UNIT 6 BIODIVERSITY - CONSERVATION

AND UTILIZATION
Structure
6.0 Objectives

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Biodiversity and Genetic Resources

6.3 Plant Genetic Resources

6.4 Exploration and Gennplasm Collection

6.5 Traditional Knowledge in Domestication, Use and Conservation of Native

Plant Genetic Resources

6.6 Gennplasm Exchange and Plant Quarantine

6.7 Germplasm Evaluation

6.8 Documentation and Information Management

6.9 Gennplasm Conservation

.,
6.10 Molecular Techniques for Characterization and Study of Diversity

6.11 Role of Biotechnology in Plant Genetic Resources Management

6.12 . Intellectual Property Rights

6.13 Let Us Sum Up

6.14 KeyWords

6.15 Some Useful BookslReferences

6.16 Answers/ Hints to Check Your Progress

~

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will he in a position to:

• express an overview of whole gamut ofbiodiversity with particular reference

to plant genetic resources; .

• explain details of germplasmcollection, their characterization/evaluation,

documentation and cataloguing;

• discuss concept of gennplasm conservation, in-situ/ex-situ, in-vitro and cryo-

preservation, Indian Gene Bank; and

• summarise global scenario and emerging plant genetic resource issues.

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 Biodiversity- Conservation
6.1 INTRODUCTION and Utilization

Biodiversity is the key component of any agricultural production system - indeed, of

any ecosystem. Without it no natural evolutionary adjustment of the systems
(agricultural or natural) to changing environmental and biotic c.onditions would be
possible. Farmers would not be able to spread the risk of crop failure or experiment
with and refine crop varieties to 'suit their tastes and changing needs. Agricultural
science and forestry would not have the basic raw materials for their introduction,
domestication and improvement programmes. For development to be sustainable,
conservation and use of genetic diversity must be at its core. Because the world is
dynamic, this need for diversity is continuous. It is also increasing, because the
number of people that must be fed, kept warm, housed and cured is increasing. For
thousands of years, wild habitats and farmers with their fields, orchards and home
gardens have been sufficient to ensure the conservation, within the framework of
change dictated by natural and artificial selection, of the vital natural resource that is
the genetic diversity of plants. However, these systems have recently come under
increasing pressure from demographic, socio-economic and technological change.
In some parts of the world, they have been under such pressure for hundreds of
years. The results have been habitat fragmentation and even destruction, the
abandonment of traditional agricultural and natural resources management practices
and the replacement of farmers' landraces by modem cultivars. Species have always
become extinct and landraces gone out of fashion, of course, but the current pace is
unprecedented and variety is being replaced by uniformity, rather than more, different
variety. The result is a loss of genetic material, irreversible erosion of genetic diversity.
Active measures both institutional and grass roots, to ensure the conservation of
plant genetic resources have thus taken on an increasing urgency of late.

6.2 BIODIVERSITY AND GENETIC RESOURCES

Biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity provides the basis of biotic resources
that sustains the human race. This includes diversity within species, between species
and ecosystems. Biodiversity is the most significant national asset and constitutes
enduring resources for supporting the continued existence of human societies.

It is estimated that there exists 5-30 millions species ofliving forms on our earth and
of these, only 1.5 million have been identified and include 3,00,000 species of green
plants and fungi, 8,00,000 species of insects, 40,000 species of vertebrates and
3,60,000 species of micro organisms. Recently, it has been estimated that the number
of insects alone may be as high 10 millions, but many believe that it to be around
5 million. The tropical forests are regarded as the richest in biodiversity. According
to the opinion of the scientists, more than half of the species on the earth live in moist
tropical forests, which are only 7 per cent of the total land surface. Insects (80 per
cent) and primates (90 per cent) make up most of the species.

India has vast animal genetic resources distributed over a large geographical area in
different agro-climatic conditions. Animal diversity is extensive and can be considered
unique. Yak, two humped Bactrian camel and cashmere (Pashmina) goats inhabit
high altitude ofHimalayas in n011h, where environment is similar to Arctic. Garole
sheep and Nicobari fowls of distinctive attributes occur in mangrove ecology of
31
Resources in Agriculture south east coastal regions ofIndian Peninsula. The Andaman breed of goat reported
to subsist on alkaline water. Milch breed of cattle, Tharparker, Rathi and Kankrej
are distributed in Tharand Rajputana desert having extremely hot and arid climate.
Mithun a free ranging bovine lives in the rain forests of world's one ofthe moist
humid climate. The domestic animal genetic resources ofIndia are represented by
about 26 breeds of cattle, 8 breeds of buffaloes, 42 breeds of sheep, 20 breeds of
goats, 8 of camel, 6 of horses and 18 of poultry. Other species such as donkey,
muie,porcine along with species of yak, mithun, geese and duck constitute an
important component of domestic animal diversity (Nivsarkar andSahai, 1997).
"';.' . .

Out of 20,000 species offish genetic resources of the world, nearly 11 per cent or
2,200 fin fish species have been recorded in India by the rCAR -National Bureau of
Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR)in Lucknow. The species distribution is as follows:
Cold water -73, Warm water- 544, Brackish water-14 3 and Marine-l ,440 species
(Das and Kapur, 1996).

Table 6.1: Distribution of Biological Diversity

Number of Species
Taxa,
India World

Algae 6,500 40,000

Fungi 14,500 72,000
Bacteria 85Q 4,000
Viruses Unknown 4,000
Lichen 2,000 17,000
Bryophyta 2,850 <\' 16,000
Pteridophyta 1,100 13,000
Gymnosperms 64 750
Angiosperms 17,500 2,50,000
Protista 2,577 31,290
Mollusca 5,050 70,000
Arthropoda (Insecta, Crustacea, etc.) 60,383 10,65,000
Other Invertebrates 8,329 87,121
Protochordata 116 2173
Pisces 2,546 21,723
Amphibia 206 5,14
Reptilia 485 5,680
Aves 1,228 9,672
Mammalia 372 4,629 )"

Total 1,26,656 17,19,183

Source: Ministry of Environment and Forests (1998).

Agriculturally important micro-organism is vital components of ecosystems and

contributes in maintaining ecological balance. These tiny micro-organisms can only
be seen with the help of microscope include bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, viruses
and other agents. Cultures of Rhizobium /Bradyrhizobium totalling 1090 of diverse
origin have been authenticated and deposited in germplasm Bank, lAR!, New Delhi
(Tilak, Pabbi and Singh 1997). As early as in 1982, India's extremely rich biodiversity
was considered for a pilot project on in-situ conservation under the auspices of
UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (M&AB) project. To date, seven areas are in
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 operation. These biosphere reserves (gene sanctuaries) are exceptionally rich in Biodiversity- Con~erVation
., and Utilization
genetic diversity. Threats to loss ofbiodiversity largely stein from the very high rate .
of growth of the human population in India. This phenomenon has resulted in over-
exploitation of the biotic and physical environment, habitat fragmentation and loss,
pollution, microc1imatic change and large scale, but unsustainable agriculture and
forestry projects. The depletion of crop plant genetic resources particularly in their
centres of diversity has been associated with the spread of modem agriculture through
the Green Revolution with the adoption of improved higher yielding, genetically
uniform varieties requiring fertilizers and otherinputs over large areas. In parallel,
the locally adapted, genetically variable, but lower yielding indigenous varieties grown
by subsistence farmers in developing countries is abandoned. National Bureau of
Agriculturally Important Micro-organisms (NBAIM) under the ageis ofICARhas
been established in the year 2001 and is located at Mau (Uttar Pradesh).

