AIR-FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

COURSE TITLE: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

COURSE CODE: AED 301
DEPARTMENT: AEROSPACE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT (GROUP 1)
GROUP MEMBERS
U22AE1001 ABAI FREDRICK.A.
U22AE1002 ABDULKAREEM FAVOUR.A.
U22AE1003 ABDULLATEEF MUSTAQEEM.A.
U22AE1004 ABDULRAHMAN MUHAMMED
U22AE1005 ABDULSALAM MUHEEB.O.
U22AE1006 ABIEM NANEN
U22AE1007 ADAKONYE DANIEL-DOLLAR.O.
U22AE1008 ADAMU BARUCH.A.
U22AE1009 ADDEH JOSEPH.I.
U22AE1010 ADEBAYO ALEXANDER TIMILEYIN
U22AE1011 ADEBISI OLUWATOSIN.E.
APPLICATION OF FIRBE-OPTICS IN STRUCTURAL HEALTH MONITORING
Abstract:
Aircraft structures require periodic and scheduled inspection and maintenance
operations due to their special operating conditions and the principles of design
employed to develop them. Therefore, structural health monitoring has a great
potential to reduce the costs related to these operations. Optical fiber sensors
applied to the monitoring of aircraft structures provide some advantages over
traditional sensors. Several practical applications for structures and engines we
have been working on are reported in this article. Fiber Bragg gratings have been
analyzed in detail, because they have proved to constitute the most promising
technology in this field, and two different alternatives for strain measurements
are also described. With regard to engine condition evaluation, we present some
results obtained with a reflected intensity-modulated optical fiber sensor for tip
clearance and tip timing measurements in a turbine assembled in a wind tunnel.

INTRODUCTION:
Structural health monitoring (SHM) is the process of implementing a damage
detection and characterization strategy for engineering structures. It involves the
observation of a structure over time using periodically sampled dynamic response
measurements from an array of sensors, the extraction of damage-sensitive
features from these measurements, and the statistical analysis of these features
to determine the current state of the structure. In recent years, fiber optic
sensors (FOS) have emerged as a promising technology for SHM due to their
numerous advantages over traditional electrical sensors.
The aerospace industry operates under stringent safety and performance
demands, requiring continuous monitoring of aircraft structures to detect and
mitigate potential damage.
Traditional inspection methods, often involving scheduled downtime and visual
checks, can be time-consuming, costly, and may not always detect hidden or
developing flaws. In recent decades, fiber optic sensors (FOS) have emerged as a
transformative technology in structural health monitoring (SHM), offering
numerous advantages over conventional sensors. These include unparalleled
sensitivity, distributed sensing capabilities, lightweight and compact designs, and
resistance to harsh environmental conditions. As the aerospace industry
continues to adopt advanced materials such as composites, the integration of
fibre optics into SHM systems has become increasingly vital.

