Ecology
Ecology
Ecology – this is the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their
surroundings. It is the science that deals with the relationships between living organisms with
their physical environment and with each other. Ecology as a study has two approaches;
the environment and the demands it places on the organisms in it or
organisms and how they adapt to their environmental conditions.
The branch of ecology that deals with predicting the impacts of technology and
development and making recommendations such that these activities will have minimum
adverse impacts, or even positive impacts, on ecosystems may be termed as Applied
Ecology.
Applied ecology – this is the branch of ecology that deals with predicting the impacts of
technology and development and making recommendations such that these activities will have
minimum impacts on an ecosystem.
Ecosystem – An ecosystem consists of an assembly of mutually interacting organisms and their
environment in which materials are interchanged in a largely cyclical manner. An ecosystem has
physical, chemical, and biological components along with energy sources and pathways of
energy and materials interchange.
Habitat - The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to
occur and the type of community that is formed as a result. The environment is din four
categories;
Terrestrial environment - The terrestrial environment is based on land and
consists of biomes, such as grasslands, forests, savannas, or deserts.
Freshwater environment - standing-water habitats (lakes, reservoirs) and running-
water habitats (streams, rivers).
Oceanic marine environment - is characterized by saltwater
Oceanic region - the deeper waters of the ocean that constitute the oceanic region
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An organism is a self-reproducing system capable of growing and
maintaining itself and is directly influenced by the surrounding environment.
A population - an assemblage of similar organisms belonging to the same
species, living together at one place at a given time. It can also be defined as
a group of individuals that collectively interact to give birth to new
individuals and eventually die.
Niche – is a set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain
stable population sizes. It is the sum of all the activities and relationships of a
species by which it uses the resources in its habitat for its survival and
reproduction. A niche is unique for a species while many species may share
the same habitat. No two species in a habitat can have the same niche. This
is because, if two species occupy the same niche they will compete with one
another until one is displaced. For example, different species of insects may
be pests of the same plant but they can co-exist as they feed on different
parts of the same plant that is because their niches are different
Descriptive ecology - describes the types and nature of organisms and their environment,
emphasizing structures of ecosystems, communities and dispersions and structures of
populations.
Functional ecology explains how things work in an ecosystem, including how populations
respond to environmental alteration and how matter and energy move through ecosystems.
Natural ecosystems are those that are existing in nature e.g. desert, grass land, tropical and
temperate rainforest and aquatic includes ponds, river, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans,
mangroves, swamps and bays
Artificial ecosystems are man-made, unstable and subjected to human intervention and
manipulation. Usually it is formed by clearing a part of the forest or grassland e.g. crop field,
agricultural land.
Adaptation - is the appearance or behaviour or structure or mode of life of an organism that
allows it to survive in a particular environment. Adaptation: any feature of an organism that
substantially improves its ability to survive and leave more offspring. Also, the process of a
species’ or a population’s genetic variability changing due to natural selection in a manner that
improves its viability.
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WEEK 2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
Structure of eco-system
The structural attributes of an ecosystem are biotic and biotic components.
Biotic components: The living organisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic component
e.g. plants, animals and micro-organisms. These are of three types:
Producers - provide nutrition to the other organisms present in the ecosystem.
There are two types of producers; photoautotrophs and chemotrophs. Photoautotrophs are
green plants which can trap sun light to form carbohydrate, simple sugar from carbon di-
oxide and water during the process of photosynthesis. Chemoautotrophs are plant species
e.g. sulfur bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, which live inside the ocean waters that prepare their
food in the absence of sunlight by the oxidation of chemicals and the process is called
chemosynthesis.
Consumers- these are organisms which get their food by feeding on other
organisms and are called heterotrophs. They are categorized into
(a). Herbivores- they feed on plant species (primary producers) eg- rabbit, insects
(b). Carnivores- they food on herbivores and other carnivores eg- frog, snake
(c). Omnivores- they feed on both plants and animals. Eg- humans
(d). Detritivores- they feed on parts of dead organisms, waste of living organisms etc.
Examples are earthworms, ants.
Decomposers- they derive their food by breaking down the complex organic
molecules to simple organic compounds and finally to inorganic nutrients e.g. bacteria, fungi
Abiotic components: - Abiotic components of an eco-system consist of non-living substances
and factors. These abiotic component can be categoried into:-
Physical (climatic) factors include temperature, wind, soil type, water availability,
humidity, precipitation, light, etc.
(b) Chemical (edaphic) factors include nutrients like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, topography, pH of the soil, etc.
Soil contain a mixture of weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic
matter, and living organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, habitat, and a growing medium for
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organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of
an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.
The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon di-oxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and
precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water
into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the
energy for plant growth and metabolism and the organic food for other forms of life.
Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is also
necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical
reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original
source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.
Functions of eco-system
Ecosystem function is the capacity of natural processes and components to provide goods and
services that satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly. Each function is the result of the
natural processes of the total ecological sub-system of which it is a part. Natural processes, in
turn, are the result of complex interactions between biotic (living organisms) and abiotic
(chemical and physical) components of ecosystems through the universal driving forces of matter
and energy. There are four primary groups of ecosystem functions;
regulatory functions
habitat functions
production functions and
information functions.
Regulatory functions: this group of functions relates to the capacity of natural and semi-natural
ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life support systems through bio-
geochemical cycles and other biosphere processes. In addition to maintaining the ecosystem (and
biosphere health), these regulatory functions provide many services that have direct and indirect
benefits to humans (i.e., clean air, water and soil, and biological control services).
