature of the steam to the desired level and
transfers it to the main steam stop valve of the boiler. The superheated
steam stop valve is either collected in a steam drum or send it’s inside the
steam turbine for electricity generation.
Advantages:
• Its evaporating capacity is quite high compared with other boilers
(20,000 to 40,000 kg/h). The operating pressure lies between 11.5 to
17.5bar
• The draught losses are minimum.
• The defective tubes can be replaced easily.
• The entire boiler rests on an iron structure, independent of brick
structure.
Disadvantages:
• It is less suitable for impure and sedimentary water, as a small deposit
of scale may cause the overheating and bursting of tubes. Hence, water
treatment is very essential for water tube boilers.
• Failure in feed water supply even for a short period is liable to make
the boiler overheated. Hence the water level must be watched very
carefully during the operation of a water tube boiler.

Fig. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

2) Stirling Boiler:
Construction: It is a water-tube boiler and has two water steam drums at
the top and a mud drum at the bottom. These drums are connected by a
number of small bent tubes through which water flows. The use of bent
tubes avoids the thermal stresses at the joints near the drum due to
expansion and contraction. The steam drums containing water and steam
are connected in series by the tubes above and below the water level. The
upper tubes are steam-circulating tubes and are used to equalize the
pressure and the lower water circulating tubes maintain same level of
water in all drums.
Working: Water is supplied to the first drum, which then passes to the
mud drum through the rear bank of the tubes. The suspended impurities
are collected in the mud drum. The water from the mud drum is circulated
to other upper drums. The flue gases from the grate rise above and pass
over the bent tubes and then are deflected by baffles for their proper
distribution. Finally they are discharged to the atmosphere through the
chimney.

Fig. Stirling Boiler

 Difference between High pressure and Low pressure boiler:

High pressure boiler Low pressure boiler

1. In this type of boilers, steam In this type of boilers, steam

pressure is above 1bar. pressure never exceeds 1bar.

2. Hot water pressure always Water pressure never exceeds

exceeds 18 bar 18 bar

Temperature will always be Temperature will never be

3. greater than 250℃ greater than 250℃.

4 For the safety due to high working Since these boilers work on low
pressures, these boilers are working pressure, they don’t
required to be monitored all the need continuous monitoring.
time.
5 Applications involve production These are used for water
of steam in industries and in heating and steam from it used
power plant to heat rooms.
6 For similar size, the output is For similar size, the output is
relatively high. relatively less.
7 High maintenance is required Low maintenance required
8 Operating costs are relatively Operating costs are relatively
higher low.
 High-Pressure Boilers:
Features of High Pressure Boilers:
1) Forced Circulation of Water: In all modern high pressure boilers, the
forced circulation of water is maintained with the help of pumps. It
increases the mean temperature of heat addition and evaporation capacity
of the boiler.
2) Large Number of Small Diameter Tubes: The surface area to volume
ratio (area density) increases with the use of small-diameter tubes. It helps
in high rate of heat transfer to water flowing inside the tubes. Therefore,
a large number of small diameter tubes in a zigzag manner are used for
water circulation in forced circulation. Further, use of a short tube reduces
the pressure loss and gives better control over the quality of steam.
3) Higher Steam Pressure and Temperature: The steam is generated at
a pressure between 80 bar to 300 bar and temperature of 450°C to 585°C
with two superheaters in series. The use of such steam is very suitable for
power generation. It increases thermal efficiency of the plant and reduces
the moisture contents in low pressure stages of expansion in the turbine.
4) Improved Mode of Heating: Modern high pressure boilers use the
heat transfer by radiation along conduction and convection. The total heat
receiving equipment is divided into several parts, so they can easily be
located in various zones of the furnace for most efficient heat transfer to
the water circuit.
5) Improved Method of heating: The high pressure boilers use the
following methods of heating for improved heat transfer rate:
• Evaporation of water above critical pressure of steam
• Heating of water by mixing superheated steam for high heat transfer
rate
• Increasing the combustion air velocity over the tube
6) Pressurised Combustion: For increasing the combustion rate and thus
heat-release rate, pressurised air is used in the furnace. It gives large
amount of heat in a small space.
7) Compactness: The high rate of heat transfer inside the boiler reduces
the overall size of the boiler and the boiler becomes compact.