SHM in Aircraft Structures

OFSs for monitoring the strain in aircraft structures can be classified into the
following categories; intensity-based OFSs, interferometric OFSs, grating-based
sensors and distributed OFSs
Intensity-based OFSs were the first optical sensors employed to measure the
strain, and they are the simplest and least expensive optical sensors for SHM.
Interferometers work on the principle of the interference caused by a reflected
monocromatic light with its original source. Several interferometer configurations
have been proposed, being Fabry-Perot the most widely utilized. There are
different techniques for implementing a distributed OFS; optical time domain
reflectometry (OTDR) based on Rayleigh scattering, Raman optical time domain
reflectometry (ROTDR) or Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR),
based on Raman and Brillouin scattering, respectively. BOTDR resolution and
acquisition time has been improved by Brillouin optical time domain analysis
(BOTDA) using the phenomenon know as Stimulated Brillouin Scatter. Among
grating-based sensors, FBGs are probably the most mature and widely employed
optical sensors for SHM of engineering structures, due to their fast development
achieved in recent years. For the particular case of aircraft structures, even
though FBGs have demonstrated to be a promising technology to monitor strain,
strain gauges still remain being the most used method to perform strain
measurements in operational aircraft structures. FBGs have important advantages
over conventional strain sensors, namely:
(a) Intrinsic benefits of optical fiber sensors such as light weight and small size,
absence of electromagnetic interference, high sensitivity and resolution, etc.
(b) Suitability for being attached to a structure or embedded in composite
materials.
(c) Wavelength-encoded sensing in a way that is totally independent of the optical
intensity which confers them long-term stability without the need of recalibrating.
(d) High multiplexing capability: since each FBG has a narrow-wavelength
operating band, it is possible to multiplex several sensors in the same fiber, thus
allowing for simultaneous multi-point Measurements.
(e) Different magnitudes can be measured using FBGs, such as strain,
temperature, vibration or humidity.
Regarding strain measurement, FBGs show a similar behavior to strain gauges.
However, even though strain gauges are robust, low cost and well known, they
present important disadvantages such as their long-term signal drift or time-
consuming and complex wiring, since two leads per sensor are required. The
multiplexing capability of the FBGs overcomes the complex wiring drawback. This
characteristic has been reported in several works, in which the multiplexing
capability of the FBGs provides a size optimization for the practical
implementation of a quasi-distributed SHM system. The additional possibility of
being embedded in the structures allows the use of FBGs to identify damage in
composite structures, as well as the monitoring of composite cure during its
manufacture

Principles of Fibre Optic Sensing:

The Structure and Composition of Optical Fibres
An optical fibre is essentially a flexible, transparent strand of silica or plastic
capable of transmitting light between two points. The structure of an optical fibre
consists of three primary layers:
Core: The central component of the fibre, typically made of glass or plastic, where
light propagates. Its diameter is usually between 5 to 50 micrometers.
Cladding: A layer of material surrounding the core with a slightly lower refractive
index, ensuring that light is confined within the core through total internal
reflection.
Coating: A protective layer that shields the fibre from physical damage, moisture,
and environmental stressors.

The Behavior of Light in Fibre Optics

Light propagates through the optical fibre via total internal reflection. When light
enters the fibre at a specific angle, it reflects repeatedly off the core-cladding
boundary, enabling it to travel long distances with minimal attenuation.
In fibre optic sensing, environmental changes such as strain, temperature, or
pressure alter the properties of the light traveling through the fibre. These
alterations are detected and analyzed to determine the magnitude and location
of the applied stimulus.

Categories of Fibre Optic Sensors

Fibre optic sensors can be broadly classified into the following categories based
on the property of light they measure:
Intensity-Modulated Sensors: Measure changes in the intensity of light.
Phase-Modulated Sensors: Detect variations in the phase of light due to changes
in strain or temperature.
Wavelength-Modulated Sensors: Utilize shifts in wavelength, as seen in Fibre
Bragg Gratings (FBGs).
Polarization-Modulated Sensors: Monitor changes in the polarization state of
light.
Each type of sensor has unique strengths and is selected based on the specific
SHM requirements of the aerospace application.