Habitat functions: are natural ecosystems that provide refuge and a reproduction habitat to wild
plants and animals and thereby contribute to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic
diversity and the evolutionary process.
Production functions: photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts energy, carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures which are then used
by secondary producers to create an even larger variety of living biomass. This broad diversity in
carbohydrate structures provides many ecosystem goods for human consumption, ranging from
food and raw materials to energy resources and genetic material.
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Information functions: natural ecosystems contribute to the maintenance of human health by
providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation
and aesthetic experience. Components of an ecosystem: Complete ecosystem consists of four
basic components such as producers, consumers, decomposers and abiotic components
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characteristics of populations, communities and ecosystems including their size, shape and
spatial relationships. Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining
natural ecosystems by influencing their structure including the size, shape and distribution of
patches. The more regions, landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those
that were established from natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species
and ecological processes will be maintained.
6. Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems - Climate is
usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many years. Climate
has a dominant effect on biodiversity as it influences meteorological variables like
temperature, precipitation and wind with consequences for many ecological and physical
processes, such as photosynthesis and fire behaviour. For example, major temperature
fluctuations in surface waters in the Pacific Ocean due to El Nino climatic events can
influence weather and significantly warm temperatures. This in turn can for example,
increase some wildlife populations or impact the migration timing of some migratory bird
population.
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WEEK 4: CAT ONE – TAKE AWAY
(a) Ecosystem and its conservation and environmental are current issues of concern
globally. Explain the strategies which could be adapted for conservation of an ecosystem
(b) Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to
man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the forest department officials to
convince the affected villagers to gain the support of villagers for wildlife conservation.
Discuss the impact of man-wildlife conflicts in Kenya
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WEEK 5: ENERGY FLOW, PRODUCTIVITY, CLIMAX AND ECOLOCAL HABITAT
Eco-systems have some functional attributes due to which components remain and running
together. The tendency of every eco-system depends on various function performed by the
structural components of the eco-system as discussed below;
Energy flow
The energy flow takes place via food chain and food web. During the process of energy flow in the
ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the chloroplasts and a part of it
is transformed into chemical energy and in the process of photosynthesis. This energy is stored in
various organic products in the plants and passed on to the primary consumers in the food chain when
the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the plants as food and convert chemical energy
accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will occur through its
conversion into heat. Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are consumed
by carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally, when
tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, again energy will be degraded. Thus, the energy flow is
unidirectional in nature.
The absorption of solar energy (sunlight) by the plants and its utilization in the form of food by
living organisms obey the two laws of thermodynamics.
1st law of thermodynamics: It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it
can only transfer from one form to another.
2nd law of thermodynamics: It states that every transformation of energy is accompanied
by a simultaneous degradation of energy from concentrated form to disperse. Flow of
energy is always unidirectional.
Ecological productivity: The rate of production of organic matter or biomass is called
productivity. Productivity is divided into two types:
i) Primary productivity: this is the rate at which the radiant energy is converted into organic
substances by photosynthesis or chemo-synthesis by the primary producers. Primary
productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also depends on a variety
of environmental factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Therefore, it varies in different types ecosystems. Primary productivity is also divided into;
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP): The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an
ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About 48–60% of the GPP is
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consumed in plant respiration. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by
respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited
by a range of environmental factors. These include;
the amount of light available,
the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a
major limitation of photosynthesis),
the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support
photosynthesis,
the availability of water, and
the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis
Net Primary Productivity (NPP): The rate at which the energy or organic matter is stored
in a producer after respiration. Thus, NPP = GPP-R (R= Respiratory loss)
ii) Secondary productivity: The energy stored at consumer level for use by the next trophic level
is known secondary production. It is the production of biomass of heterotrophic organisms
(consumers) in an ecosystem. This is driven by the transfer of organic material between trophic
levels and represents the quantity of new organic constituents created through the use of
assimilated food. Secondary production is sometimes defined to only include consumption of
primary producers by herbivorous consumers (with tertiary production referring to carnivorous
consumers)
Ecosystem Regulation/ Climax: Ecosystem itself tries to resist to any environmental stress tries
to disturb the normal ecosystem and maintain the equilibrium with the environment. This
property is known as Homeostasis. However, the system can show this tolerance or resistance
only within a maximum and a minimum range, which is known as Homeostatic Plateau. Within
this range, if any stress tries to cause a deviation, then the system has its own mechanism to
counteract these deviations which are known as Negative Feedback Mechanisms. These negative
feedback mechanisms try to bring the system back to its ideal conditions. But, if the stress is too
high and beyond the range of homeostatic plateau, then another type of mechanism known as
Positive Feedback Mechanisms start operating and accelerate the deviations. So these kinds of
mechanisms take the system away from its ideal conditions and leads to environmental disasters.
Ecological succession:
An important characteristic of all communities is that their composition and structure constantly
change in response to the changing environmental conditions. This change is orderly and
sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally to a
community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is called a climax
community. The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given
area is called ecological succession. During succession some species colonize an area and their
populations become more numerous, whereas populations of other species decline and even
disappear. The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are
called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral
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communities. In the successive seral stages, there is a change in the diversity of species of
organisms, increase in the number of species and organisms as well as an increase in the total
biomass. The present-day communities in the world have come to be because of succession that
has occurred over millions of years since life started on earth. Succession is hence a process that
starts where no living organisms are there – these could be areas where no living organisms ever
existed, say bare rock (primary succession - the series of community changes which occur on an
entirely new habitat which has never been colonized before); or in areas that somehow, lost all
the living organisms that existed there (secondary succession - begins in areas where natural
biotic communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests,
lands that have been flooded).