6.3 PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

India occupies a unique position among the major gene-rich countries of the world.
It encompasses a wide spectrum oflife forms; its cultural, ethnic diversity includes
. over 550 tribal communities of227 ethnic groups, spread over 5,000 forest villages
across the humid tropics to semi-arid, temperate and alpine regions. It has been
reported that 49,000 plant species, including 17,500 species of higher plants; occur .
in the country in its 16 major vegetation types. About 33 per cent of the species are
endemic. Over the millennia, the farming communities have selectively domesticated,
, exploited andnurtured the wild diversity gene pools under these diverse situations.
The naturally occurring variation explored and selected by the farm women and .
.local healers was maintained in equilibrium that withstood diverse environmental
conditions and met different human needs. Over two dozen crop plant species,
besides the domesticated farm animals, particularly the buffalo, are known to have
been domesticated by the Indians. The usage of medicinal plants in India has an
ancient history, dating back to the pre Vedic culture, at least 4000 years BC. It is
estimated that at least 70 per cent of Indian population now rely on herbal medicines,
and the traditional doctors in the country have used 7,500 odd species and varieties
. of plants in their practice oflocal medicine. Immensely rich landrace diversity occurs
in major agri-horticultural crops. Like India, a majority of the developing countries
in the world provide rich plant genetic resources and, therefore, need to strengthen
institutional capabilities and the national system for management of pi ants Genetic \
Resources (PGR) - their conservation, enhancement and improvement through
sustainable use.

The Indian sub-continent is also the centre of domestication and diversification

of several forest plant species, forages, grasses, shrubs, herbs, ornaments, etc. .
The floristically rich India has got about 141 endemic genera belonging to over 47
families of higher plants: Of the 4,200 odd endemic species, the largest number
(about 2532) species are located in the Himalayas followed by the peninsular region
(I, 788 species) and Andaman and Nicobar islands (185 species). It also holds
half of the world's aquatic floral diversity and is a treasure house -of wild
economic plants, particularly the edible and medicinal plants, which are largely
utilized locally orin several Ayurvedic preparations and can be.safely termed as
commercially underutilized. For-execution of programmes concerning biological .
diversity vis-a-vis in-situ conservation in India, the Ministry of Environment &
Forests (MoEF) is thedesignated nodal.a&ency. The MoEF has a network. of 33
. . ;
Resources in Agriculture . 5 world heritage sites, more than 100 botanical gardens, 85 national parks, 448
. sanctuaries, 15 selected areas of mangroves, 10 biosphere reserves, 1 gsne
sanctuary, etc. Besides, local inhabitants in different parts of the country are
conserving a number of sacred grooves/ sites.

Cultivated plants in India belonged to two categories, namely, i) Indigenous and

ii) Introduced. Further, keeping in view the geopolitical areas from where introductions
were made, the introduced diversity can be referred to have hailed from Western
Asia, Africa, China, Southeast Asia and Pacific Islands, the-New World and the
Europe. Randhawa(1980) enumerated a list of 49 indigenous cultivated plants.
Further, the reviews made at the NBPGR (Arora and Nayar, 1981; Arora, 1991;
1991 a) have shown that the crops in which a rich diversity occurred in India include
wheat, barley, pigeonpea, chickpea, small millets, mungbean, urdbean, horsegrarn,
.mothbean, ricebean, clusterbean, sesame, forage grasses, okra, eggplant, cucumber,
melons, citrus, banana and plantains,jackfruit, mango, tamarind.jamun.jute, cotton,
ginger, turmeric, pepper, cinnamon and cardamom. Among tuberous crops, rich
variability exists in sweet potato, taros and yams. In medicinal plants, India's genetic
resource base is well known the world over. The endemic plant wealth of the country
has been supplemented with the new species that has gradually transgressed national
boundaries and was introduced from abroad. These species got naturalized over
time and have undergone the process of diversification on being isolated climatically
and spatially. Over the past few centuries, the Mughals, Spaniards, Portuguese and
British introduced new crops in the country that became an integral part of the
Indian agriculture. Prominent among these are apple, pear, peach, apricot, grape,
almond, datepalm, maize, potato, sweet potato, tomato, beans, onion, garlic, chillies
and lentil. The Arabs possibly brought With them clove, coriander, cumin and fennel,
whereas the British promoted the introduction of coffee, cocoa, cashew nut, litchi,
cinchona, strawberry and blueberry. Tea was introduced from China and rubber
and pineapple from Latin America (Randhawa, 1980). Other than the few cultivated
economic plants, which have been selected from the wild races and gradually brought
under domestication, the diverse ethnic groups attribute a wide array of diversity
observed in different regions to differential domestication.

It has become increasingly clear during the last few decades that meeting the food
needs of the world's growing population depends, to a large extent, on the
conservation and use of the world's remaining plant genetic resources. The
conservation·and use of genetic resources is as old as agriculture itself. For over
12,000 years farmers have conserved seed for future planting, domesticated wild
plants and selected and bred varieties to suit their specific needs and conditions.
Over the millennia, hundreds of different plant species have been domesticated and
within each species, human and natural selection have combined to produce thousands
of different varieties. Yet much of this plant genetic diversity has now been lost, Of
the several thousand plant species used in the past for food, only about 150 are
cultivated today and just three - rice, wheat and maize - supply nearly 60 per
cent of the calories and protein derived from plants. The most significant loss of
diversity has taken place in recent decades.

In the past, genetic erosion was largely caused by natural processes, mainly as a
result of climate changes. By contrast, the recent acceleration in the loss of plant
diversity is mainly due to human action. Land clearing, overgrazing, the cutting and

34
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burning offorests, the indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides and war and
 civil strife have destroyed natural habitats and the diversity they contain. The main Biodiversity- Conservation
and Utilization
reason, however, for the reduction of crop genetic diversity has been the introduction
.of new, high yielding plant varieties which began on a large scale in the late 1950s
and 1960s.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for writing your answer.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

1) India is a mega gene centre. Justify.

6.4 EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM

COLLECTION
The collecting of plant genetic resources primarily aims at tapping germplasm
variability in different agri-horticultural crops, their wild relatives and related species.
Based on precautionary principle, all of these are equally legitimate targets for
collecting. The demand of germplasm is unpredictable and dynamic. One does not
know what tomorrow's need may be and what germplasm may be able to fulfil
them. The more diversity is conserved and made available for future use, the better
the chances offulfilIing future's demand. But in practice, some prioritization is
necessary both at species level and geographic regions. Germplasm collection activity
is not as easy as it may sound. It is not simply a matter of being at the right place at
the right time and putting a few seeds in a bag. Target species must be found and
correctly identified. A decision must be taken as to what plant or plant parts to
collect. An attempt must be made to capture maximum diversity for the amount of
material collected and resources expended. The material must be kept viable under
often difficult field conditions. The germplasm must be carefully documented if it is
to be useful to the eventual user. The gene pool of a crop includes not only traditional
local forms (land races) but also wild and weedy relatives. Theentire gene pool
forms the basic unit of conservation and must be the ultimate target of genetic resources
collecting. Out of a quarter million plant species on the earth, only a small proportion
falls in the gene pools of current crops. Thousands of species are exploited by local
communities and their livestock but are not domesticated. Then there are forest
trees, the thousands of species used in traditional medicine and as ornamentals.
Many plants are important in land management and habitat restoration or rehabilitation
(Srivastava and Gautam, 1998; Singh and Srivastava, 2004). Which other species
have the potential to prove significant in the future as sources offood, medicines
and energy and industrial products? What are the keystone species of ecosystems?
Which are the most threatened?