Types of Fibre Optic Sensors

Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBGs)
FBGs are among the most widely used fibre optic sensors in aerospace SHM.
These sensors consist of a periodic modulation of the refractive index along the
fibre core, forming a grating structure. FBGs reflect light at a specific wavelength,
known as the Bragg wavelength, while transmitting other wavelengths.
* Periodic Refractive Index Modulation: An FBG is a type of optical fiber sensor
that consists of a periodic modulation of the refractive index along the length of
the fiber core. This modulation is typically created using ultraviolet (UV) laser
irradiation.
* Wavelength-Selective Reflection: When light travels through an FBG, only a
specific wavelength of light, known as the Bragg wavelength, is reflected back.
This wavelength is determined by the period of the refractive index modulation.
* Sensitivity to Strain and Temperature: The Bragg wavelength is highly sensitive
to changes in strain and temperature. When the FBG is subjected to strain or
temperature variations, the period of the refractive index modulation changes,
resulting in a shift in the Bragg wavelength.
An optical fiber grating can be defined as a periodic perturbation pattern in the
refractive index of the fiber core, in such a way that certain wavelengths of the
guided mode are diffracted either into other radiation modes or into cladding
modes. In the former case, the device is known as a short-period fiber grating or
fiber Bragg grating. Such gratings have a sub-micron period and a total length
ranging from 1 mm to 10 mm. A Bragg grating allows most of the power (Po) to
propagate forward. However, when the guided mode in a single-mode fiber
reaches the grating, a certain portion of its incident power (Pi) is reflected at each
grating plane. The electric fields are added up only if the Bragg condition given by
Equation (1) is satisfied:
λ𝐵=2⋅𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓⋅Λ
where λB is the resonant wavelength or Bragg wavelength, ne𝑓𝑓 is the effective
index of the mode and Λ is the grating period.
There are two basic techniques to inscribe Bragg gratings in fibers. The first one
uses ultraviolet light to change the refractive index of photosensitized fibers. The
photosensitivity process typically consists in doping the fiber core with
germanium, so that the fiber becomes receptive to UV-induced refractive index
changes. Several methods have been employed to enhance the photosensitivity,
such as high temperature treatment of hydrogen preforms, B-Ge co-doping, flame
brushing, and high-pressure hydrogen loading of fibers. The second fabrication
technique makes use of a femtosecond laser to write a grating in non-
photosensitive single-mode commercial fibers. The main advantages of this
technique are the shortening of the processing time, the reduced requirements
for the fabrication process and the mechanical strength of the gratings. Currently,
the most employed methods to inscribe the gratings are holographic techniques
and phased mask methods. The point-by-point technique is usually employed
when femtosecond lasers are used to inscribe the gratings.
As mentioned before, the measurand is encoded in the variations of the Bragg
wavelength. Any change in the temperature or in the strain of the fiber causes a
change in the grating period and/or in the effective index, shifting the central
wavelength reflected by the grating. When the FBG is subjected to a tension, the
change in the Bragg wavelength is given by Equation (2):
Δλ𝐵λ𝐵=(1−𝑃𝑒)⋅Δε
where ε is the longitudinal strain in the FBG and Pe is the effective photo-elastic
constant of the fiber core material. In Equation (2), Pe can be calculated as:
𝑃𝑒=𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓2[𝑝12−υ(𝑝11+𝑝12)]
(3)
where p11 and p12 are the elasto-optic coefficients, which represent the change
in the refractive index due to the applied strain, and υ is the Poison ratio. The
temperature changes affect the Bragg wavelength in two ways. On the one hand,
the expansion coefficient of the fiber material (α) characterizes the thermal
