Y8

assessment
revision
booklet
Section A-Biology
Tissues and Organs of the Human Digestive System

Digestion: The breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble ones. This only
occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestines.
Digestive System: Organ system involved in breaking food down so it can be absorbed by the
blood.
Stages of Digestion (Showing the path food takes):
1. Mouth: Food is digested, mechanically by teeth chewing it and chemically using enzymes
(speed up the breakdown of food) in the saliva. Saliva is produced by the salivary glands to
acts as a lubricant for food.
2. Oesophagus: Thin, muscular tube, carries food from mouth to stomach.
3. Stomach: Food is digested chemically by enzymes. Food is also digested mechanically by the
stomach muscles contracting, churning the food. And hydrochloric acid kills any infectious
microorganisms.
4. Small Intestine: Food is digested by enzymes. Nutrients are absorbed, entering the
bloodstream.
5. Large Intestine: Excess water is absorbed back into the body, leaving behind fibre (can’t be
digested).
6. Rectum: Faecal matter is stored.
7. Anus: Opening where faecal matter exits the body.
Other organs (food does not go through them):
● Liver: Produces bile (helps in the digestion of lipids). Bile is not an enzyme.
● Gall Bladder: Stores bile.
● Pancreas: A gland that produces enzymes (to speed up digestion), and release them into the
small intestine.
Adaptations of the Human Digestive System
Parts of the digestive system have a specialised structure to enable a certain function.
● The oesophagus contains rings of muscle that contract behind the food, to move it down into
the stomach.
● The stomach contains muscles to churn the food. Allowing it to mix with the digestive
enzymes.
● The small intestine is where digested food is absorbed into the blood. The inner lining of the
small intestine is covered with many tiny villi.
The villi help absorption occur quickly
because-

(Remember to link structure with function)

o It has a thin wall (one cell thick), so
shorter diffusion distance.
o There are many villi, giving it a large
surface area, so more absorption can
occur.
o There are many microvilli, further
increasing surface area and increasing
absorption.
o It has a rich network of capillaries to
maintain a steep concentration gradient
/ quickly transport absorbed substances away.
Digestion & Enzymes
There are 2 main types of digestions:
● Mechanical Digestion
o Occurs in the mouth, when chewing, the teeth breakdown large pieces of food into
smaller ones.
● Chemical Digestion by Enzymes
o Occurs in mouth, stomach and small intestines.
o Enzyme: Biological catalysts (protein) that speeds up the rate of reaction (breakdown of
larger substances into smaller ones)
Enzymes
● 3 main types of digestive enzymes:
o Carbohydrase (example- Amylase) break down starch into sugar. It is made in the
mouth, pancreas and small intestine.
o Protease break down proteins into amino acids. It is made in the stomach, pancreas
and small intestine.
o Lipase break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. It is made in the pancreas and
small intestine.

Different Enzymes are produced in different parts of the body

● Salivary gland - Amylase
● Stomach - Protease
● Small intestine / pancreas - Protease, Amylase and Lipase

● Minerals, vitamins and water are already small enough to be absorbed by the body without
being broken down. Enzymes can’t break down dietary fibre, which is why the body can’t
absorb it and it makes up our faeces.

Bile
● Bile is not an enzyme.
● Bile is a green-coloured alkaline liquid made in the liver. It is
stored in the gall bladder before releasing it into the small
intestine.
● In the small intestine- Bile neutralises any hydrochloric acid
and emulsifies fats.
● Emulsify: Bile breaks down fats into smaller droplets.
● This is so lipase enzymes have more surface area to act on
and thus, are able to digest fats faster into fatty acids and
glycerol.

Importance of Bacteria in Digestion

The digestive system contains many bacteria, called gut bacteria. They do 3 things:
● Break down some foods like fibre that are impossible to break down with enzymes
● They reduce the chance of harmful bacteria multiplying and causing disease
● They produce some vitamins that humans need (ex. Vitamin B)
Some foods, called probiotic foods, such as live yoghurt contain these useful bacteria.
Food tests

● Food test - A food test shows if a specific type of food is present in a sample.
● Reagent - A reagent is a chemical used to test for a type of food.
● Qualitative - A qualitative test is one that gives an indication of presence, but not an exact
figure.

Food group Reagent Positive Result

Starch Iodine Iodine turns blue-black in the
presence of starch

Glucose Benedict’s solution Food solution turns blue to

brick red precipitate if it
contains glucose

Protein Biuret’s solution Food solution turns to

purple/lilac if it contains
proteins

Lipids Add ethanol and then add water White emulsion if lipid is
present
Enzyme action
Enzyme - A protein which acts as a biological catalyst.
Catalyst - A substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without being used up.