Indian sub-continent has nearly 166 domesticated species of crops of economic

importance and over 325 species of their wild relatives are native of this region 35
 Resources in ~griculture which constitutes a reservoir of genes that are needed for crop improvement. These
valuable germplasm need to be collected. In an exploration programme, following
steps are involved: planning, making contacts with local research organization,
gathering equipment and preparation, meeting with local researchers/government
agencies, sorting out of collected samples, reporting to the Headquarters, preparation
and publication of reports and delivering/distributing collected samples. The field
sampling procedures in Plant Genetic Resources exploration are aimed at the fullest
possible recovery of genetic variation within species, irrespective of the relative
frequency or rarity of genes. Sampling strategy appropriate to target region, species
and plant parts (seed, vegetative propagules, pollen etc.) need thorough scientific
principle. The main reason that can be put forward for collecting gerrnplasm of given
gene pool in given area are that it is in danger of extinction or even erosion; a clear
need exists for it, the diversity it represents is missing from or insufficiently represented
in existing ex-situ gerrnplasm collections; germplasm may be both threatened and
useful and there may be gapsboth in collections of a gene pool, rescue collecting,
collecting for immediate use, gap filling for future use, for research purposes and
opportunistic collecting. Who will collect them, from where, how, when and W how
long the exploration will be carried out, are the areas to be taken in mind. Make
clear the purpose of exploration. Two kinds of explorations can be considered:
Single crop explotation and Multi-crop exploration i.e., species specific vs multi
species collection (Srivastava, 1998; 1998a; 1998b).

, Exploration planning involves prior knowledge of the area, its people (culturali
communities, ethnic groups), socio-religious customs, eco-edaphic conditions, crops'
grown and the varietals diversity available. Before embarking on anexpedition, an
'explorer must synthesize all available information which would guide him in deciding
the route of expedition and sites for collecting; on the strategy of gene pool sampling
to be followed and about the equipment to be carried for collecting and transport of
material, apart from certain other miscellaneous pre-requisites. Further, soundness
of the political climate of the terrain to be explored is also of primary concern while
planning gerrnplasm collecting missions; All these aspects are acquiring knowledge
on agro-ecology and crop/plant distribution, studying existing germplasm using
herbaria, visit to genetic resources centres/research organizations, acquisition of
minimum information, establishing local contacts; planriing of itinerary, logistic
preparation / implementation, durationof exploration, team composition and selection
of members, equipments and transport (Srivastava, 1998; Srivastava and Duhoon,
1994).

6.5 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN

DOMESTICATION, USE AND
CONSERVATION OF NATIVE. PLANT
GENETIC RESOURCES
At present, traditional or low-inputs agriculture is thought tosupport more than
one-quarters of the world's population (Wolf, 1986). The agricultural practices and
other daily chore of the primitive man provide valuable clues of his definite concepts
of conservation of plant resources and energy and healthy environment and one
interesting area of work in ethno-botany is the study of selection brought out by
the tribal in certain economic plants andthe conservation of germplasm through
'36. patronage of landraces. Many tribal and other orthodox cultivators have not
 adopted all new or improved varieties of crops and have continued to grow the Biediversity- Conservation
and Utilization
traditional land races or wild relatives of commonly cultivated crops, thereby
maintaining their genetic material of the germplasm, Specific characters of hardiness,
disease resistance and adaptability to speCial conditions like-water logging, extreme
drought or cold etc., in the Iandraces have been continuously utilized by the plant
breeders and on some occasions helped averting wide spread famines.

Besides about 160 species of cultivated plants and about 320 wild species (Arora
and Nayar, 1984) of agriculturally important wild relatives of crop plants, over 9,500.
~.

wild plant species of ethnic importance occur in different floristic regions and used
.by the tribal communities. Interestingly, the tribal-dominated tracts of India are still
the storehouse of much information and knowledge to unfold the multiple uses of
plants. Thus, native plant genetic wealth, by and large, lies preserved with different
ethnic tribes who still live.in isolation are culturally distinct not only from the urban
communities but also from the local inhabitants belonging to other tribes. Such
ethno-botanically/agro-ecologically distinct pockets arefound in the north-eastern
region, parts of western Himalaya, central India and the western and eastern peninsular
tracts.

Plant genetic diversity held by tribal in their courtyards, backyards, kitchen gardens
and in fields is primarily of following types:

, Plarits that occur wild in open or closedforest. Habitats are being protected
consciously. These include annuals and perennials.

• Plants that are being raised as courtyard cultigens are morphologically, akin
to the wild type in their different characters.

• Plants, which possess severalpromising attributes but still ,have more

characters of wild types. These are also backyard or kitchen garden cultigens,

• Plants those are cultivated in fields and in kitchen gardens but represent the
locally grown landraces, possessing their own attributes. These represent the
native variability of cultivated plants that lies preserved with the tribal people.
,. traditional cultivarsl crops raised primarily under the
These include.age-old .

traditional subsistence farming .

.Manyrare and primitive cultivars of cereals, millets, pulses and vegetables, which
. have almost disappeared in modem society are found still being grown by the tribal
. communities living in the inaccessible areas in the high hills ofHimalaya, Central
India or the Eastern and Western Ghats of India. The primitive cultivars and wild .
relatives of crop plants preservedby thcf<Ji.balare some of the very tare and precious
gene pool holding the genetic key to many valuable characters which plant breeders
may require in future for improving the agronomic characters of the crop plants.
Apart from food plants like cereals/millets etc., among the annuals and small bushy
types, dual-purpose useful types including the medicinal plants are grown by the
tribal ..

There has been increasing interest in recent years in medical ethno-botanymainly

because of the renewed interest in traditional herbal medicine; particularly the tribal .
medicine. The wonder herb Rauvolfia serpentina, the root of which has been used
a
for centuries in traditional Indian medicine as cure for insanity, epilepsy and high .
blood pressure, exemplifies development of traditional herbal medicine into a modem
.37
Resources in Agriculture drug of therapeutic importance. There area number of other herbs, which have
come to light in the recent years with miraculous therapeutic effects. The rosy
periwinkle Catheranthus roseus from the Madagascar tropical forest of the
aborigines have provided the million dollar weapons viniblastine to fight childhood
Leukaemia- a kind of blood cancel' in infants. The Pacific Island gave the million
dollars worth anti-cancerous drugs. Over 9,500 wild plantspecies used by the
Indian tribal for meeting their varied requirements have been recorded so far. Out
of7,500 plant speciesused by the tribal for medicinal purposes, about 950 are.
found to be new claims worthy of scientific investigation. Chemical investigation
and biological screening of about 300 wild tribal medicinal plants have been carried
out in India. .

The conservation of ethno-botanical resources, primitive landraces and wild relatives

of crop plants is vital for crop improvement programmes. The search for economic
plants used by tribes and aboriginal must continue. Their preservation is necessary
both to secure supplies of food, fibre and certain drugs and to advance scientific and
industrial innovations. It is also necessary to ensure that the loss of species does not
. impair the effective functioning of ecological processes.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for writing your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end ofthe unit.

I) How will you differentiate between traditional and modem agriculture?

2) Enumerate the role of ethno-botanical resources in crop improvement

programme .

.................................................................................................................

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3f
 Biodiversity- Conservation
6.6 GERMPLASM EXCHANGE AND PLANT and Utilization

QUARANTINE
The germplasm material is a vital resource in generating new plant types with desired
traits that help in increasing crop production and improve the quality of product.
Plant breeders need more and more diverse gennplasm to reshuffle desired genes
and develop better varieties. Hence the acquisition of diverse and superior germplasm
from exotic sources has gained critical importance. The plant quarantine mechanism
is an important part of germplasm exchange in order to prevent the transfer of
undesired elements from one place to another. Let us discuss the importance and
procedure of gennplasm exchange and plant quarantine in the subsequent sections.