expansion of the grating, and, on the other, the variations in the refractive index
are determined by the thermo-optic coefficient (ζ). Therefore, the change in the
Bragg wavelength with temperature can be expressed as:
Δλ𝐵λ𝐵=(α+ζ)⋅Δ𝑇
(4)
Combining Equations (2) and (4) we get that the total Bragg-wavelength variation
can be calculated as:
Δλ𝐵λ𝐵=(α+ζ)⋅Δ𝑇+(1−𝑃𝑒)⋅Δε
(5)
Thus, it is clearly seen that the Bragg wavelength presents a cross-sensitivity
phenomenon (it is sensitive to both temperature and strain). For strain
measurements, the effect of temperature has to be compensated. Different
configurations have been reported for this purpose
[32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. However, when temperature gradients
in the structure are not excessive, the use of a single FBG insulated from the
effect of the strain is enough to compensate the effect of temperature in the rest
of the FBGs, thus allowing us to discriminate the variations in the Bragg
wavelength that appear as a consequence of strain. FBGs are excellent strain
sensors when the load is applied in the axial direction of the sensor. In this
situation, the FBG only undergoes contraction or elongation. If there is a
transverse stress applied, the fiber presents birefringence due to the variation
experienced by the effective refraction index on each propagation axis. As a
consequence, the grating exhibits two different Bragg conditions, and the
approximately Gaussian-shaped reflected spectrum of the FBG splits into two
peaks. Another similar phenomenon appears when there is a non-uniform strain
field, because, in this case, the spectrum is broadened and even split into several
peaks, which makes it difficult to track the Bragg wavelength. Both problems can
arise when the FBG is embedded in composite materials. In conclusion, FBGs
constitute a mature technology and compared to strain gauges, provide multiple
benefits and attractive properties, such as multiplexing capability, the possibility
of being embedded in the structure, long term stability and a competitive cost per
channel. Nevertheless, some issues, like non-uniform or multidirectional complex
strain conditions and the lack of Sensors 15 15494 g002 1024
Another important concern is the effect of aging on the response of the FBGs
under extreme conditions. In an analysis of the influence of aging FBGs is
presented. FBGs were bonded on three specimens using different adhesives to
evaluate their performance against aging. In order to reproduce aging under real
conditions, two of them were stored in a climate chamber at 70 °C and 90%
relative humidity for one and two months, respectively. The damage produced in
the specimen aged for two months.
The results of the tests on the specimens previously aged for one and two months
are very similar and, unexpectedly, they show that the readings of the FBGs are
about 50% higher than those obtained before the aging. Since the maximum
working temperature of the FBG was never exceeded, this discrepancy in the
readings must be caused by the effect of humidity. Its influence can make the
refractive index vary, shifting the Bragg wavelength and yielding much higher
strain values than expected, so in order to avoid this problem, it is necessary to
properly insulate the FBG from humidity. The results for two FBGs of the
specimen aged for one month for 200 kN traction stress tests, The traction stress
was applied in steps of 20 kN. In most cases, FBGs are employed in SHM
applications to detect strain or temperature variations in a quasi-static way.
However, if FBGs are used to detect impacts in aircraft structures, vibrations at
higher frequencies must be analyzed. We developed a proof-of-concept system
for impact detection in composites using FBGs. The objective was to obtain the
arrival times of the surface mechanical waves produced by an impact in different
points of the structure. Using these times, the impact location could be
determined by triangulation. Two arrays of five FBGs were instrumented on a
piece of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP). In order to detect the
mechanical waves due to the impacts in as many directions as possible, nine of
