Composite Materials

Dr. A.Velayudham
Visiting Professor
DoME, CEG, Anna University
 Unit I Introduction
• Definition
• Classification and characteristics of Composite
materials
• Advantages and application of composites
• Functional requirements of reinforcement and matrix
• Effect of reinforcement (size, shape, distribution,
volume fraction) on overall composite performance.
 Engineering Materials
• Medium to high density. • Low density.
• Have good Thermal conductivity • High thermal stability
and stability and may be made C.R • Resistance to abrasion, Wear and
• Have useful mechanical properties. Corrosion.
• Hard and Brittle
• Higher Toughness.
• Good chemical resistance
• Moderately easy to shape and join. MMC • Can be formed and shaped, but
• Ductile and resistance to cracking. CMC with difficulty.

Metals Ceramics

Composite materials are

Metal Filled new emerging class of
GFRP,
Polymer materials to overcome the
Polymers CFRP
current limits of monolithic
conventional materials.
• Low modulus.
• Good short term chemical
resistance
• Lack Thermal stability
• Moderate resistance to
environmental degradation
• Poor mechanical properties
• Easily fabricated and joined.
Comparison of the properties of ceramics, metals and polymers
 Development of materials

The materials of prehistory on the left, all occur naturally. The challenge for the
engineers of that era was one of shaping them. The development of thermochemistry
and later polymer chemistry enabled man-made materials shown in the coloured zones.
 Driving forces for Composites
The rapid development and use of composite materials beginning in the 1940s had
three main driving forces.
• Military vehicles, such as airplanes, helicopters, and rockets, placed a premium
on high-strength, light-weight materials. While the metallic components that
had been used up to that point certainly did the job in terms of mechanical
properties, the heavy weight of such components was prohibitive. The higher
the weight of the plane or helicopter itself, the less cargo its engines could
carry.
• Increasingly searching for structural materials that have low densities, are
strong, stiff, and abrasion and impact resistant, and are not easily corroded. This
is a rather formidable combination of characteristics (strong materials are
relatively dense; also, increasing the strength or stiffness generally results in a
decrease in impact strength.
• Polymer industries were quickly growing and tried to expand the market of
plastics to a variety of applications. The emergence of new, light-weight
polymers from development laboratories offered a possible solution for a
variety of uses, provided something could be done to increase the mechanical
properties of plastics.
• The extremely high theoretical strength of certain materials, such as glass
fibres, was being discovered. The question was how to use these potentially
high-strength materials to solve the problems posed by the military's demands.
 What is composite material?
Composite material
• Definition: Heterogeneous material made by combining two or more different
materials at the macroscopic scale to form a third material with properties that
exceed the constituent materials.
• A material system composed of a suitably arranged mixture or combination of
two or more constituents with an interface separating them that differ in form
and chemical composition and are essentially in each other.
• Two or more chemically different constituents
• Combined macroscopically to yield a useful material.
• Properties of final product should be significantly different than that of
constituents.
• Composite materials consist of Reinforcements of high strength and modulus
embedded in or bonded to a matrix with distinct interfaces (boundaries)
between them.
• In this form, both Reinforcements and Matrix retain their physical and
chemical identities, yet they produce a combination of properties that cannot
be achieved with either of the constituents acting alone.
 Conditions for composites
Conditions for composites:
• Physical combination of two or more materials.
• Each of the materials must exist more than 5%.
• Presence of interphase.
• The properties shown by the composites should be different
from the initial materials.
Specific characteristics of composites:
• Heterogeneity: Non-uniformity of the chemical/physical
structure.
• Anisotropy: Direction dependence of the physical properties
• Symmetry: Tensorial nature of material properties (three
mutually perpendicular planes of material property symmetry).
• Hierarchy: Stacking of individual structural units
• Interfacial properties – The interface regarded as a third phase.
 Characteristics of composite materials
• Composite materials consist of one or more discontinuous phases
embedded in a continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is usually
harder and stronger than the continuous phase and is called the
reinforcement or reinforcing material whereas the continuous phase is
termed the matrix.
• Properties of composites are strongly influenced by the properties of the
constituent materials, their distribution, and the interaction among them.
• Properties of the composites are influenced by the geometry of the
reinforcement, which is described by the shape, size, and size distribution.
• The size and size distribution control the texture of the material. Together
with volume fraction, they also determine the interfacial area, which plays
an important role in determining the extent of the interaction between the
reinforcement and the matrix.
• Overall properties of composites is determined by the volume or weight
fraction of the reinforcements (concentration) and orientation regarded as
the most important parameters.
• The orientation of the reinforcement affects the isotropy of the system.
 General characteristics of composite materials
• Many fiber-reinforced polymers offer a combination of strength and modulus
that are either comparable to or better than many traditional metallic materials.
• Because of their low density, the strength-to-weight ratios and modulus-to-
weight ratios of these composite materials are markedly superior to those of
metallic materials. Fatigue strength as well as fatigue damage tolerance of many
composite laminates are excellent.
Tensile Properties of Some Metallic and Structural Composite Materials
 General characteristics of composite materials
• Composites are strongly heterogeneous materials. That is, the properties of a
composite vary considerably from point to point in the material, depending on
which material phase the point is located in. The heterogeneous nature of
composites results in complex failure mechanisms which impart toughness.
• In general, the properties of a fiber-reinforced composite depend strongly on the
direction of orientation, and therefore, they are not isotropic materials.
• Fibre orientation enables the optimization of the mechanical behaviour along
a specific direction. For example, the tensile strength and modulus of a
unidirectionally oriented fiber-reinforced polymer are maximum when these
properties are measured in the longitudinal direction of fibers. At any other
angle of measurement, these properties are lower.
• Similar angular dependence is observed for other mechanical and thermal
properties, such as impact strength, coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE),
and thermal conductivity.
• The nonisotropic nature of a fibre-reinforced composite material creates a
unique opportunity of tailoring its properties according to the design
requirements.
• The design flexibility can be used to selectively reinforce a structure in the
directions of major stresses, increase its stiffness in a preferred direction,
fabricate curved panels without any secondary forming operation.
 Impact properties of Composites

Impact properties of various engineering materials. Impact properties of long glass (LG)
Unidirectional composite materials with about 60% and short glass (SG) fibres reinforced
fibre volume fraction are used. thermoplastic composites
(Source: Data adapted from Mallick.)
 General characteristics of composite materials
• The use of fiber-reinforced polymer as the skin material and a light weight core,
such as aluminium honeycomb, provides an other degree of design flexibility that
is not easily achievable with metals. Such sandwich construction can produce
high stiffness with very little, if any, increase in weight. This sandwich design
lead to higher fatigue performance and damage tolerance than aluminium alloys.
• Depending on the type and severity of external loads, a composite laminate may
exhibit gradual deterioration in properties but usually would not fail in a
catastrophic manner.
• Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) for many fiber-reinforced composites is
much lower than that for metals. As a result, composite structures may exhibit a
better dimensional stability over a wide temperature range. Structures can be
produced with zero coefficients of thermal expansion.
Thermal Properties of a Few Selected Metals and Composite Materials
 General characteristics of composite materials