A. Germplasm Exchange
The monumental work of N I Vavilov on the 'Centre of origin of cultivated plants'
created awareness about the prevalence of genetic diversity in certain phyto-
geographical regions and this subsequently resulted in organized expeditions by
several scientists, particularly from Russia, Europe and America to these regions for
collecting germplasm. The germplasm material was eventually evaluated in the
respective regions. Interest was developed in the exchange of elite material bred by
plant breeders. All these movement had resulted into several good and bad effects.
Whereas these movements made, it is possible for the nations of the world to have
rich varieties of plants for their use in food and fodder etc. It also created problems
as obnoxious weeds and harmful pests and diseases were also introduced along
with these useful germplasm material. A need was arisen to regulate transfer of
germplasm material in an orderly manner and in a healthy state, thus avoiding risk of
introduction of undesired elements such as weeds and pests and diseases. Different
nations organized separate plant exchange agencies with adequate facilities for proper
inspection and handling of gennplasm material under exchange (Singh, 1998).

The awareness at national level to collect and utilize genetic diversity was initiated
by B P Pal in the mid 1940s. In India, introduction of agri-horticultural crops started
as early as 1946 at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (lARI), New Delhi
under a scheme initiated in the Division of Botany. In the Second Five- Year Plan,
Plant Introduction and Exploration Organization in the year 1956 replaced it. Anew
Division of Plant Introduction was set up in 1961 during Third Plan under IARI
which was elevated to the status of a full fledged institute, popularly known as National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in the year 1976. The NBPGR is the
nodal institution in India, which has the mandate of germplasm exchange including
introduction. It is undertaking exchange of Plant Genetic Resources (PGR) with
102 countries. Further, the NBPGR has developed very strong partnership for PGR
exchange with International Agricultural Research Centers (lARCs), particularly
InternationaCMaize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico;
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines; International Centre of
Agricultural Research for Dry Areas (ICARDA), Syria; International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria; International Potato Centre (CIP), Peru;
International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India; and
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC), Taiwan. The NBPGR
focuses on introducing new crops, elite strains, promising genetic stocks, improved
varieties and wild relatives of various crop plants. Further, to fulfil international
obligations, export of germplasm has been undertaken as per requests and
39
Resources in Agriculture' Memorandum ofUnderstandings(MoUs) signed by the nation. Germplasm imports
and exports have to be pass through the quarantine system, as per internationally
accepted phyto-sanitary norms (Singh et al., 2001; Singh and Srivastava, 2004).

New policy of Seed Development, 1988, has made it mandatory for individuals or
agencies intending to import seed/planting materials into India to obtain an 'Import
Permit' from the Director, NBPGR in advance and should be accompanied by a
phyto-sanitary certificate from the country of origin. The Director, NBPGR in turn,
arranges custom clearance and quarantine examination. Major events that influenced
germplasm exchange across the world are 'Convention ofBiologica1 Diversity (CBD)'
agreed in 1993; and the establishment of 'World Trade Organization (WTO)' in
1995. With these developments, now PGR, a 'Heritage of Humankind.' has
become 'Sovereign Rights of the States'. Further, WTO recognizes the
Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) over the PGR. Therefore Material Transfer
Agreements (MTA) has come to the forefront and MoUs have become
essential components for germplasm exchange (Singh et al., 2001; Singh and
Srivastava, 2004).

B. Plant Quarantine

Plant quarantine is an. endeavour through which restrictions are imposed by the
Government to regulate the introduction/movement of plants, plant parts, plant
.products, soil living culture of organisms, packing materials with a view to prevent
introduction and spread of exotic pests/pathogens hazardous to the agriculture of a
. country, state or region. Though, plant quarantine measures may not guarantee an
everlasting protection against the entry of exotic species but will certainly check or
delay the introduction of the se unwanted organisms and their subsequent establishment
in hitherto clean areas. Therefore, practicing 'Plant Quarantine' i.e. protection of
-plant wealth by observing quarantine measures will go a long way in protecting our
agriculture/horticulture from the ravages of exotic pests and diseases and from those
which are not present in the area. The import and export of seeds, plants, plant
products and planting material in India are regulated by the rules and regulations
framed under the Destructive Insects and Pests Act (DIP Act) of 1914 (Directorate
ofPlant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation,
1976), subsequently revised several times. Enforcement of the DIP Act is the
responsibility of the Plant Protection Adviser to the Government of India, Directorate
of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad, under the Ministry of
Agriculture; The main features ofthe Act are: Central Government may prohibit or
regulate importation into India of any article or class of articles likely to be injurious
to any crop, may prohibit or regulate the export from a State or the interstate transport
of any article or class of articles likely to be injurious to any crop, may make rules
prescribing the nature of documents to accompany any article or class of articles .
. The State Government may make rules concerning the detention, inspection,
disinfestations or destruction of any article or class of articles likely to be injurious to
any released variety.

Seed were not originally included in the DIP Act, but because of the changing situation
and to meet current requirements, the Government of India passed the Plants, Fruits
and Seeds (PFS) Order of 1984, which came into effect in June 1985. The order is
comprehensive; 17 crops are included and conditions for their import are stipulated.
The main features of the Order are: Seed has been brought under the purview of the
40 DIP Act, no consignment can be imported into India without an official' Import
 ~
Permit' issued by the Plant ProtectionAdviser, Minis.t~fAgric'tu:re;Govemment e "Biodiversity- Conservation
and Utilization
oflndia.no consignmenrcan be lrnp~rted,into India without anofficial-' Phyto-sanitaty
Certificate'.issued bythe official plant quarantine agency oitheexporting'country,
post-entry isolation growing of specified crops-at approved Ipcatio~ is.stipulated.
PFS orderof19.84 was replaced QyPFS:()rdet19~9to.dttertothe needs of The
Ne~ Policy.bn Seed Development (NPSD) of'theGovt. onndi~which came into
force on l st October, 1988 with the.objectivejomakeavailable 'to the Indian farmers
the best genetic materials in the world to increase Qui agricultural productivity and to
. • u •

encouragethe private' sector seed industry-in India not only to fulfill the domestic
requirements but also to develop export potential.
~ ,.
The new policy covers the importof seeds/planting materials of wheat, paddy, ~arse
cereals, oil seeds.pulses.eegetables.flcwers, ornamentals and fylit crops, as also
tbeprocedures for. their import f\nd,)the related plant quarantine procedures/
requirements.Whilejiberalizing ~port,,"c.ar~ hasbeentaken that-there is abs91~~y.
no compromise' on Plant Qu£i[antine:requirements·. Recently Go~ent"QtIndia
has replaced P'fS_ Order198~ with 'Planr.Quaran-tine.t)faer +Ocf4' wliich has
become.operativefrom -1st ]cijniary 2004. India has banned the'irrrport of coconut
from Srilai1k~ Afri~~North. ~eriGa and several other countries becauseo.fmcip~c~ .
ofdestructive pests. Besiae,s, it has also banned the-import ot-Iarg.e.p.umber'df oth~r
plant species like banana', dates, coffee, cocoa.from certaincountries because of .
pests·.',· " ' '

The Government of India has 'approved thrt;:eNatiol).allnstitutions/organizationsto

act asofficial introduction and plant quarantine agencies for iri.ttodudion!ex<;hi:l11ge
of seed/planting material fordifferent group of. crops/plants"especially for research
, '

purposes.'

i) TheNational.B~eauofPlari.t,GeneticResources (NBPGR);New Delhi, for

,agri-horticulturaI and agri~silvicl:llturaI crop plants, ,
"

ii) 'The Forest Research Institute (FlU), Dehradun for forestry plants.

iii)' TheBotanical Survey of India (SSI),Calcutta forplants ofbotanical/economic

interests.