the FBGs were placed following the arrangement given. The remaining FBG was
insulated from the vibrations and employed to compensate the effect of the
temperature. The test procedure included five different impact points; each
impact was repeated three times with increasing energies from 0.245 J to 29.4 J.
How FBG Sensors Work for SHM
* Embedding FBGs: FBG sensors can be embedded into or attached to various
structures, such as bridges, aircraft, pipelines, and composite materials.
 * Interrogation System: A light source (typically a broadband light source) is
coupled into the fiber, and the reflected light from the FBGs is analyzed using an
optical spectrum analyzer.
* Strain and Temperature Measurement: By monitoring the shift in the Bragg
wavelength, it is possible to accurately measure strain and temperature changes
within the structure.
* Damage Detection: Changes in strain and temperature patterns can indicate
the presence of damage, such as cracks, delaminations, or corrosion.
Advantages of FBG Sensors for SHM
* High Sensitivity: FBG sensors can detect very small changes in strain and
temperature.
* Multiple Sensing Points: Multiple FBGs can be multiplexed along a single fiber,
allowing for distributed sensing and monitoring of large structures.
* Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Optical fiber sensors are
inherently immune to EMI, making them suitable for use in harsh environments.
* Small Size and Lightweight: FBG sensors are small and lightweight, making
them easy to embed into structures.
* Corrosion and Chemical Resistance: Optical fibers are resistant to corrosion
and many chemicals, making them suitable for use in challenging environments.
FBG sensors have revolutionized the field of SHM by providing a powerful and
versatile tool for monitoring the health of critical structures. Their unique
properties, such as high sensitivity, multiplexing capabilities, and immunity to
EMI, make them ideal for a wide range of applications. As technology continues to
advance, FBG sensors are expected to play an increasingly important role in
ensuring the safety and reliability of critical infrastructure.
Real-world applications of FBGs in aerospace include monitoring the strain
distribution in aircraft wings, measuring temperature variations in jet engines,
and assessing the health of composite structures.
Fabry-Pérot Interferometers (FPIs)
Experimental arrangement of the coherence multiplexing technique for remote
sensing based on Fabry-Perot interferometers The abbreviations used in figure
are light emitting diode (LED), fiber directional coupler (DC), fiber Fabry-Perot
(FFP), beam splitter (BSD), photodiode (PD), integrator (mittpiezoelectric
transducer (PZT).
A Fabry-Pérot interferometer is an optical device consisting of two parallel,
partially reflective surfaces. When light enters the cavity between these surfaces,
it undergoes multiple reflections, creating interference patterns. The intensity of
the transmitted or reflected light depends on the wavelength of the light and the
distance between the surfaces.
How FPI Sensors Work for SHM
In fiber optic FPI sensors, the cavity is formed within or on the surface of an
optical fiber. When the structure to which the sensor is attached experiences
strain or temperature changes, the cavity length changes, altering the
interference pattern. By analyzing the changes in the interference pattern, it is
possible to accurately measure strain and temperature.
Advantages of FPI Sensors for SHM
* High Sensitivity: FPIs can detect extremely small changes in strain and
temperature, making them suitable for precise measurements.
* Wide Measurement Range: FPIs can measure a wide range of strain and
temperature values.
 * Small Size and Lightweight: Fiber optic FPI sensors are compact and
lightweight, making them ideal for integration into aerospace structures.
* Multiple Sensing Points: Multiple FPIs can be multiplexed along a single fiber,
enabling distributed sensing.
* Electromagnetic Immunity to Interference (EMI): Optical fiber sensors are
inherently immune to EMI, making them suitable for use in harsh environments.