The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species. In primary succession on rocks
these are usually lichens which are able to secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in weathering
and soil formation. These later pave ways to some very small plants like bryophytes, which are
able to take hold in the small amount of soil. They are, with time, succeeded by bigger plants,
and after several more stages, ultimately a stable climax forest community is formed. The climax
community remains stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
The whole process of succession is completed through a number of sequential steps which
follows one another;
Nudation: This is the development of bare area without any form of life. This area may
develop due to topographic (soil erosion by gravity, water, wind, landslides, volcanic
activity, earth quakes etc.) or floods, drought conditions, melting of glaciers, storms and
biotic factors.
Invasion: This is the successful establishment of life in that area. The species actually
reaches that area from other places the forces of migration and dispersal. After reaching
the new area the process of successful establishment of special is known as ecesis. In
plants seeds germinate, seedlings grow and adults start to reproduce and increase their
number, this process is called aggregation.
Competition and co-action: After aggregation large number of individuals of species
increase in a limited area, develops competition and co-action for space and nutrition. In
this process changes within the community can be observed and the species is unable to
complete with other number of individuals would be discarded.
Reaction: This is the most important stage in the process of succession. The mechanism
of modification of environment through the influence of living organisms starts in this
stage. As a result of this process changes takes place in soil, soil structures, water, pH,
light conditions, temperature etc. of the environment. Due to all these the environment is
modified and becoming unsuitable for the existing community which sooner or later is
replaced by another community.
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Stabilization: In this stage, the final community or terminal community becomes more or
less stabilized for a longer period of time and it can maintain itself on equilibrium with
the environment or surrounding or climate of the area.
Trophic level is the relative position of an entity in the food chain. It forms the feeding positions
in a food web or chain. All food webs and chains have at least two or three trophic levels.
The Trophic levels are in form of a pyramid; wider at the base and narrower at the top. A tropical
pyramid is a fundamental structure of interaction in all biological communities characterized by
the way food energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next trophic level in a food
chain. Every trophic pyramid is made up of a series of interconnected food chains called food
web. Food chains are a series of organisms that start from the producers and end up rotting.
Many food chains linked to others form a food web. Both the food chain and the food web are an
integral part of the ecosystem. Ninety percent of the energy in each trophic level (Hierarchal
levels in the ecosystem, where organisms share the same function and nutritional relationships
within the food chain) is lost through heat energy as organisms use energy in metabolic
processes. Food chains can contain three or four trophic levels.
Food chains
The transfer of food energy from the producers, through a series of organisms (herbivores to
carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and being eaten, is known as food chain. Thus,
food Chain is a sequence of organisms related to one another as predator and prey. It is a linear
sequence of organisms which starts from producer organisms and ends with
decomposer species. It is an order that shows the flow of energy from one organism to the other.
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In a community which has producers, consumers, and decomposers, the energy flows in a specific
pathway. Energy is not created or destroyed. Instead it flows from one level to the other, through
different organisms.
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series of organisms falling on successive tropical relationship between them
levels
A member of high tropical level feeds upon a Members of higher tropical level feed upon many
single type of organism of lower tropical level organisms of lower tropical levels
Separate and isolated food chains increase the Stability of ecosystem increases by presence of
instability of the ecosystem complex food webs
Consists of only one chain Consists of many food chains
Removal of one group of organisms disturb the Removal of one group of organisms does not at all
whole food chain disturb the food web
Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids show the relative amounts of various parameters (such as number of
organisms, energy, and biomass) across trophic levels. It depicts how energy and biomass
decrease from lower to higher trophic levels. It is a graphical representation of structure and
function of tropic levels of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the top and each successive
tropic level forming the apex. The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars showing
specific trophic levels which are arranged sequentially from primary producer level through
herbivores, carnivores onwards. The length of each bar represent the total number of individuals
at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The number, biomass and energy of organism gradually
decreases with each step from the producer level to consumer level and the diagrammatic
representation takes a pyramid shape.
In a food chain starting from the producers to the consumers, there is a regular decrease in the
properties (i.e., energy, biomass and the number of organisms) Since some energy is lost in each
tropical level, it becomes progressively smaller at the top. Ecological pyramids are of three
types:
Pyramid of numbers - Pyramid of numbers represent the total numbers of
individuals(population) present in each trophic level. This deals with the relationship
between the numbers of primary producers and consumers of different levels. This pyramid
is quite convenient especially when it comes to counting the number of organisms. Counting
is a simple task and it can be done over the years to determine the changes in a specific
ecosystem. It is a graphic representation of the total no. of individuals of different species
belonging to each trophic level in an ecosystem. For example, in a grassland ecosystem,
producers are grass (small in size and large in number. Hence they occupy the first tropic
level. The primary consumers are rats occupying the second tropic level. It is worthwhile to
note that rats are less in number than grass. Secondary consumers are snakes which occupy
the third tropic level and they are lesser in number than rats. Tertiary consumers are Eagles
that occupy the next tropic level. This is the last tropic level where the number and size of the
tropic level is the least. Pyramid of number is divided into two different forms depending on
the number of organism; upright pyramid of number and inverted pyramid of number. In the
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upright pyramid of numbers, the numbers of organisms mostly reduce from bottom to top.
It usually occurs in pond and grassland ecosystems where plants occupy the base of the
pyramid.
The next levels of the pyramid include the consumers. An inverted pyramid of numbers is
actually the opposite of the upright pyramid. It can closely be observed in tree ecosystem,
where trees are the producers and insects are the consumers.
Pyramid of energy - represents the amount of energy present in each tropic level.