Enzyme action
● The active site is the part of an enzyme where substrate binds
● The substrate is the molecule that fits into the active site
● The shape of the active site is specific/ complementary to one substrate (lock and key).
● The substrate binding to the enzyme helps speed up a reaction

1. The substrate binds to the active site

2. An enzyme-substrate complex is formed
3. The product(s) is released, and enzyme is reused

Factors affecting enzymes: temperature and pH

The shape of the enzymes active site is affected by pH and temperature

 The optimum temperature for most
enzymes in the body is around
37°C as this is body temperature

Optimum - The temperature or pH where the active site shape allows for fastest rate of reaction

Denatured – The breakdown of a protein structure so that it no longer functions

Active site has changed shape so it is no longer able to bind substrate

Effect of pH
Different enzymes have different optimum pH e.g. amylase is found in the salivary gland has an
optimum pH of between 4.5 -7. Any pH below or above these values, amylase will be denatured
Cellular respiration
Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

• Respiration is the process of transferring energy from glucose, which goes to every cell.
• All living organisms respire
• Energy from respiration is used for all living processes
• Respiration is an exothermic reaction. This means energy is transferred to the surroundings.
• Some of the energy transferred in respiration is used for reactions within cells. The rest is
transferred to the environment, making it warmer.

Organisms need energy for:

• Chemical reactions to build larger molecules from smaller molecules

• Breaking down large molecules into smaller molecules
• Muscle contraction to allow movement
• Keeping warm (to maintain a constant temperature suitable for enzyme activity)
• In plants, it is used to transfer mineral ions e.g. nitrates from soil into root hair cells.
• To convert sugars and nitrates into amino acids.

The two types of respiration are:

1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration
• A form of respiration that requires oxygen and glucose
• Glucose is from the food we eat and digest.
• Oxygen is from the air.
• When glucose and oxygen enter our cells, a chemical reaction takes place in the mitochondria and
energy is released.
• Carbon dioxide and water are also released.

Word equation:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water

Anaerobic respiration
• Anaerobic respiration is the release of energy from glucose without using oxygen. It is an
incomplete breakdown of glucose, making lactic acid.
• It takes place in the cytoplasm
• Lactic acid is poisonous to muscles and stop them from contracting therefore needs to be removed
by the body.
Word equation: Glucose → lactic acid
• Anaerobic respiration does not release as much energy as aerobic respiration, as the oxidation of
glucose is incomplete.
• Therefore, anaerobic respiration is only used by the body in emergencies (i.e. exercise).
Fermentation
Anaerobic Respiration in Microbes

Fermentation is the process of anaerobic respiration in microorganisms.

• Anaerobic respiration in plants and yeast cells produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Word equation: Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide
• Anaerobic respiration in yeast cell is called fermentation and has economic importance in the
manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks.
• The ethanol produced is used to make beer and wine alcoholic and the carbon dioxide produced makes
the bread rise.

The Skeletal System

Label the different bones in the skeletal system:

Function of the skeletal system:
1. Support
● Allows us to stand in an upright position
and gives it shape.
● Synoptic link: Nutrition. (ex. Name the
mineral found in milk that strengthens our
bones?)
2. Protection
● Bones protect vital organs from injury
(skull protects brain, ribs protect lungs
and heart and vertebrae protects spinal
cord).
3. Movement
● Bones connect to each other at joints
that allow for movement.
● Tendons connect bones to muscles.
● Ligaments connect bones to other bones.
4. Producing blood cells
● Bone marrow is found on the inside of some bones in the human body.
● Bone marrow produces blood cells. Such as red blood cells (to carry oxygen to different organs) or
white blood cells (protect the body against infection) or platelets (forms a scab at the site of a cut).

Joints

Label the different parts of a joint:

● Cartilage: Smooth tissue found at the ends of bones, reduces friction
when the joint bends.
● Synovial fluid: Surrounds the ends of bones and cartilage, further
reducing friction.
● Synovial membrane: Contains synovial fluid in the area of the joint.

Types of Joints:
● Hinge Joints: Allow movement in 2 directions. Example- the elbow joint /
the knee joint.
● Pivot Joints: Where rotation occurs. Example- neck joint.
● Ball and Socket Joint: Allow the greatest amount of
movement, in almost every direction. Example- hip and
shoulder (the humorous sits in a depression in the shoulder
blade, which allows rotation).
● Condyloid Joint: Allows for flexing and extending the joint
and side to side movement. Example- wrist.