6.7 ,GERMpLASivI"E,VAL.lJAT10]s
.. "',."
.. ',
••"
.. "".. . .,: - - ..... " ",,'.'",.

Aftercollection or
gemiplasm, thereisneedJotlts,systematjc evaluation in order to
know itSvarious morphological, physiologicatanddeveJdpin~ntal cbfu.act~rsllic.lciding
"some special features~suchas,~ttess tolerance.pestand disease resistance.etc.
The foHowihg steps WidcomponentsofgeriI?-Plasin evaluationcan bedistinguished.

1) I~crease,~fSeed Sto~k

The first stepis the seedincrease. This needscare asit involves therisk of losing a
particular accession due to poor adaptation.disease and pest damage, introducing
admixtures through contamination orerrorand altering the genetic composition of
theoriginal genetic make up throughconscious (human) or unconscious (natural)
'selection. ,Therefore, it is essential to increase seed stocks sufficiently in one cycle
so that the harvested seeds can be used forevaluation, differentiation and storage.
41
Resources in Agriculture 2) Descriptor Lists-

The process of evaluation begins with the adoption of descriptor lists. The
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute's (IPGRI) descriptor lists are quite
exhaustiv.e and. many a times, it is not possible to record data as per these
descriptors. th~ National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) has
developed Minimal. Descriptor lists for over 100 different agri-horticultural crops
(Mahajan et"al., 2000; Srivastavaer 'al; 2001). These descriptorsare, by and
large; .wjdelY\lsed by PGR scientists. These help in"maintaining uniformity in data
processing and management. Based on these descriptors, the data recorded for
each accession fall into the following sections.

a) Passport Data

Passport data includes all basic information recorded during the time of collecting
samples or the information provided by the sender regarding source/origin, etc.
Such information is very useful for all phases of genetic resources work.

b) Characterization and Preliminary Evaluation

It consists of recording those characters which are.highly heritable, can be easily

seen by the eye and are expressed in all environments. Characterization should
provide a standardized record of readily assessable plant characters which, together
with passport data, go a long way to identify an accession (Frankel, 1986). Most
important characterization and preliminary evaluation descriptors and descriptor
states to be used included Site data: Information on evaluation site, evaluator's
name and evaluation date; Planting data: Propagation method, habit, height,
density of branches, crown diameter, etc.; Leaf characters: Type ofleaf, petiole
type, leaf size, leaflet type, etc.; Floral characters: Arrangements of flowers,
position of flowers, type of inflorescence, colour of flower bud, length of pedicel,
length of bud, number of stamens, flower aroma, pollination, etc.; Fruiting
characters: Number of days from flowering to harvest, main harvest season,
yield, etc.; Fruit characters: Number of fruits per duster, fruit 'length and
width, shattering habit, seeds per fruit, etc. and Seed characters: Seed size,
hilum size and colour, lOO-seed weight, etc.

c) Evaluation of Diverse Type of Collections

The germplasm collection of any crop consists of'diverse types of collections such
as:

i) those derived from centres of diversity namely (a) Primitive cultivars, (b) Natural
hybrids oerween cultigen and wild relatives, (c) Wild relatives (wild and weedy .
races), and (d) Related'speciesand genera, -

ii) those derived from areas of cultivation namely (a) commercial types, (b) obsolete
varieties, (c) prirnitivevarieties, and (d) special purpose types, and

iii) '''hose derived from breeding programmes namely (a) pure line from farmer's
stock, (b) elite varieties or hybrids, (c) breeding lines, (d) mutants, (e) polyploids.
and (t) intergeneric and interspecific hybrids. '

42
 ~
In view of the wide range of genetic variability in germplasm collections of cultivated Biodiversity-· Conservation
" ..,.and Utilization,
plants ranging from wild and weedy types to high yielding varieties, all necessary
care should be taken before making any-strategy for their evaluation' and
characterization.

Germplasm Traits

The different characteristics taken into consideration for decision about selection of
traits are discussed herewith.

Agronomic and Morphological

These traits are the most commonly recorded germplasm descriptors. Agronomic
and morphological trait evaluations have been assigned as 10'Y priority these days.
Morphological traits that described the accession are important for identification
purposes andan attempt is being made to develop'database at the NBPGR. There
'are some reports in the literature dealing with evaluation of quantitative traits such as
yield; combining ability and adaptation to specific 'environments (Jain, 1975)
emphasized the importance of thispart of germplasm evaluation. However, these
characteristics might be tested in replicated trials 'and over several locationsand/or
years, these expensive tests are generally not attempted for other than elite breeding
lines.which are available only from the breeders.

Pest Resistance

Pest resistance will continue to receive priority emphasis from plants breeders in the
future, because of increased public demand for decreased use of pesticide, particularly
insecticides, as well as for increasing levels of genetic pest resistance in crops. This
will result in an increased need for new resistance genes from wild accessions and
wild relatives to crops species (Pluncknett et al. 1987).

Value Added Evaluation for Quality Traits

Data from quality evaluations are often contained in research publications that are
not easily available to the public. Standardization is also difficult to achieve as there
are various procedures to determine some quality traits and procedures vary among
laboratories. These days most quality evaluation are confined to protein analysis, oil
and fat estimation.

Abiotic Stress
f '

Abiotic stress to plant growth and development caused by many factors in addition
to pests included drought, flood, soil fertility, salinity, pH, weed competition and
temperature stress. Stress caused by low fertility and weed competition is often
controlled chemically, adding to environmental concerns. Increased efficiency for
utilization of crop nutrients by cultivars could decrease the use of chemical fertilizers.
The All India Coordinated Research Projects (AICRPs) ofIndian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) are placing priority on stress evaluation.

Other Traits

Electrophoretic banding patterns of isozymes and protein from plant tissue can
aid in identification of germplasm and in finding variability. To date no 43
Resources in AgriCulture .germplasm collections have been isozymetrically fingerprinted, but variability of
storage proteins has been isozymetrically finger printed, but variability of storage
proteins has been analyzed in beans and other species, Knowledge of cytogenetics
of related wild species is essential in determining cross compatibility between
species. Cytogenetics of newly introduced material of both common and potential
new crop species is necessary for proper identification and classification.
Cytogenetics and electrophoretic techniques require specific laboratories and
expertise. Therefore, it is quite expensive to obtain these data compared with
obtaining field data.

3)' Types of Characters and Measurement Data

The.characters of concern to plant breeders can be broadly divided into two

groups which are functionally and, to a large degree, genetically distinct. These
are grouped into qualitative or observable and quantitative or non-observable
characters.

Observable characters: These characters can be identified in single plants or

their immediate progenies. Observable characters include morphological,
physiological or biochemical characters relating to survival, productivity or quality
and can be transferred from an exotic source to an adapted cultivar by repeated
back crossing.

Non-observable characters: These characters are subject to environmental

variation and are polygenic. They are largely responsible for adaptation and
productivity. Evaluation for complex characters such as yield can be meaningfully
evaluated only in the breeder's environment and the capacity to raise yields above
current levels can be assessed either indirectly, by yield testing of accessions, or
directly and more meaningfully by compatibility tests with locallyadapted cultivars.
However, such approach is only feasible on small collections. '

There are four types of measurement data which cover the range of quantitative to
qualitative characters and are presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2: Types of Measurement Data

Scale Basis of Observation Examples '

Internal Direct measurement of attribute Height, days to flowering, tuber

". .
weight, number of flowers per
plant. .

