Notes on

Advanced
English Grammar

NARIMAN JAHANZAD

1
Introduction
This pamphlet has its roots in my attempts to find out how to write adeptly over the years. It
is by no means a complete English grammar guide, as there are numerous decent English
grammar textbooks. Nor is it supposed to be a source used as a guide for writing academic
essays and papers. It focuses only on sentence structure, aiming to provide the reader with
detailed assistance in creating correct and structurally sound sentences.
When I first began reading Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby years ago, I was amazed and, at the
same time, disillusioned. I was amazed by the smooth fluidity of the text the author had
produced, but disillusioned by my inability to create such marvelous, grammatically sound,
and poetic sentences. I then tried to find out the secret behind such a writing style, leaving a
sublime impression on the reader while being fluent and fluid. Since then, my journey in
writing began, and I started reading intensively different classic English novels, such as those
by George Orwell, Ernest Hemingway, William Faulkner, James Joyce, among others. I always
tried to find a book revealing these secrets, providing the reader with some magic remarks to
use for improving their writing skills. Finally, I came to realize that there is no such magic
instruction. While there are some decent books offering a bunch of instructions for writing
correctly, which I have extensively used in this text, mastering this hard-to-achieve ability
takes a lifelong, continuous struggle.
Additionally, as an Iranian translator and writer, I have always been sensitive to words,
especially during the years when I taught undergraduate students who had to write papers in
Farsi. What consistently disappointed me was the fact that these native Farsi speakers could
not write correct sentences in their mother tongue, let alone in English. This issue became a
serious problem for me, prompting me to decode it and discover the reasons behind it. It was
through this reflection on writing that I shifted my focus to the deeper structures of
language, starting a systematic study of linguistics with a specific emphasis on semantics and
syntax. I began to wonder how one could develop an overarching methodological framework
that could help different language users, regardless of their mother tongue, improve their
writing skills. This theoretical problem is still in progress, and I will continue to explore it in
the coming years – if there are any 'coming' years.
Anyhow, these two factors motivated me to publish the notes and remarks I have collected
through reading various English texts about writing, with the hope that it may help
individuals who are struggling to find a practical cornerstone for writing, just as I did about
ten years ago.
While English learners with different levels of proficiency may find this text helpful, its
primary audience is advanced learners with a proficiency level of C1 who can already write
adeptly but wish to enhance their writing skills and use more complex structures. Test-takers,
such as IELTS, TOEFL and GRE applicants, may especially benefit from this pamphlet, at least
for improving their grammar. While the text focuses on grammar and sentence structures,
inevitably, some notes will be made about vocabulary, as a well-structured sentence requires
appropriate word usage and collocations.
I humbly hope that what I have collected through my personal experience may be helpful for
some. It should be noted that I have used many points and sentences from standard
grammar and writing sources.
Nariman Jahanzad

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Table of contents
Lesson 1: Fundamentals……………………………………………………………………………………………………4
Noun 4/ Pronoun 18/ Adjective 19/ Adverb 27/ Conjunction 30/ Verb 31

Lesson 2: Passive voice…………………………………………………………………………………………………….52

Lesson 3: Types of Verbs………………………………………………………………………………………………….63
Lesson 4: Infinitive and Gerund ……………………………………………………………………………………….70
Lesson 5: Types of Sentences……………………………………………………………………………………………83
Lesson 6: Indirect and Direct Objects……………………………………………………………………………….87
Lesson 7: Dependent clauses……………………………………………………………………………………………89
Lesson 8: Phrases…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..119
Lesson 9: Subjunctive Mode…………………………………………………………………………………………..135
Lesson 10: Reported Speech……………………………………………………………………………………….….139
Lesson 11: Inversion and Fronting………………………………………………………………………………….145
Lesson 12: Periodic and Loose structure…………………………………………………………………………169
Lesson 13: Ellipsis and Substitution………………………………………………………………………………..171
Lesson 14: Figures of Speech………………………………………………………………………………………….180
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 207
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… 237