Problems:
● Arthritis: Inflammation of the joint (cartilage has worn away),
creating pain and swelling.
● Sprain: Caused when joint is moved beyond its limit, leading
to a tear in the ligament.
● Dislocation: Caused when the joint is forced from its normal
position.
● Fracture: Break in bone due to excessive force.

Muscles
Specialised Cells:
● Specialised cells have different structures to enable
them to perform different functions.
● An example of a specialised cell is a muscle cell.
● Muscle cells have different structures (contain many
mitochondria), to enable them to perform their function
(carry out respiration, to release energy).
Muscles:
● Muscles can contract (get shorter) or relax (when they are
pulled longer again).
● Muscles need energy to contract. Respiration occurs in the
mitochondria, releasing energy.
● Types of Muscles:
● Cardiac (heart) muscle- join together to make a net
and contract rhythmically.
● Skeletal muscle- joined to bones, contracts to make
bones move and joints bend.
● Smooth muscle- made up thin sheets of muscle (ex.
stomach lining).

Antagonistic Muscles:
● Antagonistic pairs of muscles create movement when one contracts and the other relaxes.
● An example of a pair of antagonistic muscles are the bicep and tricep.
● When the bicep contracts and the tricep relaxes, the arm bends.
● When the tricep contracts and the bicep relaxes, the arm straightens.
 Genetic evolution
DNA, Chromosomes & Genes
● Heredity: The process where genetic information is passed from one generation to the next.
● The nucleus contains genetic material (DNA).
● Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of a cell.
(Human- 46 chromosomes are found in the nucleus of each body cell. They are arranged in 23 pairs.)
● The 23rd pair of chromosomes determine the sex of the individual, XX for a girl and XY for a boy.
● Sperm & Egg cells- 23 chromosomes in each nucleus, so that when fertilisation occurs, the fertilised
egg has 46 chromosomes)
● DNA is a polymer (large complex molecule). It is
made up of 2 strands, twisted around each other in a
double helix. It is tightly coiled in the chromosomes.
● A gene is a small section of DNA. Each gene carries
information (ex. eye colour).
● A genome is the entire genetic material of an
organism.

Scientists & Their Contributions

● The structure of DNA was determined in the 1950s.

● Rosalind Franklin made the first X-ray image of DNA.
● James Watson and Francis Crick used her image and her work to discover a model of the structure
of DNA. Maurice Wilkins supported their work. Franklin had no idea the extent to which her work
was being used.
 ● Watson, Crick and Wilkins won the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology / Medicine for their work.
Franklin had died by then (cancer) and thus didn’t get the recognition she deserved.

Variation

● Variation is the differences in characteristics between

individuals of the same species.

Causes of Variation
● Genetic Causes: After fertilisation, the fertilised egg (zygote) will
have half its genetic material from the sperm and half from the
egg.
● Environmental Causes: The characteristics of an organism can
be affected by factors around them.
● Genetic & Environmental Causes: Some characteristics can be
affected by both genetics and the environment.

Genetic Environmental Genetic & Environmental

Eye colour Tattoos Height

Blood group Scars Weight

Attached earlobes Language / Accent Size of plant

Types of Variation
● Continuous Variation: A characteristic that changes gradually over a
range of values. (ex. height / weight). These characteristics are
controlled by a combination of genes and the environment.
● Discontinuous Variation: A characteristic with only a limited number of
possible values (Ex. eye colour / blood group). These characteristics
are controlled by a single gene.
Inheritance
● Inherited Characteristic: Features
that are passed from parents to
offspring.
● An allele is a different version of a
same gene.
● Genotype: The combination of alleles
(genetic makeup) an organism has
for a particular gene.
● Phenotype: The physical
characteristics of an organism due to
the genotype and environment.
● Dominant: An allele that only needs
to be present once for it to be
expressed (shown). Represented with
an uppercase letter.
● Recessive: An allele that is only expressed if there are 2 present. Represented with a lowercase letter.
● Homozygote: An organism with 2 identical alleles for a characteristic.
● Heterozygote: An organism with different alleles for a characteristic.

Punnett Squares
● We use punnett squares to predict the chances of
any gene being inherited and also the probability of
offspring having a particular phenotype
Section B-Chemistry
pH scale and indicators

● The pH scale goes from 0 to 14.

● It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
● The lower the pH of a solution, the more acidic it is.
● The higher the pH of a solution, the more alkaline it is.
● A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral.
● A solution with a pH less than 7 is an acid.
● A solution with a pH greater than 7 is an alkali.