• The material is elastic up to rupture. It cannot yield by local plastic

deformation as can classical metallic materials.
• Specific fatigue resistance is three times higher than for aluminum
alloys and two times higher than that of high strength steel and
titanium alloys because the fatigue resistance is equal to 90% of the
static fracture strength for a composite, instead of 35% for
aluminium alloys and 50% for steels and titanium alloys.
Comparison between conventional monolithic materials and composites
 General characteristics of composite materials
• Another unique characteristic of many fiber-reinforced composites is their high
internal damping. This leads to better vibrational energy absorption within the
material and results in reduced transmission of noise and vibrations to
neighboring structures.
• High damping capacity of composite materials can be beneficial in many
automotive applications in which noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) are critical
issues for passenger comfort. High damping capacity is also useful in many sporting
goods applications.
• Fiber-reinforced polymers are noncorroding nature. However, many fiber-
reinforced polymers are capable of absorbing moisture or chemicals from the
surrounding environment, which may create dimensional changes or adverse
internal stresses in the material.
• Capable of parts integration and net-shape or near net-shape manufacturing
processes.
• Parts integration reduces the number of parts, the number of manufacturing
operations, and also, the number of assembly operations.
• Net-shape or near net-shape manufacturing processes, such as filament winding and
pultrusion, used for making many fiber-reinforced polymer parts , either reduce or
eliminate the finishing operations such as machining a d grinding , which are
commonly required as finishing operations for cast or forged metallic parts.
 Examples of Composite Materials
• Human learns from ‘mother nature’ to develop new composite materials.
• Traditional / Natural composites - composite materials that occur in nature or
have been produced by civilizations for many years.
• Examples
• Natural composites
• Wood and Bamboo shells, Bones, muscles, other tissues and natural fibres
(silk, wool, cotton, jute, sisal etc.) – Fibrous composites
• Granite – Consists of Feldspar, quartz, mica etc. – Particulate composites

• Wood has strong and flexible cellulose fibres (linear polymer) surrounded and held
together by a matrix of Lignin and other polymers.
• The cellulose fibers have high tensile strength but are very flexible (i.e., low stiffness),
while the lignin matrix joins the fibers and furnishes the stiffness.
• Wood is ten times stronger in the axial direction than in the radial direction
 Examples of Composite Materials
Natural composites
• Bone is yet another example of a natural composite that supports the weight
of various members of the body. It consists of short and soft collagen fibers
embedded in a mineral matrix called apatite.
- Fibrous composites
 Examples of Composite Materials
• Man-made / Synthetic composites - Modern material systems
normally associated with the manufacturing industries, in which
the components are first produced separately and then combined in
a controlled way to achieve the desired structure, properties, and
part geometry
• In synthetic composites, there is sufficient flexibility of selecting a
suitable reinforcement and a matrix from the wide variety of
reinforcements and matrices so that composites with the desired
properties can be made.
• Examples
• Perhaps the first important man-made engineering structural
composites was the Biblical straw-reinforced, sun-dried mud brick.
• Concrete – (Cement + sand) + small pebbles
• Plywood – Layers of wood (ply)
• Fibreglass – Glass fibres (short) + Resin (polyester, epoxy etc.
• Cermets – (Ceramics + metal binder)
 Classifications of Composites
BASED ON THE TYPE OF MATRIX FORM

Composites

Organic Matrix Metal Matrix Ceramic Matrix

Composites Composites Composites

Polymer Matrix Carbon

Composites Matrix Composites
 Classifications based on reinforcement form

• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body.

Distributed in random or in orientation. The particles may be in flakes or in powder form.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. It may be
single or multiple layers.
• Called as discontinuous or short fibre composite, if its properties vary with fibre length. If any
further increase in length does not further increase the elastic modulus of the composite,
called as continuous fibre composites. Fibres are tensile as well as flexible, since they are in
small diameter. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and
buckling.
 Classification based on Matrix phase

Polymer Matrix Composites

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight,
and desirable mechanical properties. On the basis of type of polymer resin used, it
can be classified into two categories.
• Thermo-set Composites and Thermoplastic Composites,
• Thermo-set Composites – In these composites, thermo-set polymers like epoxy,
unsaturated polyester and vinyl-ester are used as resin. They are the most used type of
composites materials in automotive, naval, aerospace applications.
• Thermoplastic composites – In this type of composite material, thermoplastic resin like
polyester, HDPE etc. are used. They are lesser used as high-tech materials due to their
higher viscosity which cause problem during their penetration into the reinforcement.
• PMCs are not suitable for applications where the service temperature is more than 350°C.
 Classification based on Matrix phase
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Thermosets have qualities such as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure

after curing.
• They decompose instead of melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic
composition of the resin is enough to alter the conditions suitably for curing and
determine its other characteristics.
• They can be retained in a partially cured condition, over prolonged periods of time,
rendering thermosets very flexible. Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for
advanced fibre reinforced composites.
• Thermosets are the most popular and find wide ranging applications in the chopped fibre
composites form, particularly, when a premixed compound with fibres happens to be the
starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.
• Thermoset resins are – epoxy, polyester, phenolic resins, etc.
 Classification based on Matrix phase
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC): Thermosets
• Polyester resins
• easily accessible, cheap and used widely.
• stored at room temperature for long periods and the mere addition of a catalyst
can cure the matrix material within a short time.
• cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible and transparent.
• used in automobile and structural applications.
• withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals and can be
used up to about 75ºC or higher.
• compatibility with few glass fibers and can be used with variety of reinforced
plastic.
• Epoxy resins
• widely used in filament-wound composites and electrical circuit boards.
• reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having slow
shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases.
• These advantages make epoxies expensive.
• cannot be used above 140ºC (limiting their applications).
• used in aerospace applications
• Aromatic Polyamides
• most sought after as the matrices of advanced fibre composites for structural
applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service at around
200- 250ºC .
 Classification based on Matrix phase
• Thermoplastics: Examples - polyethylene, polystyrene, polyamides, nylons,
polypropylene, etc. Have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they
tend to show an exaggerated melting point at an elevated temperature. Process of
softening at elevated temperatures, can be reversed to regain its properties during
cooling. This property facilitate for the applications of conventional compress
techniques to mold the compounds. These resins possess the facility to alter
their creep over an extensive range of temperature.
• The advantages over thermosets -
• there are no chemical reactions involved, which often result in the release of
gases or heat.
• Manufacturing is limited by the time required for heating, shaping and
cooling the structures.
• Thermoplastics resins are sold as moulding compounds. Fibre reinforcement is
apt for these resins. Since the fibres are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement
will be almost isotropic. However, when subjected to moulding processes, they
can be aligned directionally.
• Tend to loose their strength at elevated temperatures. Addition of fillers raises the
heat resistance of thermoplastics. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity,
toughness and ability to avoid creep, place thermoplastics as an important matrix
material in PMCs.
• Used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.
 Classification based on Matrix phase
• Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
• Though generating a wide interest in research, are not as widely in use as plastic.
• High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness are offered by metal matrices
when compared to their polymer counterparts.
• Withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer
composites.
• Most metals and alloys are used as matrices and they require reinforcement
materials, which need to be stable over a range of temperatures and non-reactive.
• Light metals form the matrix while the reinforcements should have high moduli.
• If metal matrix has high strength, they require even higher modulus
reinforcements.
• Light metals are used as matrix metals due to their low density. Example - carbide
in a metal matrix.
• The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various
temperatures determine the service temperature of composites.
• Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be used with matrices of low melting
point alloys. As the melting points of matrix materials become high, the choice of
reinforcements becomes small.
 Metal Matrix Composites
Characteristics of MMCs
1. Metal matrix composites have higher strength and elasticity than
other metallic materials.
2. Metal matrix composites have high fracture toughness and are
able to absorb large impact fracture energy compared with other
composites, because the matrix metals have high ductility.
3. Generally, metal matrix composites have higher thermal
conductivity than that of other composites.
4. Soft matrix metal composites reinforced by hard ceramic particles
have good wear resistance.
5. Metal matrix composites have low thermal expansion coefficients.
6. Metal matrix composites have high electrical conductivity.
7. Plastic deformation occurs within metal matrix composites
reinforced by particles or short fibers, and these composites are
further strengthened by plastic deformation.
 Classification based on Matrix phase
Metal Matrix Composites:
• Mainly lightweight metals and alloys such as, aluminium, titanium,
Magnesium and their alloys are used.
• MMCs can be suitable for applications where the service
temperature is up to 1200°C.
• The relatively low Young’s modulus of aluminium and its alloys can
be significantly improved by the incorporation of reinforcement.
• Metals and alloys inherently have good ductility and toughness.
• The reinforcements improve Young’s modulus but at the expense of
ductility.
• At present, short fibres or particulates are mainly used as the
dispersed phase because of the processing advantage. A major
problem for the MMCs is corrosion.
 Classification of MMCs

• MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. The
reinforcement does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound),
but is also used to change physical properties such as wear resistance, friction coefficient,
or thermal conductivity.
• The reinforcement can be either continuous or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can
be isotropic and can be worked with standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion,
forging, or rolling.
• In addition, they may be machined using conventional techniques, but commonly would
need the use of polycrystalline diamond tooling (PCD).
• Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon fibre or silicon
carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the matrix in a certain direction, the result is
an anisotropic structure in which the alignment of the material affects its strength.
• Boron filaments are used for high temperature applications.
• Discontinuous reinforcement uses "whiskers", short fibers, or particles. The most common
reinforcing materials in this category are alumina and silicon carbide.
 Classification of MMCs

• Particle or discontinuously reinforced MMCs (short fibers, whiskers, or

particles) have assumed special importance because:
• Particle-reinforced composites are inexpensive when compared to
continuous fibre reinforced composites. Cost is an important item for
large volume usage.
• Processing by casting or powder metallurgy, followed by conventional
secondary processing by rolling, forging, and extrusion, can be used.
• Higher use temperatures are possible than with the unreinforced metal.
• Enhanced modulus and strength.
• Increased thermal stability.
• Better wear resistance.
• Relatively isotropic properties compared to those of the fiber-
reinforced composites.
 Classification based on Matrix phase

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

• Ceramics - Exhibit strong ionic bonding (in some cases covalent bonding). High melting
points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive
strength - ceramic matrix materials used above 1500ºC (high temperature applications).
• But, they fracture easily under mechanical or thermo-mechanical loads because of cracks
initiated by small defects or scratches. The crack resistance is very low like in glass.
• The motivation to develop CMCs is to overcome the problems associated with the
conventional technical ceramics like alumina, silicon carbide, aluminium nitride, silicon
nitride or zirconia. Multi-strand fibres has drastically increased the crack resistance/ fracture
toughness, elongation and thermal shock resistance, and resulted in several new
applications.
• Carbon (C), silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al2O3) and mullite (Al2O3–SiO2) fibres are
most widely used with the same matrix materials i.e. C, SiC, alumina and mullite.
• CMC names include a combination of type of fibre/type of matrix. For example, C/C stands
for carbon-fibre-reinforced carbon (carbon/carbon), or C/SiC for carbon-fibre-reinforced
silicon carbide (commercially available CMCs are C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC and Al2O3/Al2O3).
 Classification based on Matrix phase
Many oxide and nonoxide ceramic materials are used as matrix materials in CMCs.
CMCs are useful for high-temperature applications, where the service temperatures
are above 1500°C. These materials are very expensive because most of the CMCs
are processed at high temperature. In some cases, there is a need to apply high
pressure at that high temperature to get a quality product.
• Toughened ceramics reinforced with particulates and whiskers.
• Continuous fibre composites.
• Al2O3 - ZrO2 composites
• SiC particulate / Si3N4 matrix composites
• SiC whisker / Si3N4 matric composites
• SiC / SiC composites
• Oxide / Oxide composites
CMCs differ from conventional ceramics in the following properties:
• Elongation to rupture up to 1%
• Strongly increased fracture toughness
• Extreme thermal shock resistance
• Improved dynamical load capability
• Anisotropic properties following the orientation of fibres
 Classifications of Composites
Applications of Ceramic Matrix Composites
Comparison between PMC, MMC and CMC

Usable temperature range of composite materials

Classifications based on reinforcements form
Reinforcements

Fibres Whiskers Flakes Particulates

• Reinforcements is the load bearing member, which is a discontinuous phase.
Reinforcement materials usually add rigidity and greatly impede crack propagation.
In particular, they enforce the mechanical properties of the matrix and, in most
cases, are harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix.
• The reinforcement can be divided into four basic categories: fibers, particulates,
whiskers, and flakes.
• Fibers are essentially characterized by
one very long axis with other two axes
either often circular or near circular.
• Particles have no preferred orientation
and so does their shape.
• Whiskers have a preferred shape but are
small both in diameter and length as
compared to fibres.

(a) Fibre, (b) Particulate and (c) Flakes Classification of reinforcements

Classifications based on reinforcements form
Fibrous composites / fibre-reinforced composites (FRC)
• FRC consist of three components: (1) the fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase;
(2) the matrix as the continuous phase; and (3) the fine interphase region, also known as
the interface. The fiber may be of short (discontinuous) or long (continuous) fibre.
• The fibre may be short (discontinuous) or long (continuous). The cross-section of the
fibres can be circular, square, or hexagonal. The aspect ratio (length/diameter) of the
fibres is usually very large (>100). Its diameter approximates its crystal size. Diameters
range from less than 0.0025 mm to about 0.130 mm depending on material. Therefore
they are significantly stronger than bulk materials.
• Because the fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily
although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep
individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Commonly used fibers in the composite include glass fibre, Carbon fibre, Aramid fibre,
boron fibre, and silicon carbide fibre.