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Lesson 1. Fundamentals (A2-B1)
Grammatical units
To comprehend a sentence, it's crucial to first identify grammatical units. Next, we should
delve into analyzing the internal structure of these units and how they intricately combine to
form larger constructs. These grammatical units are meaningful components organized by
fixed rules, encompassing morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. A word, the
smallest unit, comprises one or more morphemes. A phrase consists of one or more words,
and a clause, in turn, consists of one or more phrases. The realm of grammar that explores
units beyond morphemes is known as syntax. In this text, the focus lies on detailing the
structure and syntactic role of phrases and clauses.
Functions of words, phrases and clauses
In a sentence, each word, phrase, and sometimes clauses, as will be explored, can serve as a
subject, object, or complement. The subject is the word, phrase, or clause to which the verb
refers; the object is the word, phrase, or clause affected by the action of a verb or integral to
the result of an action; and finally, the complement is a word, phrase, or clause that enriches
and completes the meaning of the subject, object, or verb. Note that there are two types of
objects: direct and indirect. The direct object answers the question 'what?' or 'who(m)?',
while the indirect object answers the question 'to whom?' or 'for whom? We will talk about
direct and indirect objects in lesson 6.
Examples:
 I (Subject) want (Transitive Verb) banana (Direct Object).
 She (S) gave (V) Jane (Indirect Object) a book (Direct Object).
 I (S) am (V) French (Subject Complement).
 The weatherman (S) must be (V) wrong (Subject Complement) about today’s forecast
(Object Complement).
 The cake (S) smells (V) delicious (Complement of the Verb).
Parts of Speech
As this practical text is dedicated to advanced English learners, it will not delve into
explaining the basics. It is assumed that the reader not only possesses advanced knowledge
of the fundamentals but can also apply them accurately, both in writing and speaking.
However, to refresh the reader's memory, I will review the basics through some tables and
examples. This is done because the text extensively employs grammar terminology, and it's
crucial for the reader to ensure they have a precise understanding of these terms.
Parts of speech are comprised of nouns, pronouns, adverbs, adjectives, verbs, articles,
conjunctions, and prepositions.
Noun
Generally, nouns can be divided into two broad types: concrete and abstract. Common nouns
such as book, human, and lion, proper nouns such as Jane, Paris, as well as entities like the
earth and the sun, collective nouns such as family and police, and material nouns such as iron
and wood are examples of concrete nouns, as they have a referent in the real world. On the
other hand, nouns such as reason, freedom, justice, etc., which have no referent in the real
world that can be physically pointed to, are classified as abstract nouns.
In terms of the countability of nouns, there are two types: countable and non-countable
nouns. Each requires a specific quantifier to precede it. Consider the table below:

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Countable Both Non-Countable
A/ One/ a dozen The Much
Many/ Many a Some Little
Few Any/ No A little
A few/ what few Plenty of What little
Fewer/ fewer than A lot of/lots of Less/ less than
Each/Every Enough A bit of
Several /A number of/ A All/ most A great amount of
good number of/a couple A good deal of
of/a bunch of/ a slew Far too much
of/Scores of/ A handful of/A
multitude of/A series of/A
set of/A variety of/A cluster
of/
Many a/ A good many/ A
great many/ Far too many

Examples for countable nouns:

 There are only a few apples left in the basket.
 She has read many books during the summer vacation.
 Several students excelled in the mathematics competition.
 We saw a couple of cars parked outside the restaurant.
 She carefully examined each document before making a decision.
 Every person in the room was required to sign the attendance sheet.
Examples for non-countable nouns:
 I need some information about the upcoming event.
 It requires a little patience to master this skill.
 Be careful not to add too much water to the mixture.
 He offered a bit of advice on how to approach the project.
 I have conducted some research on renewable energy sources.
 The city has invested a lot of money in improving its infrastructure.
 She picked up a small piece of baggage from the conveyor belt.
 I realized I had packed too much luggage for the short trip.
Note. We can use "many" following "the," "my," "its," "his," "her," etc. and plural countable
nouns:
 Among the many unknowns after the earthquake is the extent of damage to the
foundations of buildings.
 The gallery is exhibiting some of his many famous paintings of ships.
We can use the phrase "many a" with a singular noun to talk about a repeated event or a
large number of people or things:
 Many a pupil at the school will be pleased that Latin is no longer compulsory.
 Many a student dreams of traveling the world after graduation.
 Many a traveler has been enchanted by the beauty of Paris.
 Many a parent worries about their child's future.
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  Many a writer has struggled to find the right words to express their thoughts.
 Many a bird finds refuge in the branches of the old oak tree.
 Many a chef has perfected their signature dish through years of practice.
 Many a dreamer imagines what life would be like on a deserted island.
 Many a musician has found solace in the melody of their instrument.
 Many a star shines brightly in the night sky, each with its own story to tell.
 Many a book lover treasures the smell of old books and the feel of turning pages.
To emphasize that we are talking about a large number, we can use "a good/great many"
with a plural noun:
 She has a good/great many friends in New Zealand.
 He has a great many books on various subjects in his personal library.
 After the concert, they received a good many compliments on their performance.
 The museum houses a great many artifacts from ancient civilizations.
 Despite the rain, a good many people attended the outdoor festival.
 The professor has a great many years of experience in the field of neuroscience.
 Over the years, she has acquired a good many skills through her diverse work
experiences.
 The company received a great many applications for the job opening.
 The bakery sells a good many different types of bread, from traditional loaves to
artisanal creations.
 The garden attracts a great many butterflies during the summer months.
 The charity event raised a good many donations for those in need.
To emphasize that we are talking about a large amount, we can use "a good/great deal of"
with a singular or uncountable noun:
 A good/great deal of the exhibition was devoted to her recent work.
 A great deal of research has been done on this issue
 A good deal of furniture provided by the company for its employees.
We use "far" (not 'much' or 'many') before "too many" + a plural countable noun or "too
much" + an uncountable noun:
 Far too many students failed the end-of-year maths exam. (not Much/Many too
many).
 Far too much time is wasted filling in forms (not Much/Many too much time).
 Far too many accidents occur at this intersection due to reckless driving.
 The project encountered far too many obstacles, hindering its progress.
 There is far too much pollution in our oceans, endangering marine life.
 Far too many employees are dissatisfied with the working conditions at the company.
 The government allocated far too much funding to the wrong areas of development.
 There is far too much noise pollution in the city, making it difficult to sleep at night.
 Far too many children are left without access to quality education in underprivileged
communities.
 The company wasted far too much money on unnecessary expenses.
 There is far too much violence in our society, prompting calls for stricter regulations.
 Far too many resources are being depleted without sustainable management
practices in place.