Methods of measuring pH:

pH of a solution can be measured using:
● Universal indicator (produces a range of colours)
● pH probe

Which method is better?

● A pH probe is more accurate at measuring pH than a universal indicator.
● Universal indicator produces a range of colours which gives an approximate measurement
of the pH.
● The colours seen using universal indicators may be seen differently by different people.

Hazards of some acids and alkalis

Corrosive. They could burn your skin and eyes
Base and Alkalis

● A base is any substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt.

● There are three types of bases:

o Metal hydroxides (alkalis)
o Metal oxides
o Metal carbonates

● A metal hydroxide (alkalis) is a soluble base. It is soluble in water.

o All alkalis release the hydroxide ion (OH- ion) when dissolved in water.
● An ion is a charged particle (will learn in more detail later)

● Metal oxides, metal carbonates and some metal hydroxides are insoluble bases. They are
insoluble in water but soluble in acid.
o All metal oxides contain the oxide ion (O2-ion).
o All metal carbonates contain the carbonate ions (CO32- ion).

Acids
An acid is a substance that reacts with a base to form a salt.
All acids release hydrogen ion (H+ ion) when dissolved in water.

Strong acids:
Strong acids Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Weak acids
Weak acids
Citric acid
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
carbonic acid
Neutralisation reaction
● A base is any substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt.
● Any base reacting with an acid forms a neutral solution (pH of 7)

Naming salts
● The name of the salt comes from both the base and acid.
● The first part of the salt name comes from the metal in the base.
● The second part of the salt name comes from the acid.
Acids and salt ending:
Acid Formula Salt ending
Hydrochloric acid HCl -chloride
Nitric acid HNO3 -nitrate
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 -sulfate

Neutralisation Reactions
Reactions between bases and acids are described as neutralisation reactions as they result in a
solution of pH 7
Neutralisation reactions produce a salt and water

Metal hydroxides (alkalis) reacting with acid:

General word equation: Metal hydroxides + acid → salt + water
Ionic equation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

Metal carbonates reacting with acid:

General word equation: Metal carbonate+ acid → salt + water+ carbon dioxide
Observation: Bubbles

Metal oxides reacting with acid:

General word equation: Metal oxide + acid → salt + water
Making soluble salts from insoluble bases
A soluble salt can be made by reacting an insoluble base with an acid.
Equipment needed

How to carry out the practical to make pure and dry crystals?
Generic method – acid and base names need to be substituted for the correct salt to be produced
1. Measure acid in a measuring cylinder and transfer into a beaker
2. Gently warm the acid using a Bunsen burner
3. Add base a spatula at a time and stir using a glass rod
4. Continue adding base until it is in excess
5. Filter the mixture using a filter funnel, filter paper and conical flask to remove the excess
base.
6. Transfer the salt solution into an evaporating basin
7. Heat the solution using a water bath and Bunsen burner/electric heater to crystallisation
point
8. Allow the solution to cool and crystallise
9. Remove crystals from the remaining solution and pat dry with filter paper.

What would we see during this reaction metal carbonate and acid reaction?
• Bubbles of carbon dioxide gas
9.
Section C-Physics
Motion
Vectors and scalars
Scalars
A scalars quantity can be described fully by stating its magnitude but no direction . Examples:
mass, temperature, distance, time, speed and energy.
Vectors:
A vector has both magnitude and a direction. Examples include: Force, displacement, velocity,
acceleration.

Representing vectors:
Arrows are drawn to show the vector quantity. Size of the arrow represents the size of the
vector.
Direction of the arrow shows the direction of the force.

Vectors normally have a value next to them. The size of the vectors in a diagram is normally
proportional to the magnitude.
Distance and displacement

Distance:

Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve direction. Distance is a scalar
quantity.

Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, measured in a straight line from the
start point to the finish point and the direction of that straight line. Displacement is a vector
quantity.
 Calculating speed
What is speed?

Speed is a measure of how far you can travel in a given time.

• Speed can be calculated by distance and the time used.

The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on many factors including: age,
terrain, fitness and distance travelled.

Typical values may be taken as:

● Walking ̴ 1.5 m/s
● Running ̴ 3 m/s
● Cycling ̴ 6 m/s
● Car 13 m/s
● Train 50 m/s
● Aeroplane 250 m/s

It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of sound and the speed of the
wind also vary. A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.

Average speed and instantaneous speed

The average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the total time for a journey.
Instantaneous speed is the average speed over a very short period.

What is velocity?
The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. Velocity is a vector quantity
because it has both a magnitude and direction.

What is the difference between velocity and speed?