Short-fibre reinforced composites Long- fibre reinforced composites

Classifications based on reinforcements form
Fibrous composites / fibre-reinforced composites (FRC)
• Single‐layer: These are actually made of several layers of fibers, all oriented in
the same direction. Hence they are considered as “single‐layer” composites.
These can be further categorized as:
• Continuous and long fibers: The fundamental units of continuous fiber
matrix composite are unidirectional or woven fiber laminas. Laminas are
stacked on top of each other at various angles to form a multidirectional
laminate. Examples include filament wound shells. These may be further
classified as:
• Unidirectional reinforcement
• Bidirectional reinforcement
• Discontinuous and short‐fibers: Examples include fiber glass bodies of cars.
These may be further classified as:
• Randomly oriented reinforcement
• Reinforced in preferred directions
• Multi‐layer: Here, reinforcement is provided, layer by layer in different
directions.
• Laminate: Here, the constituent material in all layers is the same.
• Hybrid laminates: These have more than one constituent materials in the
composite structure.
Classification based on reinforcements form
Whisker composites
• Whisker composites are composed of a matrix material and embedded
reinforcing whisker materials (e.g., potassium titanate whisker,
graphite, aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon oxide, boron
carbide, and beryllium oxide).
• A whisker is the nearly perfect, single-crystal material produced
synthetically under controlled conditions. It is a very thin, short
filament with large length/diameter ratio and is smaller than chopped
fibers. Owing to its small diameter, the whisker is nearly free of
internal defects and yields strength close to the maximum theoretical
value.
• Whiskers have much higher specific strength than short glass or carbon
fibers and could reinforce polymers more effectively.
• Whiskers differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to
width ratio (> 1) with extraordinary strengths up to 7000 MPa.
 Whisker Reinforced Composites
• Whiskers - Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects (usually discontinuous
and short fibres of different cross sections made from materials like graphite,
silicon carbide, copper, iron etc). Typical lengths are range from 3 - 55 nm.
• Since whiskers are fine, small sized materials and not easy to handle, it becomes a
hindrance in composite fabrication.

Tin whiskers on Cu substrate

Whiskers are usually thin, metal films, 0.5 μm to 50 μm, that have been deposited onto a substrate
material. They often grow from nodules (a). A typical whisker is 1 to 5 μm in diameter and between
1 μm and 500 μm long, as seen in this cross-section (b). They can come in different shapes, including
kinked (c) or with rings (d).
Classification based on reinforcements form
Particulate composites:
• It consist of particles of various sizes and shapes randomly dispersed within the
matrix. The arrangement of particulate materials may be random or with a
preferred orientation. The addition of particulates improve physical properties like
wear resistance, thermal conductivity, strength, etc. Particulate composites have
advantages such as improved strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation
resistance, high creep resistance, and high strength to weight ratio. Low cost and
ease of production is the main benefit of particulate reinforced composites.
• Particulates used in composites can be small particles (<0.25 mm), hollow
spheres, cubes, platelets, or carbon nanotubes. Typical examples include use of
aluminum particles in rubber; silicon carbide particles in aluminum; and gravel,
sand, and cement to make concrete. Typical application are Engine pistons, body
panels of automotive cars, brake pads, bumpers, intake manifolds, etc.

Particulate Composites Filler Composites Spheres Hollow spheres

Classification based on reinforcements form
Filler composites:
• Fillers are particles or powders added to material to change and improve the
physical and mechanical properties of composites. They are also used to lower
the consumption of a more expensive binder material. In particular, fillers are
used to modify or enhance properties such as thermal conductivity, electrical
resistivity, friction, wear resistance, and flame resistance. Typical fillers are
calcium carbonate, aluminum oxide, lime (also known as calcium oxide),
fumed silica, treated clays, and hollow glass beads.
• Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in a composite. The
filler particles may be irregular structures, or have precise geometrical shapes
like polyhedrons, short fibres or spheres. They also occasionally impart colour
or opacity to the composite which they fill.

Filler Composites
Classification based on reinforcements form
Filler composites:
• The benefits of fillers – increase stiffness, thermal
resistance, stability, strength and abrasion resistance,
porosity and a favourable coefficient of thermal
expansion.
• Disadvantages - methods of fabrication are very
limited and the curing of some resins is greatly
inhibited, shorten the life span of some resins,
weaken a few composites.
• Fillers produced from powders are also considered as
particulate composite.
• In a porous or spongy composite, metal impregnates
are used to improve strength or tolerance of the
matrix. Metal casting, graphite, powder metallurgy
parts and ceramics belong to this class of filled
composites.
• In the honeycomb structure, sheet materials in the
hexagonal shapes are impregnated with resin or foam
and are used as a core material in sandwich
composites.
Classification based on reinforcements form

• Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Flakes are often used
in place of fibres as they can be densely packed.
• Typical flake materials are glass, mica, aluminum, and silver. Metal flakes that are
in close contact with each other in polymer matrices can conduct electricity or heat,
while mica flakes and glass can resist both.
• Flake composites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural modulus,
higher strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and only
a limited number of materials are available for use.
• Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less than fibres.
Classification based on reinforcements form
Flakes Reinforced Composites
• But limitations are - control of size, shape of flakes and defects in the
end product.
• Glass flakes tend to have notches or cracks around the edges, which
weaken the final product. (also resistant to be lined up parallel to
each other in a matrix, causing uneven strength). They are usually
set in matrices, or held together by a matrix with a glue-type binder.
• Advantages of flakes over fibres –
• Parallel flakes filled composites provide uniform mechanical properties
in the same plane as the flakes.
• While angle-plying is difficult in continuous fibres which need to
approach isotropic properties, it is not so in flakes.
• Flake composites have a higher theoretical modulus of elasticity than
fibre reinforced composites.
• They are relatively cheaper to produce and be handled in small
quantities.
 Classification based on reinforcements
• Nanocomposites consist of materials that are of the scale of
nanometers (10–9m). The accepted range to be classified as a
nanocomposite is that one of the constituents is less than 100
nm. At this scale, the properties of materials are different from
those of the bulk material. Generally, advanced composite
materials have constituents on the microscale (10–6 m). By
having materials at the nanometer scale, most of the properties
of the resulting composite material are better than the ones at the
microscale.
• Not all properties of nanocomposites are better; in some cases,
toughness and impact strength can decrease.
• Applications of nanocomposites include packaging applications
for the military in which nanocomposite films show
improvement in properties such as elastic modulus, and
transmission rates for water vapour, heat distortion, and oxygen.
 Advantages of composites
1. The prime advantage of composites is their high specific stiffness and strength.
Therefore, the component weight can be drastically reduced by using
composites. Figure shows the specific strength and modulus values of
composites and conventional materials.
Example - If a component is to be made for a particular load-bearing capacity, the
GFRP component will weigh only one-fourth of steel component.
Similarly, if stiffness is the criterion for the selection of material, the CFRP
component will weigh only one-tenth of the steel component.
 Advantages
2. Energy efficient – PMCs can be produced at ambient temperature, and thus little
energy is required for the production.
3. Low weight of composites will reduce the payload of aircraft and increase the
fuel efficiency.
4. Directional properties (anisotropic) – Offers design freedom by tailoring
material properties to meet performance specifications, thus avoiding the over-
design of products.
5. Easily mouldable to complex near-net shapes - This feature eliminates several
machining operations and thus reduces process cycle time and cost.
6. Reduced part count – Composite materials provide capabilities for part
integration. Several metallic components can be replaced by as a single
composite component.
7. Part consolidation leading to lower overall system cost.
8. Complex shapes can be made very easily and also easily bondable.
9. Good fatigue resistance - Steel and aluminium alloys exhibit good fatigue
strength up to about 50% of their static strength, whereas unidirectional
carbon/epoxy composites have good fatigue strength up to almost 90% of their
static strength.
10. Good impact resistance and NVH characteristics.
11. Crash worthiness - ability of materials to absorb impact energy by means of
controlled failure mechanisms and modes.
 Advantages
12. Corrosion resistance – Iron and aluminium corrode in the presence of
water and air and require special coatings and alloying. Because the
outer surface of composites is formed by plastics, corrosion and
chemical resistance of composites are very good.
13. Health monitoring through embedded sensors – Smart materials
14. Low thermal expansion
15. Offer increased amounts of design flexibility – For example, the
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of composite structures can be
made zero by selecting suitable materials and lay-up sequence.
Because the CTE for composites is much lower than for metals,
composite structures provide good dimensional stability.
16. Low smoke and toxicity – FAA and JAR requirements.
17. Stealth (low radar visibility) protection.
18. Ablation resistance.
19. Insulation and dielectric property.
20. Colourability.
 Limitations and drawbacks of Composites
• High cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. For example, a
part made of graphite/epoxy composite may cost up to 10 to 15 times the
material costs.
• Composites are more expensive than conventional materials on a cost to
cost basis. The composites are approximately 5 and 20 times costlier than
aluminum and steel, respectively, on weight basis. However, the
performance levels of composites are high. Composites find a place only
when the high performance is a prime factor during the selection of
material.
• The chances of formation of defects at the interface are high, since
composites are made with entirely different kind of materials. Unless great
care is exercised during processing, defects are inevitable.
• Anisotropy: A large number of composites have direction dependent
material properties. This makes them more difficult to understand, analyze
and engineer, vis‐à‐vis isotropic materials.
• Heterogeneous - Properties in composites vary from point to point in the
material. This factor as well makes them difficult to model, and analyze.
 Drawbacks of Composites
• Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex
than that of a metal structure. Unlike metals, composite materials are not
isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same in all directions.
Therefore, they require more material parameters. For example, a single
layer of a graphite/epoxy composite requires Nine stiffness and strength
constants for conducting mechanical analysis. In the case of a monolithic
material such as steel, one requires only four stiffness and strength
constants. Such complexity makes structural analysis computationally
and experimentally more complicated and intensive.
• Insufficient material data base - The selection of suitable material among
the conventional metallic materials is very easy because of the
availability of widely accepted database on the properties. However,
similar database on the properties of different composites is not
available.
• Repair of composites is not a simple process compared to metals.
Sometimes critical flaws and cracks in composite structures may go
undetected.
• Recycling is another hurdle for the wide usage of composites.
 Disadvantages of Composites
• Composites materials are difficult to inspect with conventional ultrasonic, eddy
current and visual NDI methods such as radiography.
American Airlines Flight 587, broke apart
over New York on Nov. 12, 2001 (265
people died). Airbus A300’s 27-foot-high tail
fin tore off. Much of the tail fin, including
the so-called tongues that fit in grooves on
the fuselage and connect the tail to the jet,
were made of a graphite composite. The
plane crashed because of damage at the base
of the tail that had gone undetected despite
routine NDT and visual inspections..
• Sensitivity to temperature: Laminated composites are particularly sensitive to
temperature changes. They come in with residual thermal stresses, because they get
fabricated at high temperatures, and then cooled. Such a process locks in thermal
stresses into the structure.
• Moisture effects: Laminated composites are also sensitive to moisture, and their
performance varies significantly when exposed to moisture for long periods of time.
Composites applications
 Applications of PMCs
• Continuous fibre reinforcement - lightweight structures, such as
airframes.
• PMC with metal particles (e.g., silver particles) – Electrical
interconnections
• Airframe Structural components &, Modules
• Load Carrying
• Energy Absorbing
• Protective Housings, Fairings, etc.
• Electronic Requirements
• Radomes (narrow or broad band)
• Weather Radomes
• Radar Augmentation
Intelsat 5 has a primary structure
• Special Functional Requirements and several antennas made of
• Lightning Protection carbon fiber PMCs
• Avionic Enclosures (EMI Shielding)
 Applications of PMCs
Automotive applications
• To reduce mass or make things lighter
• To provide strength,
• To provide wear and corrosion resistance
• To provide aesthetics
• Examples
• Car Body, Brake pad, Drive shafts, Fuel tank,
Hoods, Bannets etc.

• Of all the different composite

materials used to manufacture
automobile components, PMC is
the most widely used, as polymer
composites can directly reduce the
weight of a vehicle body and
chassis by up to 50%, which
subsequently reduces the vehicle’s
fuel consumption.
 Applications of PMCs in commercial aircrafts