Pyramid of energy is an upright pyramid that illustrates the flow of energy from
producers to consumers. Furthermore, it indicates the actual role played by various
organisms in energy transfer. Energy pyramids indicate how much energy is required in
the next trophic level as it flows upwards. Hence the pyramid is always upright, with a
large energy base at the bottom. At every successive tropic level, there is a heavy loss of
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energy (almost 90%) in the form of heat. Thus, at each tropic level only 10% is
transferred. Hence there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every successive tropic
level as we move from producers to top consumers (carnivores).
Pyramid of biomass represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight of biological
material) present in each tropic level. Biomass consumed by animals mostly is either
converted to living tissue, converted to energy or remain as undigested products. The
pyramid is usually larger at the bottom but as it goes up it reduces in size and becomes
smaller.
There is always a reduction of biomass with an increase in trophic level. Approximately 10%
to 20% of the biomass is passed from one trophic level to the other. Just like pyramid of
number it is also of two type- upright pyramid of biomass and inverted pyramid of biomass.
Below is an example of inverted pyramid of biomass in an aquatic ecosystem.
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Considering the example of a forest ecosystem, there is a steady decrease in the biomass
from the lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. The producers (trees) contribute a
major amount of the biomass. The next tropic levels are the herbivores (insects and birds)
and carnivores (snakes, etc). The top of the tropic level consists of very few tertiary
consumers (e.g. lions and tigers) whose biomass is very low.
Significance of ecological pyramid
They show the feeding of different organisms in different ecosystems.
It shows the efficiency of energy transfer.
The condition of the ecosystem can be monitored, and any further damage can be
prevented
Limitation of ecological pyramid
More than one species may occupy multiple trophic levels as in case of the food web.
Thus, this system does not take into account food webs.
The saprophytes are not considered in any of the pyramids even though they form an
important part of the various ecosystem.
These pyramids are applicable only to simple food chains, which usually do not occur
naturally.
These pyramids do not deliver any concept in relation to variations in season and climate.
They do not consider the possibility of the existence of the same species at different
levels.
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WEEK 7: POPULATION ECOLOGY, DYNAMICS, INTERACTIONS AND
COMPETITION
Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations
interact with their environment. A population consists of individuals of the same species that
live, interact and migrate through the same niche and habitat. A primary law of population
ecology is the Malthusian growth model which states, "a population will grow (or decline)
exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population
remains constant. The ecosystem is supposed to be permanent as there are natural mechanisms
that regulate the fluctuations of populations and resources (el Nino). On the other hand, if man is
present and if there is an increase of birth and a depletion of natural resources, the ecosystem
may disappear.
Population dynamics and disturbance - studies short-term and long-term changes in the size
and age composition of populations and the biological and environmental factors influencing
those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected birth and death
rates, ageing population and population decline, epidemiology (including parasitism), and by
immigration and emigration. When a population is overexploited it can reach minimum viable
rate that is a lower limit below which it can't survive in the wild. Thus, minimum viable
population (MVP) is the smallest possible size at which a biological population can exist without
facing extinction from natural disasters or demographic, environmental, or genetic unpredictable
processes. Minimum viable population is usually estimated as the population size necessary to
ensure between 90 and 95 per cent probability of survival in the future. If these conditions are
not met, there is a risk of extinction. Causes of extinction may include inbreeding
(consanguinity), natural disaster, climate change, epidemic. MVP does not take human
intervention into account.
Ecosystems are regularly confronted with natural environmental variations and disturbances over
time and geographic space. A disturbance is any process that removes biomass from a
community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation. Disturbances occur over vastly different
ranges in terms of magnitudes as well as distances and time periods, and are both the cause and
product of natural fluctuations in death rates, species assemblages, and biomass densities within
an ecological community. These disturbances create places of renewal where new directions
emerge from the patchwork of natural experimentation and opportunity.
Ecosystem resilience - is the capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a disturbance by resisting
damage and recovering quickly. Such disturbances can include unpredictable events such as
fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as
deforestation and the introduction of exotic plant or animal species. Disturbances of sufficient
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magnitude or duration can profoundly affect an ecosystem and may force an ecosystem to reach
a threshold beyond which a different regime of processes and structures predominates.
Ecological interactions -
Individuals of a population or a species that coexist in a population or community interact in
different ways. The interactive ways are discussed below;
Amensalism: This is a negative association between two species in which one species harms or
restricts the other species without itself being adversely affected or harmed by the presence of
the other species. Organisms that secrete antibiotics and the species that get inhibited by the
antibiotics, together form example of amensalism. For example, the fungus called bread mould
or Pencillium produces penicillin, an antibiotic, which inhibits the growth of a variety of
bacteria.
Predation: Predation requires one individual, the predator, to kill and eat another individual, the
prey. In most examples of this relationship, the predator and prey are both animals some plants
are known to trap and digest insects (for example, pitcher plant). Typically, this interaction
occurs between species (inter-specific); but when it occurs within a species (intra-specific) it is
cannibalism. Cannibalism is actually quite common in both aquatic and terrestrial food webs. It
often occurs when food resources are scarce, forcing organisms of the same species to feed on
each other. Surprisingly, this can actually benefit the species (though not the prey) as a whole by
sustaining the population through times of limited resources while simultaneously allowing the
scarce resources to rebound through reduced feeding pressure
Herbivory - this is when an individual feeds on all or part of a photosynthetic organism (plant or
algae), possibly killing it. An important difference between herbivory and predation is that
herbivory does not always lead to the death of the individual. Herbivory is often the foundation
of food webs since it involves the consumption of primary producers (organisms that convert
light energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis). Herbivores are classified based on the
part of the plant consumed; granivores eat seeds; grazers eat grasses and low shrubs; browsers
eat leaves from trees or shrubs; and frugivores eat fruits. Plants, like prey, also have evolved
adaptations to herbivory. Tolerance is the ability to minimize negative effects resulting from
herbivory, while resistance means that plants use defenses to avoid being consumed. Physical
(for example, thorns, tough material, sticky substances) and chemical adaptations (for example,
irritating toxins on piercing structures, and bad-tasting chemicals in leaves) are two common
types of plant defenses.