Applications of FPI Sensors in Aerospace Engineering

* Aircraft Wing Strain Monitoring: FPIs can be embedded into aircraft wings to
monitor strain during flight, providing real-time data on structural integrity.
* Engine Temperature Monitoring: FPIs can be used to monitor the temperature
of critical components in aircraft engines, preventing overheating and potential
damage.
* Composite Material Monitoring: FPIs can be used to detect damage in
composite materials used in aircraft structures, such as delamination or cracking.
* Vibration Monitoring: FPIs can be used to measure vibrations in aircraft
structures, providing insights into fatigue and potential failures.
Challenges and Limitations
* Sensitivity to Environmental Factors: FPIs can be sensitive to environmental
factors such as pressure and humidity, which can affect the accuracy of
measurements.
* Complex Interrogation Systems: Interrogating FPI sensors can be complex,
requiring specialized equipment and signal processing techniques.
* Cost: FPI sensors can be more expensive than some other types of sensors.
Fabry-Pérot interferometers offer a promising technology for structural health
monitoring in aerospace engineering. Their high sensitivity, wide measurement
range, and immunity to EMI make them valuable tools for ensuring the safety and
reliability of aircraft structures. As technology continues to advance, FPIs are
expected to play an increasingly important role in aerospace SHM.
Distributed Fibre Optic Sensors (DFOS)
Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors (DFOS) represent a significant advancement in
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) for aerospace applications. Unlike traditional
point sensors, DFOS enable continuous, real-time strain and temperature
measurements along the entire length of an optical fiber.
How DFOS Work
DFOS utilize various techniques, such as Brillouin Optical Time Domain
Reflectometry (BOTDR) and Raman Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (ROTDR),
to measure physical parameters along the fiber. These techniques involve sending
light pulses into the fiber and analyzing the backscattered light to determine
changes in strain and temperature.
* BOTDR: Measures changes in the Brillouin frequency shift, which is sensitive to
strain and temperature.
* ROTDR: Measures changes in the intensity of Raman scattered light, which is
also sensitive to strain and temperature.
Advantages of DFOS for Aerospace SHM
* Distributed Sensing: Provides continuous measurements along the entire
length of the fiber, offering comprehensive information about the structural state.
* High Spatial Resolution: Enables precise localization of strain and temperature
variations.
* Lightweight and Flexible: Optical fibers are lightweight and flexible, making
them easy to integrate into complex aerospace structures.
* Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Optical fiber sensors are
inherently immune to EMI, making them suitable for use in harsh environments.
* Corrosion and Chemical Resistance: Optical fibers are resistant to corrosion
and many chemicals, ensuring long-term reliability.
Applications
* Aircraft Wing Strain Monitoring: DFOS can be embedded into aircraft wings to
monitor strain distribution during flight, providing real-time data on structural
integrity and identifying potential critical areas.
 * Engine Temperature Monitoring: DFOS can be used to monitor the
temperature of critical components in aircraft engines, preventing overheating
and potential damage.
* Composite Material Monitoring: DFOS can be used to detect damage in
composite materials, such as delamination or cracking, by monitoring changes in
strain and temperature patterns.
* Vibration Monitoring: DFOS can be used to measure vibrations in aircraft
structures, providing insights into fatigue and potential failures.
Challenges and Limitations
* Interrogation Complexity: Interrogating DFOS requires specialized equipment
and signal processing techniques.
* Sensitivity to Environmental Factors: Some DFOS techniques can be sensitive
to environmental factors such as pressure and humidity.
Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors offer a powerful and versatile tool for structural
health monitoring in aerospace engineering. Their ability to provide continuous,
distributed measurements makes them invaluable for ensuring the safety and
reliability of aircraft structures. As technology continues to advance, DFOS are
expected to play an increasingly important role in the future of aerospace SHM.
Other Fibre Optic Sensor Types
Other types of fibre optic sensors used in aerospace SHM include:
Polarimetric Sensors: Measure changes in light polarization caused by strain or
temperature variations.
Intensity-Based Sensors: Simple and cost-effective sensors that detect light
intensity changes.