• Most notable is the large tail of carbon fibers in a toughened epoxy matrix with
advantages of a 15-20% weight savings, enhanced corrosion resistance, improved
aerodynamics, and surface detectability of impact damage.
 Applications in PMCs in Military aircraft
• Tejas employs CFC materials for up to 45% of its airframe, including in the fuselage
(doors and skins), wings (skin, spars and ribs), elevons, tailfin, rudder, air brakes and
landing gear doors.
• Composites are used to make an aircraft both lighter and stronger at the same time
compared to an all-metal design, and the LCA's percentage employment of CFCs is one
of the highest among contemporary aircraft of its class.
• Apart from making the plane much lighter, there are also fewer joints or rivets, which
increases the aircraft's reliability and lowers its susceptibility to structural fatigue cracks.
• The use of composites in the LCA resulted in a 40% reduction in the total number of
parts compared to using a metallic frame.
• Furthermore, the number of fasteners has been reduced by half in the composite structure
from the 10,000 that would have been required in a metallic frame design.
• The composite design also helped to avoid about 2,000 holes being drilled into the
airframe. Overall, the aircraft's weight is lowered by 21%.
Applications of PMCs in Military Aircrafts
 Applications of PMCs
Space applications
• Composite applications can be found on human spaceflight vehicles,
satellites and payloads, and the launch vehicles that are used to get these
to space.
• Composites are enabling for spacecraft due to lightweight and
environmental stability are critical to mission success. They are also
used extensively in launch vehicles for a growing number of
applications.
• For example, Solid rocket motors and pressure vessels for fuel and
gas storage are typically reinforced with composites.
• Composites also are the standard for ablative and other high temperature
components in rocket motor nozzles and reentry heat shields.
• Some graphite-epoxy structures can be tailored to have a zero coefficient
of thermal expansion, a big advantage for large antennas that must pass
in and out of the sun, yet maintain dimensional stability for accuracy of
pointing the signal.
• For example, a graphite-epoxy truss is used to stabilize and support
the Hubble Space Telescope.
Applications of MMCs
 Applications of MMCs
• Metal-matrix composites known as cermets (meaning ceramic-metal
combinations) that contain a low volume fraction (e.g., 15%) of ceramic
(e.g., tungsten carbide) particles are used in cutting tools.
• MMCs are also used in resistors and other electronic components that
need to withstand high temperatures.
• Silicon particle-reinforced aluminum is used in automobile engine
cylinder liners for wear resistance.
• Boron carbide particle-reinforced aluminum has been used for spent
nuclear fuel containers.
• Metal-matrix composites containing ceramic (e.g., SiC) particles at a
high volume fraction (e.g., 60 vol%) are used as heat sinks and housing
for microelectronics due to their low CTE. A low CTE is needed due to
the low CTE of the semiconductor (such as silicon).
• Metal-matrix composites containing graphite flakes as the filler are also
used as self-lubricating piston cylinders for automobile engines due to
the lubricity of graphite.
• Metal-matrix composites containing continuous carbon fibers are used as
structural materials.
 Applications of MMCs
• Automobile and truck engines have used a variety of discontinuous
ceramic fibers to improve cylinder bore and piston wear resistance
and high-temperature strength, replacing cast iron inserts.
• Titanium boride particle-reinforced titanium has been used in engine
valves.
• Transmission lines - Alumina fiber-reinforced aluminum. The high
specific stiffness (stiffness-to-density) and specific strength (strength-
to-density) allows support towers to be placed farther apart in new
construction and makes it possible to increase current capacity in
existing systems.
• Sports equipment applications have included bicycle structural and
mechanical parts, golf clubs, and baseball bats. The high specific
stiffness of this material has led to its use in integrated circuit robot
end effectors and high-speed machine parts.
• Other applications include optical systems and high-performance
automobile and race car mechanical components.
 Applications of MMCs

• Application of a SiC particle reinforced Al MMC in the fan-exit guide vane of a Pratt &
Whitney engine on a Boeing 777 (Courtesy of D. Miracle). The MMC replaced a carbon/epoxy
composite that had problems with foreign object damage (FOD) and at a lower cost.
 Applications of CMCs
• Ceramic-matrix composites are applied for high-temperature
applications, due to the much lower tendency for ceramics to be
oxidized. E.g., silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4)
CMCs, which can withstand temperatures of up to around 1,700°C
in the presence of oxygen.
• Silicon carbide matrices reinforced with carbon and with silicon
carbide fibers (SiC/SiC and C/SiC, respectively) have been used in
military aircraft engine flaps, where they provide a significant
weight reduction over incumbent nickel-based superalloys.
• C/SiC composites are being used in an increasing number of
spacecraft optical systems.
• Silicon carbide whisker-reinforced alumina (aluminum oxide) is
used extensively in cutting tools.
• Silicon carbide particle-reinforced alumina has been used to make
parts for abrasive slurry pumps.
• C/SiC brakes are being used in high-end automobiles.
• Other applications include heat exchangers for corrosive and high-
temperature environments.
 Applications of Carbon matrix composites
• The most important type of carbon matrix composite is carbon–carbon. Carbon–
carbon composites are well established in aerospace/defense and commercial
applications.
• Carbon–carbon composites are widely used in aerospace applications where
ablation (resistance to erosion at high temperature) is a key requirement. Examples
include reentry vehicle nose tips, rocket nozzles, and exit cones. The Space Shuttle
Orbiter used a variety of carbon–carbon components, including leading edges and
nose cap.
• Carbon-matrix composites (typically coated with silicon carbide or other ceramics
in order to improve their oxidation resistance) are used for high-temperature,
lightweight structures, such as the nose cones and leading edges of Space Shuttles
and the nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles.
• Carbon–carbon composites is used for re-entry thermal protection, rocket nozzles
and aircraft brakes.
• There are significant industrial carbon–carbon composite applications, including
glass-making equipment, heat treatment racks, and wafer-heating elements.
Carbon–carbon is also used in racing car and motorcycle brakes and clutches.
• Other applications- furnace heating elements, molten materials transfer, spacecraft
and aircraft components, and heat exchangers, air-breathing engine components,
hypersonic vehicle airframe structures, space structures and prosthetic devices.
 Applications of composites
Stealth applications
• Non Metallic Composites
for Radar Absorption
• Radar absorbing paints
• Aerodynamic shaping
• Scattering or Absorption
 Applications of composites

Naval Applications
• Structural Composite Parts
• Acoustic Design considerations
• Microwave Transparent Radomes
• Radar Absorbing Materials (RAM)
 Applications of composites

• Sports:
• Lighter, stronger, toughness, better aesthetics, higher
damping properties
• Examples
– Tennis
– Bicycles
– Badminton
– Boats
– Hockey
– Golfing
– Motorcycles …
 Applications of composites

Sports - To make it light as well as strong, Aesthetic and high damping

Tennis, Badminton, Hockey, Golf, Boats, Bikes etc.
 Medical applications of composites
• E.g., Implants like Hips, heart valves, skin and teeth, surgical and diagnostic
devices, pacemakers (devices connected by electrical leads to the wall of the
heart, enabling electrical control over the heartbeat), electrodes for collecting or
sending electrical or optical signals for diagnosis or treatment, wheelchairs,
devices for helping the disabled, exercise equipment, pharmaceutical packaging
(for controlled release of the drug into the body, or for other purposes) and
instrumentation for diagnosis and chemical analysis (such as equipment for
analyzing blood and urine).
• Implants are particularly challenging, as they need to be made of materials that
are biocompatible (compatible with fluids such as blood), corrosion resistant,
wear resistant, fatigue resistant, and that are able to maintain these properties
over tens of years.