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Parasitism: In this type of interaction, one species is harmed and the other benefits. Parasitism
involves small sized organisms or parasites living in or on another living species called the host
from which the parasite gets its nourishment and often shelter. The parasite is benefited and the
host is harmed.
Commensalism: In this relationship one of the species benefits while the other is neither harmed
nor benefited. Some species obtain the benefit of shelter or transport from another species. An
example of commensalism is the relationship between trees and epiphytic plants. Epiphytes live
on the surface of other plants like ferns, mosses and orchids and use the surface of trees for
support and for obtaining sunlight and moisture. The tree gets no benefit from this relationship
nor are they harmed.
Mutualism: This is a close association between two species in which both the species benefit.
For example, the sea anemone, a cnidarian gets attached to the shell of hermit crab for benefit of
transport and obtaining new food while the anemone provides camouflage and protection by
means of its stinging cells to the hermit crab However, some examples of mutualism are such
that the interacting species can no longer live without each other as they depend totally on each
other for survival. Such close associations are termed symbiosis.
Ecological competition:
Competition is most typically considered the interaction of individuals that vie for a common
resource that is in limited supply, but more generally can be defined as the direct or indirect
interaction of organisms that leads to a change in fitness when the organisms share the same
resource. The outcome usually has negative effects on the weaker competitors. There are three
major forms of competition; interference competition, exploitation competition and apparent
competition.
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When an individual directly alters the resource-attaining behavior of other individuals, the
interaction is considered interference competition. For example, when a male gorilla prohibits
other males from accessing a mate by using physical aggression or displays of aggression, the
dominant male is directly altering the mating behavior of other males.
Exploitation competition occurs when individuals interact indirectly as they compete for
common resources, like territory, prey or food. Simply put, the use of the resource by one
individual will decrease the amount available for other individuals. Whether by interference or
exploitation, over time a superior competitor can eliminate an inferior one from the area,
resulting in competitive exclusion.
Apparent competition occurs when two individuals that do not directly compete for resources affect
each other indirectly by being prey for the same predator. For example, a hawk (predator, see below)
that preys both on squirrels and mice. In this relationship, if the squirrel population increases,
then the mouse population may be positively affected since more squirrels will be available as
prey for the hawks. However, an increased squirrel population may eventually lead to a higher
population of hawks requiring more prey, thus, negatively affecting the mice through increased
predation pressure as the squirrel population declines. The opposite effect could also occur
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through a decrease in food resources for the predator. If the squirrel population decreases, it can
indirectly lead to a reduction in the mouse population since they will be the more abundant food
source for the hawks. Apparent competition can be difficult to identify in nature, often because
of the complexity of indirect interactions that involve multiple species and changing
environmental conditions.
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WEEK 9: BIOGEOCHEMICA PROCESSES AND NUTRIENT CYCLES
Mineral elements taken in by organisms are passed through the food chain and come back to the
soil, air, and water through mechanisms such as respiration, excretion, and decomposition. As an
element moves through this cycle, it often forms compounds with other elements as a result of
metabolic processes in living tissues and of natural reactions in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, or
lithosphere. Such cyclic exchange of material between the living organisms and their non-living
environment is called Biogeochemical Cycle. Nutrient cycles are of two types: (a) gaseous and
(b) sedimentary. The reservoir for gaseous type of nutrient cycle (e.g., nitrogen, carbon cycle)
exists in the atmosphere and for the sedimentary cycle (e.g., sulphur and phosphorus cycle), the
reservoir is located in Earth’s crust. Environmental factors, e.g., soil, moisture, pH, temperature,
etc., regulate the rate of release of nutrients into the atmosphere. The function of the reservoir is
to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx and efflux.
Carbon Cycle - Carbon enters into the living world in the form of carbon dioxide through the
process of photosynthesis as carbohydrates. These organic compounds (food) are then passed
from the producers to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). This carbon is finally returned to
the surrounding medium by the process of respiration or decomposition of plants and animals by
the decomposers. Carbon is also recycled during the burning of fossil fuels.
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Nitrogen cycle - Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living
organisms including human beings. Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen but it
cannot be used directly by the majority of living organisms. Broadly like carbon dioxide,
nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase through the
activity of a wide variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen is vitally important for all living
organisms. There are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle;
Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into
Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by
the following three methods: - (i)Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic
activity help in the fixation of nitrogen. (ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400 oC)
and high pressure (200 atm.), molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then
combines with hydrogen to form ammonia. (iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of
bacteria- (i) Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants. (ii)
Free-living or symbiotic e.g. Azobacter, Cyanobacteria that can combine atmospheric or
dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia.
Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or
nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria
Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.
Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic
molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These molecules make the plant and animal
tissue.
Ammonification: Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as
urea and uric acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are converted
back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process is called ammonification.
Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called
denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live
in oxygen free medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation.
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through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs and gaseous exchanges of phosphorus
between organism and environment are negligible.
Water Cycle - Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth.
Water received from the atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water vapour
resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration the continuous movement of
water in the biosphere is called water cycle (hydrological cycle). The driving forces for water
cycle are solar radiation and gravity. Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes
involved in water cycle. These two processes alternate with each other Water from oceans, lakes,
ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by sun’s heat energy.