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Note. We can use "the few" and "the little" followed by a noun to suggest 'not enough' when
we talk about a group of things or people (with few) or part of a group or amount (with
little):
 It’s one of the few shops in the city center where you can buy food.
 We should use the little time we have available to discuss Jon’s proposal.
Instead of "the few" / "the little," we can use "what few" / "what little" to mean 'the small
(number / amount)':
 She gave what little money she had in her purse to the man. (or … the little money …)
 What few visitors we have are always made welcome. (or The few visitors …)
Note that we can also say ‘She gave what / the little she had …’ and ‘What / The few we have
…’ when it is clear from the context what is being referred to.
We can use "few" (but rarely "little") after personal pronouns (my, her, etc.) and these and
those:
 I learned to play golf during my few days off during the summer.
 These few miles of motorway have taken over ten years to build.
In speech and informal writing, we use "not many" / "much" or "only" / "just" ... "a few" /
"little" to talk about a small amount or number, and we often use "a bit (of)" instead of "a
little":
 Sorry I haven’t finished, I haven’t had much time today. (rather than … I had little
time …)
 I won’t be long. I’ve only got a few things to get. (rather than … I’ve got few things …)
 Want a bit of chocolate? (rather than … a little chocolate?)
In more formal contexts, such as academic writing, we generally prefer "few" and "little":
 The results take little account of personal preference. (rather than … don’t take much
…)
Note. We use "less" with uncountable nouns and "fewer" with plural countable nouns:
 You should eat less pasta.
 There are fewer cars on the road today.
"Less" is sometimes used with a plural countable noun (e.g. … less cars …), particularly in
conversation. However, this is grammatically incorrect:
 There were less cars in the parking lot than usual (incorrect but common).
We use "less than" with a noun phrase indicating an amount and "fewer than" with a noun
phrase referring to a group of things or people:
 I used to earn less than a pound a week when I first started work.
 There were fewer than 20 students at the lecture. (or informally … less than …; but
note that some people think this use of ‘less than’ is incorrect)
When we talk about a distance or a sum of money, we use "less than," not "fewer than":
 The beach is less than a mile away.
To emphasize that a number is surprisingly large, we can use "no less than" or "no fewer
than":

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  The team has had no fewer than ten managers in just five years. (or … no less than …)
Note that we prefer "no less than" with percentages, periods of time, and quantities:
 Profits have increased by no less than 95% in the last year. (rather than … no fewer
than …)
Uncountable nouns
The word food is usually uncountable, and so are many food names. Other uncountable food
words can be added to this list: sugar, Rice, spaghetti, Butter, Bread, Flour, Soup.
Abstract uncountable nouns and nouns for activities:

 She gave me some advice on how to study for the exam.

 I picked up some interesting knowledge on that course.
 She’s made a lot of progress in a very short time.
 She has done some research on marine life.
 They’ve done a lot of work on the project.
 Do you have any experience of working with children?

Material and resources:

 For making clothes, furniture, etc.: cloth (e.g. silk), leather
 For energy: coal, oil
 For buildings: stone, brick, plastic
 General: equipment, software
Note. Although you may have learnt these words and their meanings before, it is very easy
to continue making mistakes with them. We say: What terrible weather! I have some news
for you. We bought some new furniture. (NOT What a terrible weather! I have a news for
you. We bought some new furnitures.).
Words that only occur in the plural

Tools, instruments, pieces of equipment: Scissors, Pliers, Tweezers, Tongs, Headphones,