Stents are made with steel and more

recently with polymers with shape
memory effects (Wache, et al.).
 Medical applications of composites
• Carbon is a particularly biocompatible material (more so than gold), so
carbon-carbon composites are used for implants.
• Composites with biocompatible polymer matrices are also used for
implants.
• Electrically conducting polymer-matrix composites are used for
electrodes for diagnostics.
• Composites with biodegradable polymer matrices are used for
pharmaceutics.
• Biomedical applications encompass those that pertain to the diagnosis
and treatment of conditions, diseases and disabilities, as well as the
prevention of diseases and conditions.
 Role of Matrix in composite materials
• Primary function of the matrix phase in a composite is to hold and bind the
reinforcing phase in position within it.
• Act as a medium through which the external load is transmitted and distributed
to the reinforcing phase. That is, matrix distributes the loads evenly between
fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain.
• Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing
alternate failure path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
• Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
• Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
• Separates the fibres from each other and protects the individual fibres from
surface damage due to abrasion and oxidation.
• Withstand heat or cold, conduct or resist electricity and control chemical attack.
• The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a
composite structure. However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the
interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the composite material.
• The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre buckling
under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive
strength of the composite material.
• The interaction between fibres and matrix is also important in designing
damage tolerant structures.
 Functional requirements of Matrix
• Matrix material’s strain at break must be larger than the fibres it
is holding. The matrix causes the stress to be distributed more
evenly between all fibres by causing the fibres to suffer the same
strain.
• The matrix must have a mechanical strength commensurate with
that of the reinforcement i.e. both should be compatible. Thus, if
a high strength fibre is used as the reinforcement, there is no
point in using a low strength matrix, which will not transmit
stresses efficiently to the reinforcement.
• The stress is transmitted by shear process, which requires good
bonding between fibre and matrix and also high shear strength
and modulus for the matrix itself.
 Functional requirements of Matrix
• Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fibre bundles
completely and eliminates voids during the compacting/curing
process.
• Reduced moisture absorption.
• Low shrinkage.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should
be greater than fibre).
• Must be elastic to transfer load to fibres.
• Better strength at elevated temperature (depending on
application).
• Low temperature capability (depending on application).
• Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
• The resultant composite should be cost effective.
• Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
• Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
 Role of Reinforcements
• The primary role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen the
composite through prevention of matrix deformation by mechanical
restraint. The role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in
structural composites.
• In particulate and whisker reinforced composites, the matrix are the
major load bearing constituent.
• In continuous fiber reinforced composites, the reinforcement is the
principal load-bearing constituent. The metallic matrix serves to hold the
reinforcing fibers together and transfer as well as distribute the load.
• Discontinuous fiber reinforced composites display characteristics
between those of continuous fiber and particulate reinforced composites.
• Typically, the addition of reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness
and temperature capability while reducing the thermal expansion
coefficient of the resulting MMC. When combined with a metallic matrix
of higher density, the reinforcement also serves to reduce the density of
the composite, thus enhancing properties such as specific strength.
Functional requirements of Reinforcements
• Reinforcements should have compatibility with matrix material -
thermal stability, density, melting temperature etc.
• The compatibility requirements is important for material
fabrication as well as end application.
• To carry the load - In a structural composite, 70 to 90% of the
load is carried by fibres.
• To provide stiffness, strength, thermal stability, and other
structural properties in the composites.
• To provide electrical conductivity or insulation, depending on the
type of fibre used.
 Fibre Selection Criteria
• The most important consideration is the cost. It is not advisable to
use an expensive fiber for a low-cost composite product.
• The next criterion is mechanical properties.
• E.g., In situations where strength is very important rather the
modulus, glass fibers can be used. If strength as well as stiffness is
important, then carbon fibers are the appropriate choice of fibers. In
some cases, damping and impact properties are very important. In
those places aramid or polyethylene fibers can be used. In some of
the applications, high-temperature strength is an important criterion.
For these applications, SiC or alumina fibers are more suitable.
• Fiber selection should be made depending on the type of matrix
materials. The composite processing temperature is decided by the
processing temperature of the corresponding matrix material.
• The directional property of the composite is also a deciding factor
on the selection of fiber. For the isotropic composites, short fibers
are preferred.
 Fibre Selection Criteria

Possible combinations of commonly used fiber reinforcements and matrices

Functional characteristics of Reinforcement
1. A small diameter with respect to its grain size or other
microstructural unit. This allows a higher fraction of the theoretical
strength to be attained than is possible in a bulk form. This is a
direct result of the so-called size effect; the smaller the size, the
lower the probability of having imperfections in the material.

Decrease in strength (σf) of a carbon fibre with increase in diameter

Functional characteristics of Reinforcement
2. High aspect ratio (length/diameter, l/d), allows a very large fraction of the
applied load to be transferred via the matrix to the stiff and strong fibre.
3. High degree of flexibility, an important characteristic of a material that has a
low modulus or stiffness and a small diameter. This flexibility permits the use
of a variety of techniques for making composites with these fibres.
• Flexibility of a fibre is an inverse function of its elastic modulus, E, and the
second moment of area or moment of inertia of its cross-section, I. The elastic
modulus of a material is generally independent of its form or size and is
generally a material constant for a given chemical composition (assuming a
fully dense material). Thus, for a given composition and density, the flexibility
of a material is determined by its shape, or more precisely by its diameter.

• Flexibility of a fibre is a very sensitive inverse function of its diameter, d.

• Given a sufficiently small diameter, it is possible to produce, in principle, a
fibre as flexible as any from a polymer, a metal, or a ceramic. One can make
very flexible fibers out of inherently brittle materials such as glass, SiC, Al2O3
etc., provided one can shape these brittle materials into a fine dia. fiber.
 Properties of Composites
• The properties of a composite are a function of the properties of
constituent phases and their relative proportions (amount), size
(length and diameter), shape, distribution (uniform/nonuniform),
and orientation (direction of placement of fibres in matrix) of the
dispersed phase.

Schematic of geometrical and spatial characteristics of

reinforcements in composites: (a) concentration, (b) size,
(c) shape, (d) distribution, and (e) orientation.
 Influence of fibre Size
• Actual strength of materials is several magnitudes lower than the
theoretical strength. This difference is mainly due to the inherent flaws in
the material. Removing these flaws can increase the strength of material.
As the fibres become smaller in diameter, the chances of an inherent flaw in
the material are reduced. A steel plate may have strength of 689 MPa, while
a wire made from this steel plate can have strength of 4100 MPa.