Speed does not consider the direction, whereas velocity considers the direction.
Speed: 5m/sec
Speed: 5m/sec
Velocity: 5 m/sec
Velocity: -5 m/sec

Distance – Time graphs

Distance-time graphs show distance on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis. Distance
time graphs can be used to calculate the speed of an object.

The steeper the line the faster the speed.

General rules:
• A horizontal line shows the object has stopped or stationary (no distance travelled)
• A straight line shows speed is constant
• A curved line shows speed is changing

The gradient of a distance – time graph represents the speed.

Gradient = change in y ÷ change in x
The steeper the gradient the faster the speed.
 Waves

• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one location to another. A wave can be
described as a vibration (or oscillation) about a rest position.
• There are 2 types of waves: transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
• Transverse waves: vibrations are PERPENDICULAR to the direction of energy transfer.
Light waves are transverse.
• Longitudinal waves: vibrations are PARALLEL to the direction of energy transfer.
Sound waves are longitudinal.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction:
• compressions are regions of high pressure due to particles being close together
• rarefactions are regions of low pressure due to particles being spread further apart

Diagram of a wave:

Waves are described using the following terms:

• Equilibrium - the undisturbed position of particles or fields when they are not vibrating
• Displacement - the distance that a certain point in the medium has moved from its rest position
• Peak - the highest point above the rest position
• Trough - the lowest point below the rest position
• Amplitude - the maximum displacement of a point of a wave from its rest position
• Wavelength - distance covered by a full cycle of the wave, usually measured from peak to peak, or
trough to trough
• Time period - the time taken for a full cycle of the wave to pass a point, usually measured by timing how
long each peak takes to reach that point.
• Frequency - the number of waves passing a point each second
Forces
● A force can be a push or a pull.
● You cannot see a force but often you can see what it does.
● When a force is exerted on an object, it can change the object’s:
● speed
● direction of movement
● shape (for example, an elastic band gets longer if you pull it)

● A force metre, also called a newton metre, is used to measure forces.

● A Newton metre has a spring that stretches when a force is applied to the hook.
● The unit of force is called the Newton, and it has the symbol N.

Type of forces
Contact forces:

● Contact forces are forces that act between two objects that are physically touching each other.

Type of force What is it? Effect on an object

Occurs when two objects are

Friction physically touching and slide over Slows down a moving object
each other.

Force acting on an object when it is

Air resistance in the air acting in the opposite Slows down a moving object
direction to movement

The force applied when pulling a Causes an object to move and can change
Tension
string, rope, rod or chain the shape of an object

The force exerted by the surface an

Normal contact
object that rests on at a right angle -
force
to the surface

Driving force of an object causing it

Forward force Causes an object to move
to move.

A force pushing an object upwards

Upthrust Object floats
in water
Non-contact forces:

● Non-contact forces are forces that act between two objects that are not physically touching each
other.

Type of force What is it? Effect on an object

Attracted towards each

Force of attraction between two objects
other
Gravitational force that have a mass. Any mass in a
gravitational field experiences this force.

Attraction or repulsion
An electrostatic force is experienced by
Electrostatic force
any charged particle in an electric field

A magnetic force is experienced by

Attraction or repulsion
any magnetic material in a magnetic field
Magnetic force
Stretching and squashing

● Forces can deform objects.

● For stationary objects, more than one force has to be applied to change their shape

Change of shape may be by bending, stretching or compressing.

● Stretching (forces in opposite directions away from the object)

● Compressing (forces in opposite directions towards the object)

● Bending (forces that distort the object)

Change in shape is called deformation.

Elastic deformation
● Will return to its original shape/length when the force is removed
Examples of elastic objects: rubber bands and springs

Inelastic deformation
● Will not return to its original shape/length when the force is removed
Examples of inelastic objects: plastic and clay
Force diagram Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

We can show the forces acting on an object using a force diagram. In a force diagram, an arrow
represents each force.

Force is a vector quantity.

The arrows we draw tell us:

1. The strength of the force (the size of the arrow)

2. The direction of the force (the direction of the arrow)

3. The point where force acts (where the arrow begins from)

Balanced forces: When two forces acting on an object are equal in size but act in opposite directions.

Calculating resultant force

Resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as all the forces combined
 Resultant force Effect

Equals zero Stationary

Constant speed

Does not equal to zero Acceleration

Deceleration

Changes direction

Moments
A moment is a turning effect of a force. Forces can make objects turn if there is a pivot.

Calculating moments

To calculate a moment, you need to know two things:

● the distance from the pivot that the force is applied

● the size of the force applied

Moment (Nm) = Force (N) X distance (m)