Binoculars, Scales, Handcuffs, Shears, glasses/spectacles, goggles.
Things we wear: Leggings, Dungarees, Shorts, Trousers, braces (swimming), trunks.
Other useful words:
 When I move to London, I’ll have to find lodgings. (e.g. a room in a flat)
 When will the goods be delivered?
 The architect inspected the foundations before declaring that the premises were safe.
[under the building] [the building itself]
 The military authorities have established their headquarters in the old Town Hall.
 The acoustics in the new opera house are near perfect.
 The contents of the house were sold after her death.
 Looks are less important than personality in a partner.
 As you come to the outskirts of the village, there are traffic lights. Turn left there.
 The stairs are a bit dangerous – be careful.
 The proceeds of the concert are going to the children’s fund.
 A terrorist has escaped from prison. Her whereabouts are unknown.
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Words with plural form but used mostly with singular verbs:
 Names of some games: billiards, dominoes, draughts, darts, bowls, cards.
 Names of subjects/activities: physics, economics, classics, gymnastics, athletics.
Note: Some words look plural, or may be thought of as plural, but are not, e.g. news,
spaghetti (an Italian plural form), series, means. The news is good. (NOT The news are good.)
The spaghetti was delicious. (NOT The spaghetti were delicious.) There was a series of
programs on TV about Japan. Is there a cheap means of transport I could use to get there?
Countable and uncountable nouns with different meanings
When we use a countable noun, we are thinking of specific things that can be counted (e.g.,
two glasses). When we use an uncountable noun, we are thinking of stuff or material or the
idea of a thing in general (e.g., this door is made of glass).
Examples:
 Stuff/materials: Glass, Cloth, Fish, Work.
 Countable: a glass / glasses, a cloth, a fish, a work.
Examples with different meanings:
 There’s broken glass on the road. (material)
 I need a cloth to wipe the table. (material)
 We had fish for dinner. (food)
 Hamlet is one of Shakespeare’s most famous works. (literature)
More examples:
 There’s a black hair in my soup; it must be yours! (strand of hair)
 She has beautiful red hair. (locks of hair)
 Did you buy a paper this morning? (newspaper)
 The printer has run out of paper. (sheets of paper)
 The different peoples of Asia were represented at the festival. (races/national groups)
 I love meeting people from different countries. (individuals)
 Can I borrow your iron? My shirt is a bit creased. (instrument)
 People used to think ships made of iron would sink. (metal)
 I had some interesting experiences during my trip to Latin America. (things that
happened to me)
 She has little work experience. (knowledge or skill obtained from doing something)
 The city has a yearly arts festival. (music, theatre, etc.)
 He studied arts not sciences at uni. (subjects such as languages or history; always
plural and without the)
 Have you been to the modern art museum? It’s wonderful. (usually refers to painting,
drawing, and sculpture)
 I’ve seen that film three times. (occasions)
 We had some good times at university. (experiences)
 Time passes very slowly if you have a boring job. (clock time, calendar time)
The names of food items often have a different meaning depending on whether they are
used as countable or uncountable nouns.
 A coffee and two teas (types of drinks)
 Just two potatoes, please! (individual potatoes)

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  Would you like some chocolate? Would you like a chocolate? (chocolate as a
substance vs. a single piece)
 Salt and pepper (types of seasoning)
 A pepper (individual pepper)
 A hot dog with onion (topping for the hot dog)
 An onion (individual onion)
Note. With any of, each of, either of, neither of, or none of and a plural noun/pronoun, we
can use a singular or plural verb. (We use a singular verb for careful written English.)
Example:
 I don’t think any of them knows (or know) where the money is hidden.
 Neither of the French athletes has (or have) won this year.
With a/the majority of, a number of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), or some (of) and a plural
noun/pronoun, we use a plural verb. (We use a singular verb with the number of.) Examples:
 A number of refugees have been turned back at the border.
 The number of books in the library has risen to over five million.
After one of and a plural noun/pronoun, we use a singular verb. However, after “one of +
plural noun/pronoun + who”, we can often use either a singular or plural verb. (A plural verb
is more grammatical.) Examples:
 One of the reasons I took the job was that I could work from home.
 He’s one of those teachers who insist/insists on pupils sitting silently in class.
With any of, none of, the majority of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some (of), and an
uncountable noun, we use a singular verb. Examples:
 All the furniture was destroyed in the fire.
 None of the equipment appears to be damaged.
With every or each and a singular noun or coordinated noun (x and y), we use a singular
verb. (For each of, see above.) Examples:
 Every room looks over the harbor.
 Every boy and girl takes part in the activity.
 Each child has drawn a picture, but the children have each drawn a picture.
With everyone, everybody, everything (and similar words beginning any-, some-, and no-),
we use a singular verb. Example:
 Practically everyone thinks that Phil should be given the job
When a subject is made up of two or more items joined by (either) … or … or (neither) … nor
…, we use a singular verb if the last item is singular (although a plural verb is sometimes used
in informal English), and a plural verb if the last item is plural. Examples:
 Either the station or the cinema is a good place to meet. (or … are … in informal
English)
 The President or his representatives are to attend the meeting.
If the last item is singular and the previous item is plural, we can use a singular or plural verb.
Example:
 Either the teachers or the principal is to blame for the accident. (or … are to blame …)

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In there + be/have, we use a singular verb form with singular and uncountable nouns and a
plural form with plural nouns. However, in informal speech, we often use a shortened
singular form of be or have (= There’s) with plural nouns. Examples:
 Over the last few years, there have been many improvements in car safety.
 There’s been lots of good films on lately. (or There’ve been …)
Note that whereabouts can be used with either a singular or plural verb, police and people
always take a plural verb, and staff usually does:
 Police believe that Thomas is in Brazil, although his exact whereabouts are / is
unknown.
 Staff say that the new computer system has led to greater levels of stress in their
work.
Although the words data and media (= newspaper, television, etc.) are plural (singular datum
and medium), they are commonly used with a singular verb. However, in formal contexts
such as academic writing a plural verb is preferred. Note that other similar plurals such as
criteria and phenomena (singular criterion and phenomenon) are always used with plural
verbs. Compare:
 All the data is available for public inspection. (or … are available …) and
 I agree that the criteria are not of equal importance. (not … the criteria is not …)
Uncountable nouns ending in –s
Some uncountable nouns always end in –s and look as if they are plural, but when we use
them as the subject they have a singular verb:
 The news from the Middle East seems very encouraging.
Also: means (= ‘method’ or ‘money’); economics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics,
physics; politics, statistics; athletics, gymnastics; diabetes, measles, rabies.
However compare:
 Politics is popular at this university. Her politics are bordering on the fascist (=
political belief)
 Statistics was always my worst subject. Statistics are able to prove anything you want
them to (= numerical information)
 Economics has only recently been recognised as a scientific study. The economics
behind their policies are unreasonable (= the financial system)
Agreement with measurements, percentages, etc.
With a phrase referring to a measurement, amount, or quantity, we usually prefer a singular
verb:
 Only three meters separates the runners in first and second places. (rather than …
separate …)
A singular verb must be used when the complement is a singular noun phrase (e.g., a long
time):
 Three hours seems a long time to take on the homework. (not Three hours seem …)
When the first noun in a complex subject is a percentage or a fraction, the verb agrees with
the noun closest to the verb. Compare:

