Mining Methods (and Processes)
Underground Mine Development
Dr. George Barakos April 03, 2023
1
Acknowledgement of Country
We respectfully acknowledge the Whadjuk Noongar people
on whose traditional lands we work and live.
We acknowledge Elders both past and present,
and pay our respects to all Indigenous peoples who walk this land.
2
Underground Mine Development – Outline
• Introduction to Underground Mining
• Definitions – Terminology
• Underground Mine Development
• Types of Underground Openings
• Primary Openings
• Secondary Openings
• Secondary Underground Infrastructure
3
(Source: Graeme Williams/Getty Images)
Introduction to
Underground Mining
Introduction to Underground Mining
Uniqueness of Underground Mining
6
Introduction to Underground Mining
Uniqueness of Underground Mining – Minimal Surface Disruption
(Source: TU Bergakademie Freiberg) (Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=utHWMJrr62c)
7
Introduction to Underground Mining
Uniqueness of Underground Mining – Minimal Surface Disruption or not?
(Source: wwwupertal. Creative Commons BY-BC 2.0) (Source: Ridgeway cave zone, 2004; https://www.geologyforinvestors.com/)
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Introduction to Underground Mining
Uniqueness of Underground Mining – Selectivity
• Cut-and-fill mining is one of the most selective
underground mining methods
(Source: modified after Wetherelt and van der Wielen)
• Caving methods have limited to no selectivity
9
(Source: Barakos, 2017)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Going Underground
Two scenarios for going underground:
• Transition from open pit mining
(shallow to intermediate depth deposits)
• Direct underground mining operations
(intermediate to deep deposits)
Decision (mainly) based on:
• Economic parameters
• Spatial conditions
• Environmental concerns
• Social arguments
10
(Source: Atlas Copco)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Going Underground
Every mineral deposit is unique in terms of shape, size, orientation, depth, strength…..
(Source: Atlas Copco, 2007) (Source: Florez-Gonzalez, 2019) (Source: Hamrin, 1980)
(https://doi.org/10.36487/ACG_rep/1905_0.3_Flores-Gonzalez/)
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Introduction to Underground Mining
Underground Mining Methods
• Room-and-pillar: ore recovered in open stopes leaving pillars
• Stope-and-pillar: ore recovered in open stopes leaving pillars
Unsupported
• Shrinkage stoping: ore excavated in horizontal slices
• Sublevel stoping: ore blasted by long holes from sublevels
• Cut-and-fill stoping: backfill material replaces spaces created
• Square-set stoping: using wooden square-sets for support Supported
• Stull stoping: using wooden stulls for support
• Longwall mining: typically for underground coal mining
• Sublevel caving: rock caves in intermediate sublevels Caving
• Block caving: rock is undercut and caves under its own weight
12
(Source: Barakos, 2017)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Unsupported Underground Mining Methods
Room-and-pillar mining Stope-and-pillar mining
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(Source: Barakos, 2019)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Unsupported Underground Mining Methods
(Source: Hamrin, 1997)
Sublevel open stoping Shrinkage stoping
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(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8UVLwRfRdg)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Supported Underground Mining Methods
(Source: Hamrin, 1997)
(Source: TU Bergakademie Freiberg)
Cut-and-fill mining Stull stoping
15
Introduction to Underground Mining
Caving Underground Mining Methods
(Source: George Barakos)
Longwall mining
Sublevel caving
Block caving 16
(Source: Atlas Copco, 2007)
Introduction to Underground Mining
Definitions & Terminology
• Adit: a horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven from the surface to provide access to the orebody
If an adit is driven through the hill or mountain to the surface on the opposite side, it is called a tunnel
• Drift: horizontal passageway used for access to the ore
• Portal: The structure surrounding the immediate entrance to a mine; the mouth of an adit or tunnel
• Shaft: A vertical or inclined excavation in rock to provide access to the orebody. Usually equipped with a hoist at the
top, which lowers and raises a conveyance for handling workers and materials
• Stope: opening from which ore is mined
• Ore pass: sub-vertical chut for movement of ore
• Decline or ramp: sloping underground spiral or inclined drift usually for machinery access
• Incline: entry to a mine that is not vertical (shaft) or horizontal (adit)
• Winze: internal shaft
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Introduction to Underground Mining
Definitions & Terminology
• Hangingwall: The rock on the upper side of a vein or ore deposit
• Footwall: The rock on the underside of a vein or ore structure
• Output: in general for underground mines:
• Small output mines have output of <4,000 tonnes/day. Hauling is done on several levels,
tonnage handled on each level is small, light equipment is used
• High output mines have output of >4,000 tonnes/day. A main haulage level is used
and all ore is dropped to that haulage level via ore passes
• Levels: include all the horizontal workings tributary to a shaft or ramp station. Ore excavated in a
level is transported to the shaft to be hoisted to the surface
• Crosscut: A borehole directed so as to cut through a rock strata or ore vein essentially
at right angles to the dip and strike of the rock strata, a vein, or a related structure
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Introduction to Underground Mining
Anatomy of an Underground Mine
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(Source: Rupesh Kumar Dubey, 1997)
Underground Mine Development
Underground Mine Development
Types of Underground Openings
• Primary Openings
• Shafts
• Adits or Drifts
• Inclines
• Declines
• Secondary Openings
• Inner ramps
• Ore passes
• Raises
• Draw Points
• Crosscuts
• Sublevels 21
(Source: Barakos, 2022)
Underground Mine Development
Cost of Underground Mine Development
Relationship between mining cost (per tonne), development cost (per tonne) and extent of development (m)
Total
Mining Production
Cost ($/t) Cost ($/t)
Min Total Mining Cost ($/t)
Development
Cost ($/t)
Optimum distance
between levels (m)
Level Interval (m)
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Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods
• Drill & Blast Cycle
(Source: Sandvik)
• Mechanical Excavation
• Raise boring (shafts)
• Roadheaders
(Source: Atlas Copco)
• Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)
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Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Drill & Blast Cycle
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(Source: Heinio, M., 1999; Rock Excavation Handbook for civil engineering)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Drill & Blast Cycle
25
(Source: Modified after Anon, 2015)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Mechanical Excavation – Roadheaders
26
(Source: Sandvik)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Mechanical Excavation – Roadheaders
27
(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkKV_p8H7LE)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Mechanical Excavation – Tunnel Boring Machines
• Faster advance rates
• Less maintenance
• Less ground support
• Safer way to excavate
28
(Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dJ6BfiPVoGs)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Mechanical Excavation – Tunnel Boring Machines
29
(Source: https://youtu.be/MI2LTGplRVw)
Underground Mine Development
Excavation Methods – Mechanical Excavation – Support
Shielding is also used in mechanical excavation with roadheaders or other
boring machines, when the roof in front of the mining face is unstable
30
(Source: Tunnel Engineering Services, 2019)
Types of Underground Openings
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts
• For shallow horizontal or dipping deposits
• Topography plays a major role
• High production and long life
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Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts
• Conventional extraction techniques are used for the
openings (horizontal or inclined), which are dimensioned
according to the equipment size, production capacities
and all other requirements of the mining operations.
(Source: Edgar Mine, 2019) (Source: Atlas Copco, 2007)
33
(Source: www.riskmanagementinsight.co.za)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts
• Rock Bolts • Welded wire mesh
• Dowels • Shotcrete
• Steel arches
(Source: www.mcarthurrivermine.com.au) (Source: https://miningandconstruction.com/) 34
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts – Profiles
• Orebody access
• Geological conditions
• Geotechnical conditions
• Ventilation
• Haulage requirements
• Common drive profiles
• Square (hard ground)
• Rectangular (hard ground)
• Arched
• Circle, oval (soft ground)
• Horse shoe (medium ground)
35
(Source: Morin, 2015; https://courses.engineering.queensu.ca/d2l/le/content/36482/viewContent/161336/View)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts – Profiles
36
(Source: Cline, 2011; SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2011)
It is impossible to begin mine planning and scheduling
without a good impresion of the type a size of
equipment available and how it might be applied
Design of stopes of panels, mine accesses,
development cross sections, ramp gradients, electric
power reticulation, ventilation circuits, and so on must
be based on an assumed type and fleet of equipment
The equipment needed for the mining
operations differs accordingly to the
mining method that has been selected
for a given deposit
37
(Source: Caterpillar, 2019)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Adits or Drifts
• The size of the loaders and dump trucks must be adjusted to
the dimensions of the openings and the production rates
• The capacity of the underground mobile equipment is
smaller than in surface mining (Source: Forconsrtuctionpros.com)
(Source: iminco.net)
38
(Source: GHH Fahrzeuge)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Ramps
• Driving a down-sloped heading
with horizontal curves to transport
mobile rubber-tired equipment
from surface to the orebody
• Ramp access is attractive for
shallow orebodies, particularly
where a decline portal can be sited
within an existing open pit
• Ramps can be driven at grades
ranging up to 20%, but are usually
restricted to no more than 16%
• Ramps allow increased equipment
mobility between levels when
compared to shafts
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(Source: Hexagon Mining)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Ramps
Advantages of Ramp Access
• Quicker advance rates in development stage
allows faster access to ore
• Generally lower capital cost to develop
• Flexible production based on equipment selection
• Increased equipment mobility between levels
Disadvantages of Ramp Access
• Less productive than shaft access
• High operating costs as depth increases
• May require extensive ground support in poor rock conditions
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(Source: Haviland and Marshall, 2015; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2014.11.006)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts
• Vertical (or inclined) mine
openings to access deposits
in significant depths
• Rectangular, circular or
elliptical in profile
• Dimensioned to accommodate
machines passing through, or
operating inside
• Smaller excavation;
require less support
• Much longer development time
• Higher upfront capital
41
(Source: Mischo, 2015; TU Bergakademie Freiberg)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts
42
(Source: http://www.mstworkbooks.co.za/)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts
• Drum hoist
• Hoist rope is stored on the drum
• Single or double drum
Koepe System Friction Hoisting
• Friction (or Koepe) hoist
• Hoist rope just passes over the drum
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(Source: Hartman & Mutmansky, 2002)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts – Hoist selection
• Single drum hoist
• Depth < 1800 meters
• Skip capacity ≤ 25 tonne
• Maximum output ≤ 820 tonnes per hour
• Double drum hoist – deep mines
• Depth > 1800 meters (may go up to 3000 meters)
• Skip capacity ≤ 51 tonnes
• Maximum output ≤ 1630 tonnes per hour
• Friction hoist
• Depth ≤ 1800 meters
• Skip capacity ≤ 77 tonnes
• Maximum output ≤ 2540 tonnes per hour
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Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts – Design
45
(Source: Gerdemeli et al., 2012; ISSN 1310-3946)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shafts
The principal usage of shafts is for hoisting (staff, equipment, ore, waste),
ventilation, energy supply, pumping, information, fresh water, backfill etc.