8) High Efficiency: High-pressure boilers have better firing methods,

monitoring, furnace conditions, control of flue gases and water velocity.
Thus, the efficiency of such boilers ranges from 85 to 90%.
9. Intensive Heating: The furnace temperature in high-pressure boilers is
high enough, and therefore, 70% of heat is transferred to water by
radiation, which is a faster way of heat transfer.
10. Once through Construction: In high-pressure boiler operating at and
above the critical pressure, the water directly flashes into steam in the tube
itself. It eliminates the need of a boiler drum.

Types of High Pressure Boilers:

1) La Mont Boiler:
Working principle:
The La Mont boiler is a high-pressure, water-tube type boiler. It works on
a forced-circulation principle. The water circulation is maintained by a
centrifugal pump. The feed water is circulated through the water walls and
drums continuously and prevents the tubes from being overheated. The
feed water first passes through the economiser. Most of the sensible heat
is supplied to the feed water in the economiser. Then water enters the
boiler drum. A water circulation pump draws water from the drum and
delivers to the tubes of the evaporating section, where water is heated in
a large number of small-diameter tubes and a mixture of steam and water
is formed. This mixture is stored in the drum. The convective superheater
draws the wet steam from the drum and heats the steam for its
superheating. The superheated steam is supplied to a prime mover. The
La Mont boiler generates approximately 50 tonnes of steam per hour at a
pressure of 130 bar and a temperature of 500°C.
Advantages:
• With the use of small diameter tubes, the high heat-transfer rate is
maintained.
• The multiple-tube circuit gives flexibility for suitable location of heat
transfer equipment.
• With forced circulation of water through the tubes, a high
evaporation rate is achieved.

Fig. La Mont Boiler

2) Benson Boiler ( Once through a boiler)

Working Principle:
The Benson boiler is a high-pressure (supercritical), drumless, once-
through, water-tube boiler. The boiler uses forced-circulation heat-
transfer mechanism and uses oil as fuel. It operates at a pressure of 250
bar, which is more than the critical pressure of water, and thus the latent
heat of vaporization becomes zero. The feed water enters one end of the
tube and comes out as superheated steam from the other end. Thus, it is
also called a once through boiler.

The feed pump increases the water pressure to supercritical pressure and
forces the water through tubes. It first passes through the economiser,
where it is heated. Then it passes through the radiant water heater, where
the water is further heated and its temperature increases to almost critical
temperature. It then enters the transit heater, gets converted into steam and
then passes through the convective superheater and finally becomes
available for applications.
The thermal efficiency of a Benson boiler reaches up to 90% and it
generates approximately 135 tonnes of steam per hour. It can be started
within 15 minutes to produce the required flow rate of steam.
Advantages:
• It requires less floor space.
• Its weight is 20% less than the other boilers.
• It can be started or stopped very quickly.
• Parts can be transported very easily and can be assembled at the site
because there is no drum.
• It can be operated economically.
• Explosion hazards are less severe because it consists of only small-
diameter tubes and has very less storage capacity.
Fig. Benson boiler
Boiler Mountings:
The boiler mountings are the different fittings and devices which are
mounted on a boiler shell for proper functioning and safety. These form
an integral part of the boiler. These are in two groups:
(a) Mountings for Safety:
Safety valve (2 numbers)
Water-level indicator (2 numbers)
Fusible plug (l number)
(b) Mountings for Control:
Pressure gauge (l number)
Steam stop valve (l number)
Feed check valve (l number)
Blow off cock (l number)
Man hole (l number)
Mud box (l number)