11
  An inflation rate of only 2% makes a difference to exports. (verb agrees with the main
noun)
 About 50% / half of the houses need major repairs. (verb agrees with the closest
noun)
Where we use a singular noun that can be thought of as either a whole unit or a collection of
individuals, we can use either a singular or plural verb:
 Some 80% of the electorate is expected to vote. (or … are expected …)
Compound nouns
In a compound consisting of noun + noun, often the second noun gives the general class of
things to which the compound belongs and the first noun indicates the type within this class.
The first noun usually has a singular form:
 an address book (= a book for addresses; not an addresses book)
However, there are a number of exceptions. These include:
when the first noun only has a plural form:
 a savings account
 a customs officer
 sports center
 a clothes shop (compare a shoe shop)
 the arms trade (arms = weapons)
 a glasses case (glasses = spectacles. Compare ‘a glass case’ = a case made of glass)
 an arts festival (arts = music, drama, film, dance, painting, etc. Compare ‘an art
festival’; art = painting, drawing, and sculpture)
 a headquarters (heads = leaders, typically the main office or center of operations)
 a linguistics department (linguistics = the scientific study of language)
 a mathematics class (mathematics = the study of numbers, quantities, shapes, and
patterns)
 a telecommunications company (telecommunications = the transmission of
information over a distance using various technologies)
 a physics laboratory (physics = the study of matter, energy, and the fundamental
forces of nature)
 a humanities course (humanities = academic disciplines that study human culture and
society, such as literature, history, philosophy, and religion)
 a robotics club (robotics = the interdisciplinary field involving the design,
construction, operation, and use of robots)
 a linguistics conference (linguistics = the scientific study of language)
 a mathematics textbook (mathematics = the study of numbers, quantities, shapes,
and patterns)
 a telecommunications network (telecommunications = the transmission of
information over a distance using various technologies)
 a physics experiment (physics = the study of matter, energy, and the fundamental
forces of nature)
 a humanities research project (humanities = academic disciplines that study human
culture and society, such as literature, history, philosophy, and religion)
when we refer to an institution (an industry, department, etc.), such as ‘the building
materials industry’ or ‘the publications department’ which deals with more than one kind of
item or activity (different types of building material, different forms of publication).
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Sometimes a noun + noun is not appropriate and instead we use noun + -’s + noun
(possessive form) or noun + preposition + noun. In general, we prefer noun + -’s + noun:
 when the first noun is the user (a person or animal) of the item in the second noun: a
baby’s bedroom, a lion’s den, a women’s clinic, a girls’ school, birds’ nests.
 when the item in the second noun is produced by the thing (often an animal) in the
first: goat’s cheese, duck’s eggs, cow’s milk (but note lamb chops and chicken
drumsticks).
 when we talk about parts of people or animals; but we usually use noun + noun to
talk about parts of things. Compare: a woman’s face, a boy’s arm, but a pen top, a
computer keyboard.
We prefer noun + preposition + noun:
 when we talk about some kind of container together with its contents. Compare: a
cup of tea (= a cup with tea in it) and a tea cup (= a cup for drinking tea from)
 when the combination of nouns does not refer to a well-known class of items.
Compare: income tax (a recognised class of tax) and a tax on children’s clothes
(rather than ‘a children’s clothes tax’).
Compound nouns: countable or uncountable?
Some examples of countable compound nouns: alarm clock, contact lens, mineral water,
voice mail, blood donor, credit card, package holiday, windscreen, burglar alarm, heart
attack, steering wheel, windscreen wiper, bus stop, light bulb, tea bag, youth hostel.
Some examples of uncountable compound nouns: air traffic control, computer technology,
food poisoning, junk food, birth control, cotton wool, hay fever, mail order, blood pressure,
data processing, income tax, pocket money.
Here are some examples of common compound nouns used only in the singular: arms race,
climate change, death penalty, generation gap, labour force, sound barrier, welfare state.
Here are some examples of common compound nouns used only in the plural: grass roots,
kitchen scissors, race relations, sunglasses, headphones, luxury goods, roadworks, traffic
lights.
Binomials
Binomials are expressions (often idiomatic) where two words are joined by a conjunction
(usually ‘and’). The order of the words is normally fixed. For example:
 odds and ends: small, unimportant things, e.g. Let’s get the main things packed – we
can do the odds and ends later. (NOT ends and odds)
 give and take: a spirit of compromise, e.g. Every relationship needs a bit of give and
take to be successful.
You can often tell something is a binomial because of the sound pattern, which may be a
repetition of the same first sound or a rhyme.
 Tears are part and parcel of growing up. [an important part of / belong to]
 The boss was ranting and raving. [shouting / very angry]
 The old cottage has gone to rack and ruin. [is ruined / has decayed]
 He’s so prim and proper at work. [rather formal and fussy]
 The hotel was a bit rough and ready. [poor standard or quality]
 She has to wine and dine important clients. [entertain / take out to restaurants]