Fibre strength as a function of fiber diameter for carbon fibers

 Influence of fibre Size
• For higher ductility and toughness, and better transfer of loads from the
matrix to fibre, composites require larger surface area of the fiber–matrix
interface. For the same volume fraction of fibers in a composite, the area
of the fiber–matrix interface is inversely proportional to the diameter of
the fiber and is proved as follows.
• Assume a lamina consisting of N fibers of diameter D. The fiber-matrix
interface area in this lamina is AI = N π D L.
• If one replaces the fibres of diameter, D, by fibres of diameter, d, then the
number of fibers, n, to keep the fiber volume the same would be

Then, the fiber-matrix interface area in the resulting lamina would be

AII = n π d L

• This implies that, for a fixed fiber volume in a given volume of

composite, the area of the fiber–matrix interface is inversely proportional
to the diameter of the fiber.
 Influence of fibre length
• Length: The fibres can be long or short. Long, continuous fibres are easy to
orient and process, but short fibres cannot be controlled fully for proper
orientation. Long fibres provide many benefits over short fibres. These include
impact resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional
stability. However, short fibers provide low cost, easy to work with, and have
fast cycle time of fabrication. Also short fibres have fewer flaws and therefore
have higher strength.
• Some critical fibre length is necessary for
effective strengthening and stiffening of the
composite material. This critical length lc is
dependent on the fibre diameter d and its
ultimate (or tensile) strength 𝜎f and on the
fibre-matrix bond strength 𝜏c according to
𝜎𝑓 𝑑
𝑙𝑐 =
2𝜏𝑐
Increasing the length of
• For a number of glass and carbon fibre-matrix chopped E-glass fibres in
combinations, this critical length is in the order an epoxy matrix increases
the strength of the
of 1 mm, which ranges between 20 and 150 composite. Vf - 0.5.
times the fibre diameter.
 Influence of fibre length
• When a stress equal to 𝜎f is applied to a fibre having just this critical length, the
maximum fibre load is achieved at the axial centre of the fibre (Fig. a).
• As fibre length l increases, the fibre reinforcement becomes more effective; this is
demonstrated in Fig. (b), a stress-axial position profile for l > lc , when the applied
stress is equal to the fibre strength.
• Figure (c) shows the stress-position profile for l < lc.
• Fibres having l ≫ lc (normally l > 15lc) are termed as continuous; discontinuous or
short fibres have lengths shorter than this. When the fibre length is significantly
less than critical length (l < lc ), i.e., discontinuous fibres, the matrix deforms
around the fibre such that there is virtually no stress transference and little
reinforcement by the fibre. Therefore, to effect a significant improvement in
strength of the composite, the fibres must be continuous.
 Influence of fibre shape
• Shape: The most common shape
of fibers is circular because
handling and manufacturing them
is easy. Hexagon and square
shaped fibers are possible, but
their advantages of strength and
high packing factors do not
outweigh the difficulty in handling
and processing.
• Material: The material of the fiber
directly influences the mechanical
performance of a composite.
Fibers are generally expected to
have high elastic moduli and
strengths. This expectation and
cost have been key factors in the
graphite, aramids, and glass
dominating the fiber market for Relative cross- sectional areas and shapes
of a wide variety of reinforcing fibres
composites.
 Influence of fibre orientation
• The arrangement or orientation of the fibres relative to one another, the fibre
concentration, and the distribution all have a significant influence on the strength
and other properties of fibre-reinforced composites. With respect to orientation,
two extremes are possible:
1. A parallel alignment of the longitudinal axis of the fibres in a single direction,
2. A totally random alignment.
• Continuous fibres are normally aligned (Fig. a), whereas discontinuous fibres
may be aligned (Fig. b), randomly oriented (Fig. c), or partially oriented.
• Better overall composite properties are realized when the fibre distribution is
uniform.

Schematic representations of
(a) Continuous and aligned,
(b) Discontinuous and aligned, and
(c) Discontinuous and randomly oriented
fibre-reinforced composites.
 Influence of fibre orientation
• Aligned fibrous composites are inherently anisotropic in that the maximum strength
and reinforcement are achieved along the alignment (longitudinal) direction.
• In the transverse direction, fiber reinforcement is virtually nonexistent: fracture
usually occurs at relatively low tensile stresses.
• For other stress orientations, composite strength lies between these extremes. The
efficiency of fiber reinforcement for several situations is given in Table. This
efficiency is taken to be unity for an oriented-fiber composite in the alignment
direction and zero perpendicular to it.
• When multidirectional stresses are imposed within a single plane, aligned layers
that are fastened together one on top of another at different orientations are
frequently utilized. These are termed laminar composites. The reinforcement
efficiency is only one-fifth that of an aligned composite in the longitudinal
direction; however, the mechanical characteristics are isotropic.
Reinforcement Efficiency of FRC for various Fiber Orientations and at various Stress directions
 Influence of fibre orientation
• Properties of composites can be tailored to meet different types of
loading conditions. Long, continuous fibers can be introduced in
several directions within the matrix; in orthogonal arrangements
(0°/90° plies), good strength is obtained in two perpendicular
directions. More complicated arrangements (such as 0°/45°/90°
plies) provide reinforcement in multiple directions.

(a) Tapes containing aligned fibers can be joined to produce

a multi-layered unidirectional composite structure.
Effect of fibre orientation on the (b) Tapes containing aligned fibers can be joined with
tensile strength of E-glass fibre- different orientations to produce a quasi-isotropic
reinforced Epoxy composites. composite. In this case, a 0°/45°/90° composite is formed.
 Influence of fibre orientation
• Example A illustrates how areas with highly oriented fibres have a high
modulus in the direction of orientation and a much lower one (one-third
as high) in the cross-flow.
• In comparison, Example B illustrates that if fibres are largely 45° to the
flow direction, the moduli are equal.
 Influence of fibre orientation

Ultimate tensile strength and E-modulus of composites with different fibre orientation

In principle, the elongation decreases when the stiffness of a material is increased by adding reinforcing fibres. A higher
E-modulus means a stiffer, often also a more brittle material and so it is less deformable which breaks at low strain.
Conversely, an elastic material has a lower E-modulus and so it is less brittle and breaks at higher deformation.
 Influence of amount of fibre
• Mechanical responses, i.e., stress-strain behaviours depends on volume fraction,
in addition to fibre orientation.
• A greater volume fraction of fibers increases the strength and stiffness of the
composite, which can be evaluated from the rule of mixtures. The maximum
volume fraction is about 80%, beyond which fibres can no longer be completely
surrounded by the matrix.
• For random fibre reinforcement (as with oriented- fibre reinforcement), the
modulus increases with increasing volume fraction of fibre.
Ec = KEfVf + EmVm
where, K is fibre efficiency parameter that depends on Vf and the Ef /Em ratio
 Influence of amount of fibre
• As a general rule, the stiffness and strength of a laminate will
increase in proportion to the amount of fibre present.
• However, above about 60-70% fibre volume fraction (depending
on the way in which the fibres pack together) although tensile
stiffness may continue to increase, the laminate’s strength will
reach a peak and then begin to decrease due to the lack of
sufficient resin to hold the fibres together properly.
 Influence of fibre properties
• In most fiber-reinforced composites, the fibers are strong, stiff, and lightweight.
Thus the specific strength and specific modulus of the fiber are important
characteristics. If the composite is to be used at elevated temperatures, the fiber
should also have a high melting temperature.
where, TS is the tensile strength, ρ is the
density, and E is the modulus of elasticity.