A) Safety Valves: When there is a sudden drop in steam requirements,

the steam pressure in the boiler will increase. The main function of a
safety valve is to prevent under such a condition the steam pressure in the
boiler exceeding a predetermined maximum pressure for which the boiler
is designed. This is automatically done by opening of the valve and
discharging of the steam to the atmosphere as soon as the pressure inside
the boiler increases above the predetermined value. The safety valves are
directly placed on the top of the boiler shell. The different types of the
safety valves which are commonly used are discussed below.
Spring-Load Safety Valve: This type of safety valve is commonly used
now-a-days for stationary as well as mobile boilers. It is loaded with
spring instead of weights. The spring is made from a square steel rod in
helical form.
A spring-loaded safety valve commonly used on Locomotive boiler
is shown in Figure. It consists of two valves, each of which is placed over
a valve seat fixed over a branch pipe as shown in the figure. The two
branch pipes are connected to a common block which is fixed on the shell
of the boiler. The level has two pivots each of which is placed over each
respective valve. The lever is attached with a spring at its middle that pulls
the lever in downward direction. The lower end of the spring is attached
to the back as shown in the figure. Thus the valves are held tight to the
seats by the spring- force. The valves are lifted against the spring when
the steam pressure is greater than the working pressure and allows the
steam to escape from the boiler till the pressure in the boiler reaches
working pressure. The lever has an extension which projects into the
driver's cabin. The driver can release the pressure if required just by
raising the lever. The lever is connected loosely by a link to the block.
This limits the valve opening and prevents the lever blowing off in case
of spring failure. The valve is much lighter and compact compared with
other safety valves; therefore, they are preferred on all stationary and
mobile boilers.
 Figure of Spring-Load Safety Valve

High Steam Low Water Safety Valve: It is a combined safety

arrangement against high steam pressure and low water level in the boiler.
This is generally used in Lancashire boiler. It is actually a combination of
two valves, one of which is lever safety valve which blows off steam when
the working pressure of steam exceeds the preset value. The second valve
operates by blowing off the steam when the water level in the boiler falls
below predetermined level. This raises an alarm, so that corrective; action
can be taken by pumping in water.
A commonly used high steam tow water safety valve is shown in
Figure. It consists of two valves V1, and V2 of which the valve V1 rests
upon the valve seat and valve V2 is placed over the valve V1 which acts
as valve seat for valve V2.To maintain the pressure of the steam in the
boiler, it acts like a simple lever safety valve. The lever LI is hinged at its
one end and a weight W is hung from the other end as shown in the figure.
The pivot P is placed over a valve V1 and when the steam pressure
exceeds the normal limit, the valve V1 is lifted with the lever L, and The
valve V2 also. So the steam escapes through the passage between the
valve seat and the valve V1 till the pressure becomes normal.
Inside a boiler shell a lever L is hinged at the point P as shown in figure.
A weight W2 is connected to one end of the lever and a large weight W3
to the other end. The valve V2 is connected with a spindle, the lower end
of which has a weight W2. The knife edge K touches a collar C of the
spindle of the valve V2.
Under the normal level, the weight W3 remains in water and whole system
with weights is balanced. When the level of the water falls and the weight
W3 is uncovered, the system becomes unbalanced and the weight W3
moves in a downward direction (because its acting weight increases as
buoyancy force is decreased as it is partly uncovered). This causes the
knife edge to push the collar C with the valve V2 hi the upward direction.
So the steam escapes through the passage between the valves V1 and V2.
The escaping steam causes a loud noise as it passes through a narrow
passage. This noise warns the boiler attendant about the low water level
of the boiler, so mat corrective action may be initiated.

Figure of High Steam Low Water Safety Valve

B) Water Level Indicator: It is an important fitting which indicates water
level inside the boiler to be fitted in front of the boiler. The water indicator
shows the level or water in the boiler drum and warns the operator if by
hence the water level goes below a fixed mark, so that corrective action
may be taken in time to avoid any accident
A water level indicator used in low pressure boilers is shown is Figure. It
consists of three cocks and a glass tube. The steam cock 1 keeps the glass
tube in connection with the steam space and cock 2 puts the glass tube in
connection with the water space in the boiler The drain cock ‘3’ is used to
drain out tube water from the glass tube at intervals to ascertain that the
steam and water cocks are clear in operation. The glass tube is generally
protected with a shield.
For the observation of the Water level in the boiler, tube steam and water
cocks are opened and drain cock is closed. In this case, the handles are
placed in vertical position as shown in Figure. The steam enters from the
upper end of the glass tube and water enters from the lower end of the
tube. So the water level inside the boiler will be same as seen in the glass
tube.
The rectangular passage at the ends of the glass tube contains two balls.
In case, the glass tube is broken, the balls are carried along its passage to
the ends of glass tube and flow of water and steam out of the boiler is
prevented. The water level indicator can be taken out from boiler for
cleaning purposes by removing the bolts when the boiler is not working.
 Figure of Water level indicator