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  They stole my wallet. I was left high and dry, with no money. [in a very difficult
situation]
 You can pick and choose – it’s up to you. [have a wide choice]
 My English is progressing in/by leaps and bounds. [big jumps]
 It’s nice to have some peace and quiet now that the children have left. [a
peaceful/calm situation]
 The doctor recommended some rest and recreation / R and R. [relaxation]
 First and foremost, you must work hard. [first and most importantly]
 There are cafés here and there along the sea front. [scattered round / in different
places]
 We’ve had meetings on and off / off and on. [occasionally]
 I’ve been running back and forth / to and fro all day. [to and from somewhere]
 She’s better now, and out and about again. [going out]
 She ran up and down the street. [in both directions]
 You’ve got your sweater on back to front. [the wrong way]
 He won’t help her – she’ll have to sink or swim. [survive or fail]
 Slowly but surely, I realised the boat was sinking. [gradually]
 Sooner or later, you’ll learn your lesson. [sometime in the future]
 She didn’t want to be just friends – it had to be all or nothing.
 Well, I’m sorry, that’s all I can offer you – take it or leave it.
 It’s about the same distance as from here to Dublin, give or take a few miles. [perhaps
a mile or two more, or a mile or two less]
And more:
 safe and sound: unharmed, intact
 black and white: clear-cut, contrasting
 ups and downs: fluctuations, changes in fortune
 sick and tired: fed up, annoyed
 hustle and bustle: busy activity, commotion
 tooth and nail: fiercely, vigorously
 trial and error: experimental, learning by doing
 rough and tumble: chaotic, disorderly
 by and large: generally, on the whole
 bread and butter: basic source of income, essential livelihood
 pros and cons: advantages and disadvantages
 fast and furious: rapid and intense
 alive and kicking: lively and active
 back and forth: moving in one direction and then the opposite
 pick and choose: select carefully, make choices
 sooner or later: eventually, at some point in time
 by and by: gradually, over time
 high and low: everywhere, in all places
 wining and dining: entertaining with food and drinks
 odds and sods: miscellaneous items, bits and pieces
 bright and early: very early in the morning
 dead and buried: finished, no longer relevant
 day and night: continuously, without interruption
 loud and clear: clearly audible
 nuts and bolts: basic details, practical aspects

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  short and sweet: brief but pleasant
 spick and span: very clean and tidy
 thick and thin: under all circumstances, in all situations
 topsy-turvy: chaotic, disorderly
 arm in arm: linked together by arms
 wear and tear: damage caused by regular use
 rough and tough: rugged, resilient
 bits and bobs: small, miscellaneous items
 hook, line, and sinker: completely, without reservation
 peace and love: harmony, affection
 zigzag and crisscross: in a zigzag pattern, crossing back and forth
Making uncountable nouns countable
"Bit" and "piece" can both be used to make uncountable nouns singular and countable by
adding "a piece of" or "a (little) bit of." While "bit" is less formal than "piece," they are not
always interchangeable. "Bit" can be used with all types of nouns, while "piece" tends to be
used more with uncountable nouns. "Bit" suggests a smaller amount than "piece. Examples:
 How many pieces of luggage have you got with you?
 The police collected bits of information from different sources.
 Chopin wrote some wonderful pieces of music.
 Before you go to England, I should give you two bits of advice.
 He spends all his money buying new bits of computer equipment.
Words that go with specific uncountable nouns:
Weather:
Today’s weather will be variable. In the north, there are likely to be heavy showers (of rain).
The sunny spell (of weather) that we have had this last week will continue in much of the
south, although there may be occasional rumbles of thunder and flashes of lightning in some
areas with some quite loud claps of thunder in one or two areas. These will be followed by a
few spots of rain, but gusts of wind should soon blow them away and the sunshine will then
return.
Groceries:
‘I need a loaf of bread, a couple of slices of ham, two bars of chocolate, a tube of toothpaste,
two cartons of milk, and three bars of soap.’ (slice can also be used with toast, bread, meat,
and cheese).
Nature:
 Look at the ladybird on that blade of grass!
 What’s happened? Look at that cloud of smoke hanging over the town!
 We could see little puffs of smoke coming out of the volcano.
 Let’s go out and get a breath of fresh air.
 Put another lump of coal on the fire, please. (lump can also be used with sugar)
Other words:
 I had an amazing stroke of luck this morning.
 I’ve never seen him do a stroke of work. (only in negative sentences, more emphatic
than a bit of work)