Source: mysafetysign.com
46
(Source: Barakos, 2020; TU Bergakademie Freiberg)
47
(Source: https://youtu.be/yVgtde-Y184)
Types of Underground Openings Conventional shaft sinking involves repeating
Primary Openings – Shaft Sinking cycles of face advance and lining erection
without any previous ground stabilization. This
Shaft sinking is excavating a vertical or near-vertical opening from method is applicable to good- to fair- quality
the top down, where there is initially no access to the bottom. rocks with limited water inflow into the shaft.
Classification between the shaft sinking methods is based on the
engineering and hydrogeological conditions of the individual site.
Shaft pre-sinking
Main shaft sinking
Hoisting system installation
Testing & Commissioning
Operation
(Source: Terra Solutions, 2018) 48
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shaft Sinking
• Strong rocks that have an extensive fracture pattern resulting in a strong water inflow
• Coherent, weak, plastic flowing ground
• Loose water-bearing grounds
• The ground freezing process is used to prevent
groundwater from entering the shaft opening
• Freeze pipes through which a coolant circulates are
installed in the ground, making the water freeze
• The formation of ice has a solidifying and sealing
effect and thus enables the sinking of the shaft
49
(Source: http://www.theconstructor.org)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Shaft Sinking
The Vertical Shaft Sinking Machine
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(Source: https://www.herrenknecht.com/en/products/productdetail/vertical-shaft-sinking-machine-vsm/)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Raise Boring
• A downward pilot hole is drilled to the target level, where
the bit is removed and replaced by a reaming head.
• The Raise Boring Machine then reams back the hole to final
diameter, rotating and pulling the reaming head upward.
51
(Source: DMC Mining Services, 2016)
Types of Underground Openings
Primary Openings – Raise Boring
52
(Source: https://youtu.be/0Vgi7rHNvXw)
Types of Underground Openings
Secondary Openings – Raises
A raise refers to a vertical or inclined excavation
that leads from one level, or drift, to another.
A raise may also extend to surface.
53
(Source: Mishainik, 2022) (Source: Calistemon, 2009)
Types of Underground Openings
Secondary Openings – Raise Boring
• Mechanical raise boring
• Boxhole drilling
54
(Source: Atlas Copco, 2007)
Types of Underground Openings
Secondary Openings
• Ore passes
• Draw Points
• Crosscuts
• Sublevels
(Source: https://www.flyability.com/ore-pass)
(Source: Gold Corp Dickenson Mine)
(Source: PEGASUS)
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Secondary Underground
Infrastructure
Secondary Underground Infrastructure
Ventilation
57
(Source: MineTek)
Secondary Underground Infrastructure
Crushers
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(Source: Pyhasalmi Mine, Finland, 2019; Jari Joutsenvaara)
Secondary Underground Infrastructure
Repair Workshops
(Source: Pyhasalmi Mine, Finland, 2019; George Barakos) (Source: nyrstar, 2023)
59
Secondary Underground Infrastructure
Offices, Restaurants
60
(Source: Pyhasalmi Mine, Finland, 2019; George Barakos)
Literature Sources
SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Introductory Mining Engineering,
Peter Darling (editor), Hartman and Mutmansky,
3rd Edition. 2011. 2nd Edition, 2002
SME Mining Engineering Handbook, Mining Methods in Underground Mining,
Howard L. Hartman (editor), Atlas Copco,
2nd Edition, 1992 2nd Edition, 2007
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(Source: Graeme Williams/Getty Images)
Thank You
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