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Water resources deterioration - Water transports nutrients and chemicals within
the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains both plants and animals, and transform the surface
of the Earth with transportation and deposition of materials. Due to increased runoff, floods,
increased rates of soil erosion and mass movement of soil, this could lead to a decline in
water quality because while water will carry more nutrients, it will also carry more
contaminants. Furthermore, water use will rise with population while the lack of water will
be aggravated by decreases in stream flow and groundwater caused by climate change. An
increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic,
agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture believed to be the
major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.
Climate change - It is predicted that the mean global temperature will rise in the
coming years due to a number of forces affecting the climate and amount of atmospheric CO 2
will rise, and both of these will influence water resources (evaporation, plants transpiration,
soil moisture, groundwater supplies, decrease in snowpack and glaciers, melt of snow and
glaciers, thermal expansion of water and rise in sea level, disease with bacterial development,
etc.). Also, climate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in
precipitation, such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a
decrease, such as in the subtropics; this will ultimately cause a latitudinal variation in water
distribution. Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in
precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural
ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to fall
and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lakes to empty. Groundwater reserves will be
depleted, and the remaining water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline
or contaminants on the land surface. Changes in climate, especially in precipitation and
evapotranspiration, will directly affect soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater
recharge. In areas with decreasing precipitation, soil moisture may be substantially reduced
driving to an increase of irrigation. Irrigation damages streams and rivers from damming and
removal of water, and increases salt and nutrient content in the environment leading to a
strong eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.
Nutrient pollution - Nutrient pollution released to freshwater and coastal areas
comes from many diverse sources including agriculture, aquaculture, septic tanks, urban
wastewater, urban storm water runoff, industry, and fossil fuel combustion. Nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems via the air, surface water, or groundwater.
Agricultural nutrient sources include fertilizer leaching and runoff
from agricultural fields, manure (excrements) and aquaculture operations.
Under some conditions, nitrogen applied to crops can be lost to the
atmosphere by volatilization. A portion of the volatilized ammonia is
redeposited in waterways through atmospheric deposition. Phosphorus, which
binds to the soil, is generally lost through soil erosion from agricultural lands.
Animal production is intensifying, and as a result, more production
is occurring further away from feedstock supplies, making it harder to spread
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the manure. The large quantity of manure produced by these operations is
applied to land as fertilizer, stacked in the feedlot, or stored in lagoons.
Frequently, an oversupply of manure means that it is applied to crops more
than is necessary, further exacerbating nutrient runoff and leaching.
Aquaculture is another growing source of nutrient pollution.
Marine fish and shrimp farming often occur in net pens or cages situated in
enclosed bays. These farms generate concentrated amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus from excrement, uneaten food, and other organic waste. If
improperly managed, aquaculture operations can have severe impacts on
aquatic ecosystems as nutrient wastes are discharged directly into the
surrounding waters.
Municipal wastewater treatment plants and industrial wastewater
discharges, nitrogen leaching from underground septic tanks, and storm water
runoff are some of the urban and industrial sources of nutrient pollution.
Municipal and industrial sources are considered “point sources” of nutrient
pollution because they discharge nutrients directly to surface waters or
groundwater via a pipe or other discrete conveyance. The most prevalent
urban source of nutrient pollution is human sewage. In developing countries,
fewer than 35% of cities have any form of sewage treatment, and when
sewage is treated, it is typically aimed at removing solids, not nutrients.
Households in developed countries often use septic systems when they are not
connected to municipal wastewater treatment plants. Septic systems are
designed to purify waste by leaching it through soils.
Storm water runoff is another significant source of nutrients from
urban areas. Rainfall events flush nutrients from residential lawns and
impervious surfaces into nearby rivers and streams. In some cities, combined
sewer overflow systems worsen storm water runoff problems. During heavy
rain, wastewater volume can result in excess wastewater, including raw
sewage, being discharged directly into nearby streams and rivers.
Fossil Fuel Sources - When fossil fuels are burned, they release nitrogen oxides (NOx)
into the atmosphere. NOx contributes to the formation of smog and acid rain. NOx is
redeposited to land and water through rain, or can settle out of the air in a process called
dry deposition. Coal-fired power plants and exhaust from cars, buses, and trucks are the
primary sources of NOx.
Eutrophication - The rapid increase in intensive agricultural practices, industrial
activities, and population growth have together increased nitrogen and phosphorus flows
in the environment. Before nutrients—nitrogen in particular—are delivered to coastal
ecosystems, they pass through a variety of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, causing
other environmental problems such as freshwater quality impairments, acid rain, the
formation of greenhouse gases, shifts in community food webs, and a loss of biodiversity.
Once nutrients reach coastal systems, they can trigger a number of responses within the
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ecosystem. The initial impacts of nutrient increases are the excessive growth of
phytoplankton, and algal bloom These, in turn, can lead to other impacts such as: loss of
subaquatic vegetation, change in species composition, coral reef damage, low dissolved
oxygen, and the formation of dead zones (oxygen-depleted waters) that can lead to
ecosystem collapse. Fertilizers containing large amounts of phosphorus can cause
explosions of algae in water. Eutrophication generally promotes excessive plant growth
and decay, favouring simple algae and plankton over other more complicated plants, and
causes a severe reduction in water quality. The addition of phosphorus increases algal
growth. When algae die they sink to the bottom where they are decomposed and the
nutrients contained in organic matter are converted into inorganic form by bacteria. The
decomposition process uses oxygen and deprives the deeper waters of oxygen which can
kill fish and other organisms. Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton
and algal blooms disrupt normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of
problems such as a lack of oxygen needed for fish and molluscs to survive. The water
becomes cloudy, typically coloured a shade of green, yellow, brown, or red.