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  I’ve never seen him in such a fit of temper before. (a sudden outburst or episode of
anger or irritation)
 The donkey is the basic means of transport on the island.
 Tights must be the most useful article/item of clothing ever invented.
 There was an interesting item of news about France on TV last night.
A state of:
Nouns used with a state of are usually abstract and include chaos, tension, confusion, health,
disorder, uncertainty, poverty, agitation, disrepair, and flux [continuous change], e.g., The
transport system is in a state of chaos.
Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe a group of the same people or things:
 a group of people (smaller number)
 a crowd of people (large number)
 a gang of thieves (rather negative)
Words associated with certain animals:
 A flock of sheep or birds, e.g., geese/pigeons
 A herd of cows, deer, goats
 A shoal of fish (or any particular fish, e.g., a shoal of herring/mackerel – note the use
of singular here)
 A swarm of insects (typically flying ones, e.g., a swarm of bees/gnats)
 A pack of … can be used for dogs, hyenas, wolves, etc., as well as for (playing) cards.
People involved in the same job/activity: These nouns are used with singular or plural verbs,
depending on your point of view.
 A team of experts/reporters/scientists/rescue workers was/were at the scene of the
disaster.
 The crew was/were saved when the ship sank. (workers on a ship/ambulance/plane)
 The company is/are rehearsing a new production. (group of actors)
 The cast is/are all amateurs. (actors in a film or theatre production)
 The public has/have a right to know the truth. (the people as a whole)
 The staff are on strike. (normally used with a plural verb; general word for groups
who share a place of work, e.g., teachers in a school, people in an office)
Physical features of landscapes:
We can see a row of cottages near a clump of trees with a range of hills in the background.
Out on the lake, there is a small group of islands.
Things in general:
 a pair of birds sitting on a branch (two of anything that are the same)
 a couple of strawberries (vague way of saying two, not necessarily exactly the same)
 a pile/heap of papers (or clothes, dishes, toys, etc.)
 a bunch of flowers (or grapes, bananas, etc.)
 a stack of chairs (or tables, boxes, logs, etc.)
 a set of tools (or pots and pans, dishes, etc.)

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Containers and contents
container usually made of typical contents
bag cloth, paper, plastic sweets, shopping, mail
barrel wood and metal wine, beer
basket wicker, metal shopping, clothes, waste paper
bottle glass, plastic milk, lemonade, wine
bowl china, glass, wood fruit, soup, sugar
box cardboard, wood matches, tools, toys, chocolates
bucket metal, plastic sand, water
can tin cola, beer
carton card milk, juice, 20 packets of cigarettes
case (e.g., for glasses) leather, wood, cardboard jewellery, spectacles, wine
crate wood, plastic bottles
glass glass milk, water, wine
jar glass, pottery jam, honey, olives, instant coffee
jug pottery milk, cream, water
mug pottery tea, coffee, cocoa
pack card cards, six cans of cola/beer
packet card, paper cigarettes, tea, biscuits, cereal
pan metal food that is being cooked
pot plastic, metal, pottery yoghurt, plant, paint
sack cloth, plastic coal, rubbish
tin tin tomatoes, sardines, fruit
tub wood, plastic, card flowers, rainwater, ice cream
tube soft metal, plastic toothpaste, paint, ointment

Some examples:
Bag:
 Cloth bag: A reusable cloth bag is environmentally friendly and can be used for
grocery shopping.
 Paper bag: The cashier placed the items in a paper bag for easy carrying.
 Plastic bag: The store provided plastic bags for customers to carry their purchases.
 Sweets bag: She bought a large bag of assorted sweets for the party.
 Shopping bag: He carried his groceries home in a sturdy shopping bag.
 Mail bag: The postman carried the letters and parcels in a large mail bag.
Basket:
 Market basket: Maria carried her fruits and vegetables in a sturdy market basket.
 Laundry basket: Jack filled the laundry basket with his dirty clothes.
 Picnic basket: The family packed sandwiches and drinks in the picnic basket for a day
out in the park.
 Easter basket: Sarah's children eagerly searched for Easter eggs hidden in their
colorful Easter basket.
 Gift basket: Emily received a beautifully decorated gift basket filled with chocolates
and flowers for her birthday.
Barrel:
 Wine barrel: The winery aged their finest vintage in oak wine barrels for several years.
 Beer barrel: At the Oktoberfest celebration, the brewery tapped a large beer barrel to
serve the traditional brew to the enthusiastic crowd.
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Bottle:
 Milk bottle: Sarah bought a gallon of fresh milk from the local dairy farm, which came
in a glass milk bottle.
 Lemonade bottle: On a hot summer day, the kids enjoyed refreshing lemonade served
in chilled glass bottles with colorful straws.
 Wine bottle: Mark uncorked a bottle of rich red wine to accompany the delicious
dinner he had prepared for his guests.
Bucket:
 Sand bucket: Timmy happily filled his plastic sand bucket with wet sand, building
elaborate castles on the beach.
 Water bucket: Emily carried a metal bucket filled with cool water to irrigate her
garden during the dry summer months.
Pronoun
A pronoun is used as a substitution for a noun and can be divided into seven different types,
as seen in the table below:
Subject Object Possessive Reflexive
Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun Pronoun

Singular I Me Mine Myself

You You Yours Yourself
He/She/It Him/Her/Its His/Her/Its Him/Her/Itself
Plural We Us Ours Ourselves
You You Yours Yourselves
They Them Theirs Themselves

Indefinite Demonstrative Relative

Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns

everyone, This Who

everybody, That Whom
everything, These Whose
someone, Those Which
somebody, That
something,
anyone,
anybody,
anything , no
one, nobody.