C) Pressure Gauge: A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of

the steam inside the boiler. The commonly used pressure gauge known as
Bourdon type pressure gauge is shown. It consists of an elastic metallic
type of elliptical cross-section and is bent in tube form of circular arc. One
end of the tube is fixed and connected to the steam space of the boiler and
other end is connected to a sector wheel through a link. The sector remains
in mesh with a pinion fixed on a spindle. A pointer as shown in the figure
is, attached to the spindle to read the pressure on a dial gauge.
 Figure of Bourdon tube pressure guage

When high-pressure steam enters the elliptical tube, the tube section tries
to become circular which causes the other end of the tube to move
outward. The movement of the closed end of the tube (other end) is
transmitted and magnified by the link and sector as shown in the figure.
The sector is hinged at the point H as shown in the figure. The magnitude
of the movement is indicated by the pointer on the dial.

D)Fusible Plug: The main object of the fusible plug is to put off the fire
in the furnace of the boiler when the water level in the boiler falls below
an unsafe level and thus avoid the explosion which may take place due to
overheating of die tubes and shell. This plug is generally fitted over the
crown of the furnace or over the combustion chamber.
A fusible plug which is commonly used is shown in Figure is a hollow
gun metal body screwed into the crown of the boiler grate, B is a second
hollow gunmetal plug screwed into the plug A. The third plug C is locked
with plug B by pouring a low melting point metal into groove provided
for the same.
Under normal water level condition in the boiler, this plug is covered with
water which keeps the temperature of the fusible metal below its melting
point but when the water level in the boiler falls low enough to uncover
the plug; the fusible metal between the plug B and C quickly melts and
the plug C drops out. The opening so made allow the steam to rush the
water into the furnace and extinguish the fire. The steam rushing out puts
out the fire and gives warning that the crown of the furnace is in danger
of being overheated.
 Figure of Fusible plug

E) Feed Check Valve: The function of the feed check valve is to allow
the supply of water to the boiler at high pressure continuously and to
prevent the back flow of water from the boiler when the pump pressure is
less than boiler pressure or when pump fails. A commonly used, feed
check valve is shown in Figure. It is fitted to the shell slightly below the
normal water level of the boiler. The lift of the non-return valve is
regulated by the end position of the spindle (E) which is attached with the
band wheel. The spindle can be moved upward or downward with the help
of hand wheel as the upper portion of the spindle is screwed to a nut.
At normal working Condition, the non-return valve is lifted due to the
pressure of water from the pump and the water is fed to boiler. But when
the pump pressure falls below boiler pressure or if the pump stops, non-
return valve is closed automatically due to the pressure of the water from
the boiler and prevents the escape of water from the boiler.
 Figure of Feed Check Valve

F) Blow-off Cock:
The blow-off cock is used for dual functions:
1. to empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, repair and inspection.
2. To discharge the mud and sediments carried with the feed water and
accumulated at the bottom of the boiler.

By periodic blow-off, the salt concentration in the boiler is also reduced.

Even with a small amount of dissolved salt, over a period of time, due to
the evaporation of water, the salt accumulates in the boiler, raising the salt
concentration. It is fitted to the lowest part of the boiler either directly
with the boiler shell or to a pipe connected with the boiler.
A commonly used type of blow-off cock is shown in Figure. It consists of
a conical plug fitted accurately into a similar casing. The plug has a
rectangular opening which may be brought with the line of the passage of
the casing by rotating the plug. This causes the water to be discharged
from the boiler. The discharging of water may be stopped by rotating the
plug again.
The blow-off cock should be operated only when the boiler is on if the
sediments are to be removed. This is because the sediments are forced out
quickly due to the high steam pressure in the boiler.

Figure of Blow off cock

G) Steam Stop Valve: It is the largest valve on the steam boiler and
usually fitted to the highest pan of the boiler shell.
The function of the stop valve is to regulate the flow of steam from the
boiler to the engine as per requirement and shut off the steam flow when
not required. A commonly used steam stop valve is shown in Figure. The
main body is made of cast steel. The valve, valve seat and the nut, through
which the valve spindle works, are made of brass for smooth working.
The spindle is passed through a gland to prevent the leakage of steam. The
spindle is rotated by means of a hand wheel. Due to the rotation of hand-
wheel, the valve may move up or down and it may close or open the
passage fully or partially for the flow of the steam. In locomotive boiler
the flow of steam is controlled by means of a regulator that is placed inside
the boiler shell and operated by a handle from the driver's cabin.
 Figure of Steam stop valve
H) Man Hole and Mud Box:
The man hole is provided on the boiler shell at a convenient position so
that a person can enter through it, inside the boiler for cleaning and
inspection purposes. The mud box is placed at the bottom of the boiler to
collect mud discharged through the blow-off cock. Therefore, it is
connected with the blow-off cock.