Ratio Combination of two direct . Harvest index and per cent

measurement or inference from a of protein, oil or sugar.
single measurement

Ordinal Assigning, sometimes subjectively, Susceptibility to pests and

a related value from a standard scale diseases, overall processing
quality, leaf or seed shape.

Nominal Assignments of qualitative character Flower colour and seed

into aromaty number and classes, patterns.

44
 Biodivcrsity- Conservation
Check Your Progress 3 and Utilization

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.

b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

1) What do you understand by passport data?

.......... ; " .

2) Define observable characters .

•••••• ;. to .....; •••• ..." ',',"~" ~,'.""" .~ •• .': .~ •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

6.8 DOCUMENTATION AND INFORMATION

MANAGEMENT

It has been accepted widely that the success of the entire genetic resources
programme is dependent upon the use and storage of the descriptive information
associated with the conserved material (ex-situ or in-situ) which enables plant
breeders to make decision regarding the material to be used in the breeding
programmes and aid the gene bank managers in the management of the accessions
for conserving the variability and its further deterioration. Documentation is therefore,
one of the most critical functions concemed with genetic resources.

One major factor affecting the genetic resources information handling and exchange
is the voluminous data associated with the germplasm collections. Managing such
voluminous information isa tedious job and essentially requires some computer
base system which can handle and process the information for storage and retrieval.
Database Management System (DBMS) is a software program that handles the
difficult task associated with creating accessing and maintaining database records. It
is primarily based on two types oftechniques namely - hierarchical and relational. In
comparison to hierarchical structuring technique, the relational technique is much
simpler and commonly used these days and is popularly known as Relational Database
Management System (RDBMS). For example, Oracle, dBASE, Foxpro, Access
etc. are some ofthe widely used RDBMS software. In a RDBMS, the entire related
information associated with accessions in the form of various descriptors is not stored
in a single record in the-information system. However, it is stored in various fragments
known as entities or tables. These entities/tables contain nuinber of descriptors or
fields which are linked together through common fields (Accession Identifiers etc.). 45
Resources in Agriculture
6."9, GERMPLASM
. .'"
CONSERVATION
".. ~ ..• -$ ;......, •• ' 3

Conseryation' of plant diversityas of utmost importance in ensuring protection of

hea.lthy,envG-ot?meri.t?ver th~ globe and also for meeting basic human needs offood,
nutritionhealthcare.clothing.and fue]. The fundamental objectives of genetic
resources conservation 'i~th~irialmenap.ce of broad based genetic diversity within
, eachof the specieswith a knownor potential value in order to ensure availability
for, exploitation by pres,ent and future 'generations, ' '.
. ,

•• In-situ Conservation- .

Literally.tin-place' means conservation in natural habitat. The in-situ conservation \

approaches require that the-species bemaintainedin their 'natural habitats, including
the-traditiqh~l agricultural s~stems. Th~s strategy hasfhepotentials to con~efve
wild relatives of crop plant species, their .landraces and traditional cultivars and
also-allow the natural forces of evolution to play their role in generating further
variability for natural or conscious selection in favourable combinations over
generations. It also allows genetic shifts to a sizeable extent, giving rise to new
plant appearances and architect. The most commonly referred in-situ conservation
sites include: Biosphere reserves, Gene sanctuaries and Sacred groves, etc. The
Ministry of Enviromnent and Forests, Govermnent of India is implementing this.
In-situ conservation aims at conserving biota in their natural habitats on a holistic
basis more as it system than as separate individuals.

• Ex-situ Conservation

Literally' out of place,' means conservation outside the original or natural habitat.
When germplasm conservation is attempted outside the natural habitat, !t is
known as ex-situ conservation. The ex-situ conservation approaches, on the
other hand, require collection and systematic long-term storage of seeds outside
the natural habitats of species. Normally, the following components constitute
the ex-situ conservation sites, gene banks maintained at sub-freezing
temperatures (-20°C), cryo-banks under liquid/vapour nitrogen temperatures
(-165°C to -196°C), in-vitro tissue culture banks at varying degrees of temperature
regimes (4°C to 25°C) and sub-culture intervals (4-24 months) depending upon
individual species, DNA banks, field repositories, botanical gardens and arboreta,
etc. Besides preservation of specimens of living materials or parts thereof in
herbaria or museums also constitutes a part of the conservation strategy because
the hereditary material (DNA) can be safely extracted from these preserved
specimens for subsequent use.

• In-vitro Conservation

In-vitro conservation refers to maintenance of germplasm in relatively stable form

under more or less defined nutrient conditions in an artificial enviromnent. The term
in-vitro or tissue cultures covers wide range of techniques involving the growth of
whole plant organs such as shoots, embryos or cells, protoplasts etc., under asceptic
conditions. Primarily these techniques depend upon the provision of a suitable growth
medium containing agar, sucrose, all the essential nutrients hormones as well as
auxins and cytokinins. Besides above, the correct physical conditions oflight and
temperature are essential pre-requisites. The aim of maintenance of in-vitro cultures
tinder growth limitation is to reduce the requirements of sub-culturing with all its
 attendant risks. The various approaches to achieve this included a) Reduced Biodiversity- Conservation
and Utilization
Temperature incubation: The basic principle in this method is that if the in-vitro
plants are maintained at a temperature significantly below the temperature required
for optimum growth, the metabolic activities. are affected. and thereby the growth of
the plants become restricted, 2) Use of growth regulator: The basic principle of
using these growth regulators (C'ompoUnds) is simply to red lice the overall growth
. rate of the in-vitro plantlets and enhance the subculture interval, 3) Use of minimal
growth media and restrictive growth conditions: Alteration of carbon source, either
as nutrient factor or as an osmotic factor, cap. havea very marked effect on growth
rate of cultures ill many species. Inclusion-of non-rnetabolizable sugars and alcohol
particularly mannitol Or sorbitol (0.5 to 6 per cent) in media was quite effective in
restricting the growth of many plant species in-vitro. However, use of growth limiting
'medium was more rewarding in many cases when cultures were incubated under
reduced temperature.

• Cryo-preservation

Cryo-preservation of cells, suspension culture, shoot tips, meristems and pollen in

liquid nitrogen (-1960C) also offers alternative strategy for germplasm preservation.
Similarly freeze preservation of zygote and somatic embryos provides yet another
method for the conservation ofbiodiversity. Cryo-preservation techniques involve
preservation of biological material at a very low temperature of cryogenic
gases, usually much below 40°C. It is possible to obtain various temperatures down
to - 200°C using liquified gases like carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. Liquid
nitrogen at the temperature of - 196°C is the most readily available liquified gas and
thus is the most likely choice for cryo-preservation,