Eutrophication also decreases the value of rivers, lakes and aesthetic enjoyment. Health
problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking water treatment.
As the algae die, bacteria start to breakdown the organic material. It soon develops into a
situation where bacteria are using up the available dissolved oxygen in the water. Plants,
fish, and other organisms begin to die off. The water becomes acidic. Like acid rain,
lakes become dead zones with conditions so toxic that neither plants nor animals can live
in these environments.
WEEK 11: ADAPTATION OF ORGANISMS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Each species within a community exploits the environment and interacts with other species in a
particular manner. Ecologists use the word niche to describe the role of a species in its
community, which can also be viewed as its “occupation” or livelihood. Some niches are
relatively narrow and specialized, as is the niche of bats that feed only on flying insects of a
certain size, or wasps that pollinate only one or a few species of plants. Other niches, however,
are much broader, such as those of bears and humans, both of which forage over an extremely
broad range and affect their ecosystem in diverse ways.
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A graph of how many individuals in a population live under which part of the range of any given
factor, you almost always get a bell-shaped curve. For example, consider a species of fish living
in the ocean
The tolerance ranges for all relevant abiotic conditions represent the species fundamental niche
However, species interactions (such as predation, parasitism, mutualisms, etc) may result in a
species not being found throughout its entire fundamental niche. For example, if this fish’s prey
species do not occur in some areas of the fundamental niche, then this fish species may not occur
there even though it could physiologically tolerate these conditions. The realized niche reflects
the range of environmental conditions that a species actually manages to exploit in nature. The
realized niche is smaller than the fundamental niche because all species are to some degree
constrained by biological interactions such as competition, predation, and disease.
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Temperature and water loss
Temperature affects the physiology of living things as well as the density and state of water. It
exerts an important influence on living organisms because few can survive at temperatures below
0 °C (32 °F) due to metabolic constraints. It is also rare for them to survive at temperatures
exceeding 45 °C (113 °F). This is a reflection of evolutionary response to typical temperatures.
Temperature can limit the distribution of living things. Enzymes are most efficient within a
narrow and specific range of temperatures; enzyme degradation can occur at higher
temperatures. Therefore, organisms must either maintain an internal temperature or inhabit an
environment that will keep the body within a temperature range that supports metabolism. Some
animals have adapted to enable their bodies to survive significant temperature fluctuations, as
seen in hibernation or reptilian torpor. Similarly, some bacteria have adapted to survive in
extremely-hot temperatures found in places such as geysers. Such bacteria are examples of
extremophiles: organisms that thrive in extreme environments.
For instance, organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar bear have adaptations that
help them withstand low temperatures and conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of
insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have adaptations
(such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess body heat.
Animals faced with temperature fluctuations may respond with adaptations, such as migration, in
order to survive. Migration, the movement from one place to another, is common in animals,
including many that inhabit seasonally-cold climates. Migration solves problems related to
temperature, locating food, and finding a mate. Some animals hibernate or estivate to survive
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hostile temperatures. Hibernation enables animals to survive cold conditions, while estivation
allows animals to survive the hostile conditions of a hot, dry climate. Animals that hibernate or
estivate enter a state known as torpor, a condition in which their metabolic rate is significantly
lowered. This enables the animal to wait until its environment better supports its survival. Some
amphibians, such as the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), have an antifreeze-like chemical in their
cells, which retains the cells’ integrity and prevents them from bursting.
Some animals hibernate or estivate to survive hostile temperatures. Hibernation enables animals
to survive cold conditions, while estivation allows animals to survive the hostile conditions of a
hot, dry climate. Animals that hibernate or estivate enter a state known as torpor, a condition in
which their metabolic rate is significantly lowered. This enables the animal to wait until its
environment better supports its survival. Some amphibians, such as the wood frog (Rana
sylvatica), have an antifreeze-like chemical in their cells, which retains the cells’ integrity and
prevents them from bursting.
The rate of water loss by a plant or animal is influenced by temperature, humidity and wind. As
temperatures rise, water evaporates out of the living organisms more readily. On hot summer
days, the leaves of plants thus have a tendency to wilt due to lack of water in the soil and to the
increased rate of transpiration. When the air around an organism is dryer there is greater
evaporation losses than if the air around the organisms is saturated with water. Finally, aA breeze
will clear water vapor away from the surface of an organism, leaving the humidity on the surface
low and increasing the rate of evaporation and/or transpiration.
Since terrestrial organisms lose water to the environment by simple diffusion, they have evolved
many adaptations to retain water. Plants have a number of interesting features on their leaves,
such as leaf hairs and a waxy cuticle, that serve to decrease the rate of water loss via
transpiration.
Some desert animals, like the camel, have developed a great tolerance for dehydration. Smaller
animals are more able to avoid extremes of temperature or dry conditions by resting in sheltered,
more humid situations during the day and being active only at night. The kangaroo rat is able to
survive without access to any drinking water at all because it does not sweat and produces
extremely concentrated urine. Water from its food and from chemical processes is sufficient to
supply all its requirements.
Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable state inside the body of an animal. Animal organs and
organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes in order to maintain this steady
state. Examples of internal conditions maintained homeostatically are the level of blood glucose,
body temperature, blood calcium level. These conditions remain stable because of physiologic
processes that result in negative feedback relationships. If the blood glucose or calcium rises, this
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sends a signal to organs responsible for lowering blood glucose or calcium. The signals that
restore the normal levels are examples of negative feedback. When homeostatic mechanisms fail,
the results can be unfavorable for the animal. Homeostatic mechanisms keep the body in
dynamic equilibrium by constantly adjusting to the changes that the body’s systems encounter.