 Boiler Accessories:
A) Steam Separator:
A steam separator is installed on the steam main as well as on the branch
lines to separate any water particles present from the steam and improve
the quality of the steam going to the units. It is installed close to units on
main steam pipes. By change of direction of steam, steam cause
condensed water particles to be separated out and delivered to a point
where they can be drained away as condensate through a conventional
steam trap.
 Fig. Steam separator

B) Feed Pump:
The feed pump delivers feed water at a pressure higher than that in the
boiler. The commonly used feed pumps are the following:
(a) Rotary Pump: It is a high-speed centrifugal pump and is used to
deliver a large quantity of water into the boiler. It consists of an impeller
and a casing. The impeller shaft is driven by an electric motor or by a
prime mover. It utilizes a centrifugal force of the impeller for pumping
water.
(b) Reciprocating Pump: These are positive displacement type pumps.
The most popular type of reciprocating feed pump used in a boiler is a
duplex feed pump. It consists of a steam engine and a water pump side by
side. The reciprocating water pump is driven by the reciprocating steam
engine. The piston rods of the water pump and steam engine are coupled
together. So the steam engine and water pump operate simultaneously.
The steam generated in the boiler is used to run the steam engine. The
steam engine drives the water pump, Double acting pumps are commonly
used for medium-size boilers.
 Fig. Feed pump
C) Economizer: The economizer usefully extracts the waste heat of the
chimney gases to preheat the water before it is fed into the boiler.
Preheating of the boiler feed water have the following advantages:
(1) There is a saving of fuel as waste heat from die flue gases is used for
heating the feed water.
(2) Dissolved gases as air and CO2 are removed after preheating the feed
water, reducing corrosion and pitting.
(3) There will be less temperature strain in the boiler plates as the feed
water enters the boiler at a higher temperature.
(4) Circulation of the water is very well maintained as quick evaporation
is possible because of hot feed water.
(5) This unit improves the overall efficiency of the boiler by reducing the
fuel consumption.
A Green's economizer commonly used in Lancashire boiler is shown in
Figure. The economizer consists of vertical cast iron pipes which are fitted
with two headers, one at the bottom and other at the top. The feed water
is passed through the bottom header, pipes/pipes and top header and on to
the boiler. The hot gases pass over the external surface of the water tubes.
The heat from the hot gases is given to the feed water through the tube
surface. A safety valve is fitted on the top header for the safety of pipes
against any highest pressure of water that may be developed. A blow-off
valve (not shown in the figure) is also fitted at the lowest point of the
economizer to discharge the sediments collected.
To prevent the deposition of soot from the flue gases over the
economizer tubes, a set of scrapers is fitted over the pipes as shown in the
figure. This is necessary as the deposition of soot reduces drastically the
heat flow rate from the gases to the water. The soot is removed by moving
the scrapers over the pipes up and down continuously with the help of
chain and gear arrangement. The Soot removed from the pipes is collected
in soot chamber situated below the bottom header and removed
periodically.
The temperature of the feed water should not be less than 35°C
because there is a danger of corrosion of the cold pipe outer surfaces due
to the condensation of moisture and SO2 contained in the flue gases. By-
pass arrangement for the furnace gases must always be provided so that
the economizer may be put out of action when necessary (for repair or
inspection). Figure shows such an arrangement used with Lancashire
boiler.
(a) When hot gases are used for heating the feed water, the dampers A and
B are kept open and damper C is closed.
(b) When hot gases are to be bypassed for economizer inspection, the
dampers A and B are closed and damper C is kept open.
 Figure of Green Economizer
D) Air Preheater: Air- preheater, like economizer, recovers some portion
of the waste heat of the flue gases. Air supplied to the combustion
chamber is preheated by using the heat in the waste flue gases. Air
preheaters are placed after the economizer and before the gases enter the
chimney. The preheating of air offers the following advantages
(1) Waste heat from the flue gases is recovered for heating air and reduces
the fuel consumption by about 1.5% for each 100°C drop in gas
temperature.
(2) Inferior grades of coal can be burnt efficiently with preheated air.
(3) Combustion can be more efficient, and an intense flame can be
achieved in the furnace. This increases the evaporation rate of the boiler.
Air-preheaters can be classified as tubular type, plate type and
generative type. In tubular type, the hot flue gases pass through the tubes
and air is forced to flow over the tubes. The plate type consists of a number
of parallel plates. Air flows through the alternate spaces of the plates and
flue gas passes through the remaining passages. In regenerative type, a
wire mesh rotor is alternately heated by the flue gases-and then cooled by
the air and as a result the air is heated.
A tubular type commonly used in smaller boiler plants is shown in
Fig. 10.10. The hot gases are passed through the tubes and air circulates
around them. Air is forced to deflect by using baffles as shown in the
figure and compelled to move in a zigzag path for a number of times. This
increases the period of contact between the air and hot surface and air is
effectively heated. The soot and other material carried with gases are
collected in the hopper at the bottom and removed periodically through
the soot gate.