•. Indian National Gene Bank

The Indian National Gene Bank (NGB) at the campus of National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources, New Delhi was dedicated to the nation by the Vice President of
India, Honourable Shri K R Narayanan (later President ofIndia) in November
1996. It became operational during 1997 with the commissioning of 13 storage
modules, each with a storage capacity of76000 samples with a total capacity of
over 1.25 million accessions for long term storage. One of these modules is used for
medium term storage of active germplasm collections. The cryo-preservation
facility - contains six liquid nitrogen tanks (cryo-tanks) each containing 1000 liters
.ofliquid nitrogen (LN2). Six cryotanks have a total capacity to store 0.25 million
samples. Thus the New Gene Bank has total capacity to store 1.25 million samples.
This is one of the most modern gene banks in the world. The germplasm material
stored in four old modules is being transferred to New Gene Bank in phased manner,
The Indian National Gene Bank is a Federal facility and the gerrnplasm stored as the
base collections (Long term storage) comes under the jurisdiction of Government of
India The responsibility for providing the technical guidance and administrative control
are vested with the Director, NBPGR. Keeping in view the policy, N GB accepts
valuable seed stocks from various national and international sources. The National
Genebank ofNBPGR is linked effectively with ICAR InstituteslNational Research
Centres, All India Coordinated Research Projects and 'State Agricultural Universities
and has been assigned responsibility for maintaining evaluated germplasm and field
conservation backed by medium term storage facility. These are responsible for
supply of germplasm out of its collections of different crops to National Gene Bank
for its long-term storage at -: 200C. .
Resources in Agriculture
'.6.10 MOLEClJLAJ,l TECHNIQU~S 'FOR:.
CHAAACTERIZATION AN'D STUDY. OF' .
DIVERSITY·
Since last 2-3 decades emphasis was placed on biochemical characterization, which
is being gradually replaced by moleclllarte<!hniques,' Four .areas of PGR
characterization in which biotechnology Can be usedare: identificationof genotypes
includingduplicateaccessions;fingerprintingof genotypes.analyzinggenetic diversity
in collections or in natural stands and assembling acore collection, Severaltechniques
are available for the characterization of germplasm. These largely depend on the
need, type and nature of the crop and one can choose a technique depending upon
the need and the facilities available. The characterization may be for morphological
traits, cytological features, histological traits, biochemical traits and molecular/Dl-Ia
polymorphism. Isozymic geneticmarkers have been widely used in taxonomic, genetic
and evolutionary studies. They are routinely used to check genotypic seed purity
and have occasionally been used to assist in selecting progeny during plant breeding.
RFI~P's Which can provide a 10-20 fold increase in the number of polymorphic
gene markers promise to provide a degree of genomic saturation that might expand
the practical usefulness of gene markers. For example, they could have use in the
selection of parents and progenyduring plant breeding,
. . ."

. 6.11 ROLE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN PLANT

GENETIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
The safer application ofbiotechnology inagriculture.and the environment has been
termed as "bio-safety".The far-fetchingpotentials of modem biotechnologyto transfer
gene (DNA segments jfrom lower organisms across the.phyla to higher plants and
animals led to the thinking that in the process some harmful effectsmaybe
in
inadventently carried over, This called for exercising caution their use. The term
bio-safety has been used to describe interalia the policies andprocedures adopted
to ensure the environmentally safe application of modem biotechnology,

Evaluation of transgenic forbio-safetyclearance falls under the purview of

Environmental Protection Act 1986, for which the Department of Biotechnology .
(DBT) is the nodal department. Seed production is governed by Seed Act, 1966,
through which Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) controls the
commercial seedproduction of notified varieties. The regulatory mechanism for the
developmentand evaluation oftransgenic (The Recombinant DNA SafetyGuidelines)
isbased on a 3~tiersystem included: 1) Institutional Bio-safetyCommittee (IBSC)
chai~ed by the head ofthein~titute and.hasmembers fromdifferentdisciplines
including ~nominee ofDBT. The scientIst interestedto work on'recotnbirumtDNA
technology has to seek permission from IBSCbefOrestartirig the experiments,
2) Review Committee on Genetic Manipulati()ll(RCGM) functionsurider theDbf -
and is empowered inter aliatonionitorsafety relatedaspectsof ongoing research
projects involving Genetically Modified Organism (GMOs ),torevlew allreports of .
approved ongoing research projects involving high-risk category,anq controlled field.
, experiments, to issues the cleaiance for impoitlexport of etiologic agents and vectors; .
"~tral1sgenic germplasm including transformed cell, .seed and,plant parts forresearch
",.,.
use only, to authorize the applicant
. to
. conduct limitedfield trials in multiplication
48

. ~.
 mode, to direct, if required, the application to generate toxicological, allergenicity Biodiversity- Conservation
• and Utilization
and any other relevant data on transgenic material andto direct, if required, the
applicant to generate long-term environmedt safety dataseeking release of trlmsgenic
plants into the open environment. ~'. .

6.12 INTELLECTUAL ,PROPERTY RIGHTS

The World Trade Organization (WTO) through Trade ~lated Intellectual Property
Rights System (TRIPS) administers the mostcomprehensive mtiltilateral agreement
on intellectual property. Under the TRIPS, agreement requires all the countries to
make patents available for inventions, whether products or process, in all fields of
technology. However; plants and animals may be excluded from patentability. For'
plant varieties protection may be provided by patents and /or byand effective sui
generis system. The issues that are imminently faced today concern access to Plant
Genetic Resources (PGR) for sustainable use and also the equitable sharing of
benefits accrued from their commercial use. The PGR have been largely considered
earlier as 'common heritage of humankind ' as per the IUPGR. The Access to PGR
in India has been granted through a single window entry mechanism as operated at
the NBPGR. The application for import permit sought for a minimal undertaking
ascertaining a free sharing of the germplasm accessed by the indenter. However,
some recent developments in evolving a Material Transfer Agreement for the Indian
Plant Genetic Resources System (IN~PGRS) have taken place (Singh and Srivastava,
2004).

The Patent Act also provides for the granting of automatic license of right in the
food, pharmaceutical and chemical sectors. The user has to pay a royalty to the
patent holder. Three years after the sealing of the patent, anyone is allowed to use
the invention, without the consent of Controller-General of Patents or the patent
holder. The Act protects only process patent and not product patents in respect of
food, medicine and agro-chemicals. The Presidential Ordinance issued on 31
December, 1994 amended the patent Act of 1970 extending it to include agriculture
and also permitting patenting of products.

Plant Bre~ders' Rights (PBR): Between 1930 and 1960, various industrial
countries enacted laws, termed as plant breeders' rights, giving breeders cl temporary
monopoly on exploitation of their varieties. In 1961, eight European countries signed
a pact in Paris what is known as the Union for the Protection of New Varieties of
- Plants (UPOV). Essentially, UPOV was put in place because some French rose
breeders wanted the same kind of recognition as accorded to the inventors of the
steam engine and the light bulb. this had encouraged the private sector to go into
variety development, more so in food crops. And, with the emergence of
biotechnological tools like genetic engineering, gene fragmentation, etc., gave birth
to thepatent rights. Even the UPOV Convention is now under pressure to extend
the s~ope of the protection that has already been granted. Countries, which are
members ofthe UPOY, have meanwhile adopted legislation expressively designed
; to-provide proprietary rights in plant germplasm. Under the older convention of
UPOV, which was constituted in 1961a,nd revised in 1978, a new plant variety
developed by a breeder could only be produced and marketed by him. The breeder
had a monopoly over his variety via the seed trade but system allowed two important
exemptions.One Was called the Breeders' exemption, which allowed other plant
breeders to use the protected variety for breeding purposes, the other exemption
49
Resources in Agriculture implicit the Ul'Ov treaty was that for farmers. The farmers' exemption gave farmers
the right to use seed from their harvests to plant the nextcrop, even ifPBRs protected
the seed. In 1991, the Ul'OV treaty was revised once more and the Breeders
exemption was almost done away with. This means that now breeders have to pay
royalty to the PBRholder if their new variety bears some resemblance to the protected
variety even if the new variety has been bred for different traits: The farmers, after
the 1991 amendment, cannot use farm saved seed from protected varieties without
giving some compensation for the same. The methods of compensation are being
currently discussed in various fora in Europe and the subject is a bone of contention
between the farmers and the breeders. It is to be noted that requirements under
TRIPS do not necessitate joining UPOY. Views both in favour and against joining
urov have been expressed in India.
Farmers Rights: The FAO Conference Resolution 3/91 recognized the rights of
farmers while recognizing their age old contributions for fostering and improving the
traditional agricultural resource base.including land races, cultivars and.practices
and farming systems. The CBD has also recognized the rights of farming communities
for benefit sharing based upon these resources and TRIPS inWl'O have also made
provisions for countries to developnationallegislations for adopting provisions of
patenting, a sui generis system or a combination of both so as to protect intellectual
property rights as applicable .. Accordingly, there IS a greater need to involve/ '
compensate/reward farmers and farming communities for conservation and other
participatory approaches. .