Applications of Fibre Optic Sensors in Aerospace SHM

Strain and Stress Monitoring
The ability to monitor strain and stress in real time is critical for ensuring the
structural integrity of aerospace vehicles. Fibre optic sensors, particularly FBGs,
are embedded in key structural components to measure strain distributions under
various loading conditions.
For instance, during the development of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, FBGs were
integrated into composite wings to monitor strain during static and dynamic load
tests. This data was used to validate design models and ensure the safety of the
structure.
Temperature Monitoring
Temperature variations can significantly impact the performance and safety of
aerospace systems. Fibre optic temperature sensors are used to monitor critical
areas, such as jet engines, fuel tanks, and avionics compartments.
One notable application is the use of FBG sensors to measure temperature
gradients in rocket engines during testing. These sensors provide real-time
feedback, enabling engineers to optimize engine performance and identify
potential overheating issues
Damage Detection and Localization
Distributed fibre optic sensing has revolutionized damage detection in aerospace
SHM. By continuously monitoring strain and temperature profiles, DFOS systems
can identify the onset of cracks, delaminations, and other structural damage.
For example, DFOS techniques have been employed to detect impact damage on
composite fuselage panels of commercial aircraft. The ability to localize damage
with high accuracy allows for targeted maintenance, reducing downtime and
repair costs.
Load Monitoring
Aircraft structures are subjected to complex loads during various stages of
operation, including takeoff, flight, and landing. Understanding how these loads
are distributed across critical components, such as wings, fuselage, landing gear,
and rotor blades, is essential for ensuring operational safety and longevity.
Fibre optic sensors are increasingly deployed to monitor these loads in real-time.
For example, Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBGs) embedded within composite wings
measure how aerodynamic forces are distributed during flight. These
measurements enable engineers to optimize structural designs for weight
reduction while maintaining strength.
In rotorcraft, such as helicopters, fibre optic sensors monitor the loads on rotor
blades, which experience cyclic stresses due to aerodynamic forces and
vibrations. By analyzing the data, maintenance teams can predict fatigue and
replace components before failure, significantly improving safety.
Vibration and Fatigue Monitoring
Aircraft and spacecraft operate in environments where they are constantly
exposed to vibrations caused by engines, aerodynamic forces, and turbulence.
Over time, these vibrations can lead to fatigue damage, compromising structural
integrity. Monitoring and mitigating such damage is crucial, especially for long-
duration missions or aging fleets.
Fibre optic sensors play a vital role in vibration monitoring. Distributed Fibre Optic
Sensors (DFOS), for instance, can detect subtle changes in vibration patterns along
the entire length of an aircraft wing or fuselage. These changes often indicate
early signs of fatigue damage or loose fasteners.
A practical example includes using DFOS to monitor vibration-induced fatigue in
the wings of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The sensors provide real-time data
on how vibrational forces propagate through the structure, enabling engineers to
identify and address problem areas before failure occurs.
Corrosion and Environmental Monitoring
Aircraft and spacecraft are exposed to harsh environmental conditions, including
humidity, salt spray (in coastal or maritime operations), and ultraviolet radiation.
Corrosion of metallic components can lead to structural degradation, affecting the
performance and safety of aerospace vehicles. Fibre optic sensors, particularly
those based on Brillouin scattering, are being employed to monitor environmental
factors that contribute to corrosion. These sensors can measure temperature,
humidity, and strain changes associated with corrosion-induced swelling in
materials. By integrating fibre optic sensors into critical areas, such as fuel tanks
and landing gear compartments, engineers can detect and address corrosion at an
early stage.
Advantages of Fibre Optic Sensors in Aerospace SHM
The adoption of fibre optic sensors in aerospace Structural Health Monitoring
(SHM) offers several compelling advantages over traditional sensor technologies:
High Sensitivity and Precision
Fibre optic sensors are capable of detecting minute changes in strain,
temperature, or pressure, making them ideal for aerospace applications where
precision is critical. For instance, FBG sensors can measure strain variations in the
microstrain range (10⁻⁶), enabling the detection of even the smallest structural
deformations.
Lightweight and Compact Design
Weight reduction is a primary concern in aerospace engineering, as every
additional kilogram reduces fuel efficiency. Fibre optic sensors are inherently
lightweight and compact, ensuring that their integration into aircraft structures
does not compromise performance. Their small size also allows them to be
embedded directly into composite materials, making them less intrusive than
traditional sensors.
Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Aerospace vehicles operate in environments with high levels of electromagnetic
interference, generated by onboard electronics, radar systems, and external
sources. Unlike traditional electrical sensors, fibre optic sensors are immune to
EMI, ensuring reliable operation even in these challenging conditions.
Distributed Sensing Capability
One of the most significant advantages of fibre optic sensors, particularly
Distributed Fibre Optic Sensors (DFOS), is their ability to monitor large structures
using a single fibre. This distributed sensing capability eliminates the need for
multiple discrete sensors, reducing system complexity and installation costs.
Durability and Longevity
Optical fibres are highly resistant to corrosion, radiation, and extreme
temperatures. These properties make them well-suited for aerospace
applications, where components must withstand harsh operational environments.
For example, fibre optic sensors have been deployed in spacecraft to monitor
thermal stresses during reentry, demonstrating their durability under extreme
conditions