Fig. Air preheater

E) Superheater: Superheaters are used in boilers to increase the
temperature of the steam above its saturation temperature. This is done by
passing the steam through a small set of tubes and hot gases over them.
Superheated steam is absolutely essential for power generation.
The advantages of superheated steam are listed below:
(1) It reduces the specific steam consumption of engines and turbines.
(2) It reduces the condensation losses in the pipes and engine cylinder.
(3) It eliminates the erosion of the turbine blades in the last stages.
(4) The efficiency of the steam plant is higher with the use of superheated
steam.
The superheaters used in locomotive boilers and Babcock and Wilcox
boilers have already been described. The superheater commonly used in
Lancashire boiler is shown in. This superheater consists of two headers
and a set of superheater tubes made of high quality steel in the form of U-
tube. Superheater is located in the path of furnace gases where the
temperature of the gases is not less than 550°C.The superheater is located
just before the gases enter the bottom flue.
The amount of hot gases passed over the superheater tubes should
be in proportion to the amount of superheated steam passing through the
tubes. Otherwise, the tubes would be overheated. To avoid this, the
amounts of hot gases are diverted as shown in the figure. The superheater
is put out of action by turning the damper upward to the vertical position.
In this position of the damper, the gases coming out from the central flue
pass directly into the bottom flue without passing over the superheater
tubes.
The arrangement for getting superheated or wet steam is shown in
the figure. For getting superheated steam, the valves V1 and V2 are
opened and valve V3 is closed. And the damper is kept open as per the
quantity of steam flowing through the pipe. For this position the flow
direction of the steam is shown in the figure. If wet steam in required, then
the valves V1, V2 and gas damper are kept closed, and valve V3 is kept
open. In this case, the steam directly comes out from the boiler through
the valve V3. By adjusting die gas damper, the temperature of the steam
coming out of superheater is always maintained constant irrespective of
amount of steam passing through the superheater.
 Fig. Super heater

Evaporative Capacity of Boilers: The quantity of steam generated by a

boiler at full load is called the evaporative capacity of the boiler. The
performance of boilers is often measured in terms of evaporative
capacity. The evaporative capacity of a boiler can be expressed on the
basis of time, heating area, or fuel burned.

Evaporation rate = Mass of steam generated

(kg/hr.) Time period in hours

Equivalent evaporation of boilers: Equivalent evaporation is defined as

the amount of dry and saturated steam generated from feed water at 100°C
at normal atmospheric pressure. In short, it is defined as the amount of
steam generated from and at 100°C.
Let ms = Mass of steam generated at pressure
p and temperature T per hour in the boiler
h = Enthalpy of steam
= hf + x hfg for wet steam
= hg for dry and saturated steam
= hg + CP. (Tsup - Tsat) for superheated steam
hf1 = Enthalpy of water at feed temperature
mf = Mass of fuel burned per hour
me = Equivalent mass of dry & saturated steam generated from and at
100°C

The evaporation per kg of fuel

Mass of steam generated per hour 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
ma = =
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

• The total heat supplied to water in the boiler = ma(h – hf1)

Factor of Evaporation: It is defined as the ratio of heat received by 1
kg of feed water for evaporation under actual working conditions to that
received by 1 kg of water evaporated from and at 100°C.
Boiler Efficiency: The boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual
heat utilized in producing steam to the amount of heat liberated by
burning of fuel.