6.13 LET US SUM UP

Crop genetic resources are the results of conscious selection from the wide range of
natural diversity. Subsequent crop evolution was the result of selection processes on
the variation originated by mutations and distributed by recombination. Selection
processes provided by crop management under complex production constraints
and farmers' preferences, led to the distribution of the variation among types that
differed from place to place, with each type characterized by high level of adaptation
to a given environment. Recent crop evolution was due to modem plant breeding
which began when it became evident that landraces were incapable of responding
to the improvements in farming systems and that more reactive materials were
therefore necessary. Selection occurred first among and within landraces and then!in
variation originated by cross-breeding. Farmers adopted the new high yielding
varieties over large areas, thereby rendering the crops more uniform and exposed to
the risk of severe attacks by diseases and pests. To overcome these problems, the
system of maintenance of varieties was started. The introduction of a limited range
of resistance into a few elite and widespread varieties produced the need to rescue
crops from an impending danger of failure as resistance became ineffective against
an array of rapidly evolving pests and parasites. As a consequence, today most of
the breeding aims are to maintain already achieved yield levels. The discovery of
dwarfing genes of wheat and rice from the primitive landraces from Japan and China
triggered the so-called 'Green Revolution', which enabled this world to feed its
increasing population .. The process of selection has continued with emphasis to
breed diverse types for different agro-climates and agro-ecosystems to combat
biological stresses, which continue replacing the old with new varieties adapted to
local conditions. The conservation of genetic resources enables breeders to find the
50
raw materials needed to develop new varieties and farmers to modify their crops in
response to changing environments and markets. People conserve plant genetic Biodiversity- Conservation
and Utilization
resources for their use as food, medicine, fuel, fodder and building materials.
Conversely, use without conservation means neglecting the genetic base needed by
farmers and breeders alike to increase productivity in the future. To be of use, l)laterial'
held in gene banks must be weli do~~mented. ""

Information systems, which improve access to data, are becoming increasingly

important. The CGIAR Centers are taking steps to coordinatetheirgenetic resources
documentation and infonrtation systems to ensure that databasesoperating inthe
various Centers are compatibleand to provide international access to the information
in them. The CGIAR is also cooperating with FAO in the development of the World
Information and Early Warning System"(WIEWS) on plant genetic resources.

6.14 KEYWORDS
Biodiversity Biodiversity means the variability among living
organisms froin all sources including inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems
and the ecological complexes of which they are
part.

Ex-situ Conservation When germplasm conservation is attempted

outside the natural habitat.

Ill-vitro Conservation It refers to maintenance of germplasrn in relatively

stable form under more or less defined nutrient
conditions in an artificialenvironment.

Non-observable Characters: These characters are suhject to environmental

variations and are polygenic. They are largely
responsible for adaptation and productivity.

Observable Characters Observable characters include morphological,

physiological or biochemical characters relating
to survival, productivity or quality and can be
transferred from an exotic source to an adapted
cultivar by repeated back crossing.

6.15 SOME USEFUL BOOKS / REFERENCES

Arora, R.K. and E.R. Nayar. (1984). Wild Relatives of Crop Plants in India.
NBPGR Sci. Monograph No. 7. 90p.

Das, P and D. Kapoor. (1996). National Bureau Committed to Conserving

s
India Rich Fish Resource Base. Diversity, Vol. 12 (3).

Frankes, O.H. and M. Soule (Eds.), (1981) Conservation and Evolution.

Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Gautam, P.L.,B.S. Dabas, Umesh Srivastavaand S.S. Duhan (Eds.). (1998). Plant
Germplasm Collecting: Principles and Procedures. NBPGR Publication,
NBPGR, New Delhi,

51
Resources in Agriculture . lain, S.K. (1975), Population Structure and the Effect of Breeding System, In:
"Fankel, O.H. arid J.G. Hawkes (Eds.) Crop Genetic Resou~ces for Today and
Tomorrow. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Karth, K.K. (1985). Cryopreservation of Plant Cells and Organs. CRC Press,
Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Mahajan, R.K. et. al. (2000). Minimal Descriptor List of Agri-lforticultural
Crops (Part I), NBPGR, New Delhi.

Nivsarker, AE and R. Sahai. (1997). Animal Genetic Resources in India- Present

Status and an Action for their Conservation. Paper presented at workshop
on "" Natural concern for conservation, management and use of Agro-
biodiversity, held at Simla, Oct. 15-16.

Painting, K.A et. a!. (Eds.). (1993). Guide Book/or Genetic Resources
Documentation. IPGRI, Rome, Italy.

Paroda, R.S.and R.K. Arora (Eds.) (i991). Plant Genetic Resources-

Documentation and Information Management. Malhotra Publishing House, New
Delhi.

Randhawa, M.S. (1980). A History of Agriculture in India. Vol.l. ICAR, New

Delhi.

Rick, C. M. (1984). Plant Germplasm Resources. In D.A Evens, W.R. Sharp,

P.V.Ammirato and Y.Yamada (Eds.) Handbook ofP Iant Cell Culture. Macmillan,
New York.

Rona, R.S. et. a!. (1995). Plant Germplasm Conservation: Biotechnological

Approach. NBPGR, New. Delhi.

Singh, B.P. and Umesh Srivastava. (2004), Plant Genetic Resources in Indian
Perspective: Theory and Practices. ICAR Publication, New Delhi

Srivastava, Umesh, et. a!. (2000). Minimal Descriptors ofAgri-Horticultural

Crops. Part n. NBPGR, New Delhi.

Srivastava, Umesh. (1998, 1998a, 1998b). Exploration and Germplasm

Collection: Planning and Logistic, Sampling Strategies in Vegetatively
Propogated Crops.and Report Writing on Germplasm Collection Missions. In:
Plant Germplasm Collecting: Principles and Procedures (Eds.) P.L.Gautam,
B.S. Dabas, UmeshSrivastavaand S.S. Duhan, NBPGRPublication, New Delhi.

WoIt, E.C, (1986). Beyond the Green Revolution: New Approachesfor Third
WorldAgriculture. Worldwatch Institute, Washington.

6.16 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECKYOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

1) India encompasses a wide spectrum oflife forms: it cultural, ethnic diversity

includes over 550 tribal communities of227 ethnic groups, spread over 500b
forest villages. For details go through section 6.3.
52
Check Your Progress 2 Biodiversity- Conservation
and Utilization
1) In traditional agriculture, traditional land races or wild cultivars of commonly
cultivated crops are grown. In modem agriculture, new improved varieties of
crops are grown.

2) Charactristics like hardiness, disease resistance and adapability to special

conditions like waterlogging, extreme drought or cold etc., are important in
ord~r to develop new improved crop varieties.

Check "tour Progress 3

1) .Passport data provides those. informations which are collected at the time of
sample collection or which are provided by sender regarding source/origin,
etc.

2) Observable characters include morphological, physiological or biochemical

relating to survival, productivity 9r quality and can be transferred from an exotic
source to an adapted cultivar by repeated back crossing.

53