The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a specific value of some
aspect of the body or its cells called a set point. While there are normal fluctuations from the set
point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go back to this point. A change in the internal or
external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor; the response of the
system is to adjust the activities of the system so the value moves back toward the set point. For
instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments are made to cool the animal. If glucose
levels in the blood rise after a meal, adjustments are made to lower them and to get the nutrient
into tissues that need it or to store it for later use.
When a change occurs in an animal’s environment, an adjustment must be made so that the
internal environment of the body and cells remains stable. The receptor that senses the change in
the environment is part of a feedback mechanism. The stimulus—temperature, glucose, or
calcium levels—is detected by the receptor. The receptor sends information to a control center,
often the brain, which relays appropriate signals to an effector organ that is able to cause an
appropriate change, either up or down, depending on the information the sensor was sending.
Changes can be made in a group of body organ systems in order to maintain a set point in
another system. This is called acclimatization. This occurs, for instance, when an animal
migrates to a higher altitude than it is accustomed to. In order to adjust to the lower oxygen
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levels at the new altitude, the body increases the number of red blood cells circulating in the
blood to ensure adequate oxygen delivery to the tissues. Another example of acclimatization is
animals that have seasonal changes in their coats: a heavier coat in the winter ensures adequate
heat retention, and a light coat in summer assists in keeping body temperature from rising to
harmful levels.
Organisms that maintain an internal osmolarity different from the medium in which they are
immersed have been termed osmoregulators. They tightly regulate their body osmolarity,
maintaining constant internal conditions. They are more common in the animal kingdom.
Osmoregulators actively control salt concentrations despite the salt concentrations in the
environment.
Even aquatic organisms need to maintain a balance of body fluids. Freshwater organisms, for
example, are surrounded by water and constantly in danger of having water move into their cells
because of osmosis. Osmosis describes the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other
solvents through a semipermeable membrane such as a cell membrane. Many adaptations of
organisms living in freshwater environments have evolved to ensure that solute concentrations in
their bodies remain within appropriate levels. One such adaptation is the excretion of dilute
urine. Marine organisms are surrounded by water with a higher solute concentration than the
organism and, thus, are in danger of losing water to the environment because of osmosis. These
organisms have morphological and physiological adaptations to retain water and release solutes
into the environment.
While there are no specific osmoregulatory organs in higher plants, the stomata are important in
regulating water loss through evapotranspiration, and on the cellular level the vacuole is crucial
in regulating the concentration of solutes in the cytoplasm. Strong winds, low humidity and high
temperatures all increase evapotranspiration from leaves. Abscisic acid is an important hormone
in helping plants to conserve water - it causes stomata to close and stimulates root growth so that
more water can be absorbed.
Plants, algae, and many types of bacteria are able to capture energy from the sun through
photosynthetic process. During photosynthesis, plants use energy (originally from sunlight) to
convert carbon dioxide gas (CO2) into sugar molecules (C6H12O6). They consume carbon dioxide
and produce oxygen as a waste product. This reaction is summarized as:
6CO2+6H2O → C6H12O6+6O2
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Sugar molecules have a great deal of energy stored within their bonds and many living things
consume sugars as a major energy source. Most plants store the sugar molecules they produce in
the form of starches or cellulose. Many animals consume plants to extract the energy stored in
these molecules. Because they act as an energy source for animals higher in the food web plants
(and other photosynthetic organisms are known as producers.
All consumers (animals, including humans), use cellular respiration to extract energy from the
food they eat. Many cellular processes that use and produce energy.
The elemental composition of organisms reflects their molecular composition. Typically, around
98% of the mass of any organism is composed of four elements, C, H, O, and N. But other
elements are present and many of these are essential, i.e., the organism must have them in order
to survive, grow and reproduce. For autotrophs, phosphorus is generally acquired as the
phosphate anion which is made available by the action of heterotrophs who break down organic
material and release phosphate. Phosphate is a key nutrient in aquatic systems and often
regulates the amount of autotroph biomass and primary production.
WEEK 12: WILD LIFE CONSERVATION (this topic will be discussed in class)
Wildlife conservation and forest conservation are very closely related. When deforestation is done wild
animal run here and there as they lost their habitat. Hunting of animals for food, skin, bones, horns and
ivory is responsible for reduction in the number of wild animals. Some animals are gun down only for
fun and sports which is very cruel activity. Due to the illegal trade of hides, large are rare species
number of tigers, leopards, deer snakes and crocodiles are killed. Hunters and poachers disturb food
chain in nature and also balance of environment. For example, killing of snakes which feed on rats and
mice, increase the number of these pests and damage of crops is increased.
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MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing
immense damage and danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the forest
department officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the support of villagers for wildlife
conservation. The factors influencing man-animal conflicts are;
Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
Villager’s set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals
(Elephants) who suffer in pain and get violent.
Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals
Strategies to conservation of wildlife:
1. Hunting should be discouraged.
2. Deforestation should be prevented.
3. Natural habitat of animals should be protected and maintained.
4. Articles made by hides, fur, ivory and horns should be boycotted.
5. Laws against hunting should be implemented effectively.
6. Poachers should be arrested immediately and should be kept behind the bars.
7. More National parks and bird sanctuaries should be established
8. The public should be educated by films, T.V. shows, popular articles in newspapers and
magazines regarding the significance of wildlife.
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