Challenges and Limitations

Despite their numerous advantages, the implementation of fibre optic sensors in
aerospace SHM is not without challenges:
High Initial Costs
The development and deployment of fibre optic sensing systems involve
significant initial costs. High-quality optical fibres, specialized interrogation
equipment, and skilled personnel are required for installation and maintenance.
These costs can be a barrier to adoption, particularly for smaller aerospace
organizations.
Installation Complexity
Integrating fibre optic sensors into aerospace structures requires precise
installation to avoid damaging the sensors or compromising structural integrity.
For instance, embedding FBGs into composite materials during manufacturing
must be done with care to prevent delamination or misalignment of the fibres.
Data Management and Analysis
Distributed fibre optic sensing systems generate vast amounts of data,
particularly in real-time applications. Analyzing and interpreting this data requires
advanced algorithms and machine learning techniques. Developing these
analytical tools and integrating them into existing aerospace systems can be
challenging.
Long-Term Reliability
Ensuring the long-term reliability of fibre optic sensors in harsh aerospace
environments is critical. Factors such as thermal cycling, mechanical fatigue, and
radiation exposure can degrade sensor performance over time. Rigorous testing
and validation are necessary to ensure the sensors remain functional throughout
the lifespan of the vehicle.
Recent Advances and Future Directions
Smart Composite Materials
One of the most exciting advancements in fibre optic sensing technology is the
development of smart composite materials. By embedding fibre optic sensors
directly into composite structures, engineers can create materials that "self-
monitor" their health. This capability is particularly valuable in aerospace
applications, where composite materials are increasingly used for weight
reduction and strength.
For example, researchers are developing carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers with
embedded FBG sensors to monitor strain, temperature, and damage in real time.
These smart materials could eventually enable autonomous aircraft capable of
assessing their structural health without human intervention.
Wireless Data Transmission
The integration of wireless technologies with fibre optic sensors is another area of
active research. Wireless interrogation systems eliminate the need for physical
connections between sensors and data acquisition units, simplifying installation
and reducing weight.
Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
Machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are playing an increasingly
important role in the analysis of fibre optic sensor data. Advanced algorithms can
identify patterns and anomalies in sensor outputs, enabling early detection of
damage and more accurate predictions of structural failures.
Space Applications
Fibre optic sensors are finding new applications in space exploration, where
traditional sensors are often unsuitable due to harsh conditions. For instance,
NASA has deployed FBG sensors to monitor the structural health of spacecraft
during launch and reentry. Future missions to the Moon and Mars are likely to
rely heavily on fibre optic sensing technology for safety and performance
monitoring.
Fibre optic sensors have revolutionized Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) in
aerospace engineering, offering unparalleled accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability.
Their ability to monitor critical parameters such as strain, temperature, and
damage in real time has made them indispensable in ensuring the safety and
efficiency of modern aerospace vehicles.
As advancements in fibre optic sensing technology continue, their applications are
expected to expand further, enabling the development of smarter, safer, and
more efficient aircraft and spacecraft. While challenges remain, ongoing research
and innovation are paving the way for the widespread adoption of fibre optic
sensors in aerospace SHM.

CONCLUSION:
Aircraft structures, due to their operating conditions and design principles,
require intense inspection and maintenance operations. SHM based on optical
sensors could play an important role in these operations provided that two issues
can be overcome. The potential economic and life-safety benefits of optical
sensors for SHM should be clearly demonstrated to the aviation companies, so
that the industry takes decisions towards the extensive use of these devices. The
other aspect to be considered is the lack of agreed standards and certification of
optical sensors for SHM in aircraft structures, which is an essential condition for
the application of optical sensors for SHM on a large scale. FBGs represent the
most mature and promising technology for this purpose and, even though they
can be employed for other applications, they are mainly used for strain
measurements. For this purpose, they present several advantages with respect to
strain gauges, like their long-term stability, high multiplexing capability and
suitability for being embedded into composite materials. Two other early-stage
alternatives for strain measurement in aircraft structures are mentioned in this
article. Regarding engines, optical sensors have provided excellent results for the
evaluation of aeronautical turbines in ground tests, so the next challenge will be
to apply them to aircraft engines in flight.
Reference; Fibre Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring of Aircraft
Composite Structures: by Raffaella Di Sante, March 25, 2011
Source:https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4570341/ Optical Fiber Sensors
for Aircraft Structural Health Monitoring by Iker García, Joseba Zubia, Gaizka
Durana, Gotzon Aldabaldetreku, María Asunción Illarramendi and Joel Villatoro.
Source:https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/15/7/15494 Lightweight Fiber Optic
Sensors for Real-Time Monitoring of Structural Health.
Source:https://technology.nasa.gov/patent/DRC-TOPS-9 "Revolutionizing
Infrastructure: The Future of Fiber Optic Sensing in Structural Health Monitoring,,
April 3, 2024; source:https://www.azooptics.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=2572.
Opsens Solutions; "Fiber Optic Sensor & Transducer for Structural Health
Monitoring," Source: https://opsens-solutions.com/industries/smart-structure-
health-monitoring/