Note that demonstrative pronouns substitute for the combination of a demonstrative

adjective and a noun. The same is the case about possessive adjective and possessive
pronoun:
 Demonstrative adjective+ noun= demonstrative pronoun
 Possessive adjective+ noun= possessive pronoun
Examples:
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  Demonstrative Adjectives: This car is mine. I like that book on the shelf. Please pass
me those cookies.
 Demonstrative Pronouns: I want this for my birthday. That is the one I was talking
about. Are those yours?
 Possessive Adjectives: This is my car. Can you pass your book? She is visiting their
grandparents.
 Possessive Pronouns: This book is mine. Is that pen yours? The toys are theirs.
Much and many as pronouns
In formal contexts, we can use "much" and "many" as pronouns:
 There is no guarantee she will recover. Much depends on how well she responds to
treatment.
 Many (referring to many people) have argued that she is the finest poet of our
generation.
 Not once did I see a tiger in the jungle, although I heard many. (referring back to
'tiger(s)')
(a) few and (a) little as pronouns
We often use "(a) few" and "(a) little" with nouns. However, we can also use them as
pronouns:
 It is a part of the world visited by few. (= few people)
 Do you want a chocolate? There’s still a few left. (= a few chocolates)
 Little is known about the painter’s early life.
 ‘Do you know anything about car engines?’ ‘A little.’ (= I know a little about car
engines)
Adjective
Adjectives are words, phrases and clauses modifying nouns or pronouns. Examples:
 Smith, his chin nuzzled into his breast in an effort to escape the vile wind, slipped
quickly through the glass doors of Victory Mansions, though not quickly enough to
prevent a swirl of gritty dust from entering along with him.
 She was a slender, small-breasted girl, with an erect carriage, which she accentuated
by throwing her body backward at the shoulders like a young cadet.
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
When we talk about gradable adjectives, we are talking about adjectives that have the ability
to be more or less intense, based on adding an adverb in front of it. Examples of gradable
adjectives are beautiful, good, and tired. You know they are gradable, because they can be
more or less intense. You can have something that is just a little beautiful, or something that
is very beautiful, slightly good, and extremely good. To show the intensity of a gradable
adjective, you use particular adverb before it.
There are two types of non-gradable adjectives: extreme adjectives and absolute adjectives.
Extreme adjectives tend to have more specific meanings than gradable adjectives, so they
don’t need to be leveled up or leveled down. They already show their strength and definition
in their meaning. For example, the adjective ‘freezing’ means very cold. It’s not possible to
say “He is very freezing,” because ‘freezing’ is already a strong adjective. Non-gradable
adjectives still may have intensifiers before them, but they are usually different than the
intensifiers used with gradable adjectives.
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The other type of non-gradable adjective, absolute adjectives, are all-or-nothing adjectives.
For example, something cannot be very dead. It’s either dead or not. You can’t have a slightly
perfect afternoon. It’s either perfect or not.
Adverbs Gradable adjective Adverbs Non-gradable adjective

angry furious
bad awful, dreadful, terrible
beautiful gorgeous, stunning
big enormous, huge
clean spotless
cold freezing, icy
confused baffled
dirty filthy
embarrassed mortified
a bit exciting thrilling
deeply expensive absolutely exorbitant
extremely far completely remote
fairly funny, amusing entirely hilarious
rather good simply excellent, fantastic,
slightly happy totally terrific, marvellous
terribly hot utterly delighted, elated
very hungry boiling
important starving, ravenous
interesting necessary, vital
long fascinating
nice endless
old lovely
pretty ancient, antique
quiet gorgeous
sad, upset silent
scared, frightened devastated
silly terrified, horrified
small ridiculous
sure tiny
surprised positive
tasty amazed, astonished,
tired flabbergasted
ugly delicious
unpleasant exhausted
wet hideous
disgusting
soaking, drenched

Some 'a-' adjectives include: Afraid, Alike, Alive, Ashamed, Asleep, Awake, Aware.
For example:
 The horse was alone in the field. (but not "The alone horse ...")
 The child was afraid of the dark.
 The twins are alike in appearance.
 Despite the accident, everyone was alive.
 He felt ashamed of his behavior.
 The baby fell asleep in her mother's arms.
 She lay awake all night worrying.
 He seemed unaware of the danger.

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Some have related adjectives that can be used before a noun or after a linking verb.
Compare:
 The animal was alive. and A living animal. (or A live animal. / The animal was living.)
 He was afraid of the dark. (after a linking verb) The frightened child. (before a noun)
(or The afraid child.)
 The twins are alike in appearance. (after a linking verb) Similar twins. (before a noun)
 The child was alone in the room. (after a linking verb) A lone child. (before a noun)
 She fell asleep during the movie. (after a linking verb) The sleeping baby. (before a
noun)
Some adjectives used to describe health and feelings:
 My son felt unwell. (but not My unwell son ...)
These are sometimes used between an adverb and noun, e.g. ‘a terminally ill patient’. Also:
content, fine, glad, ill (but ‘ill health’), sorry, (un)sure, upset (but ‘an upset stomach’), well
(but ‘He’s really not a well man’)
Many adjectives can be used immediately after a noun, at the beginning of a reduced relative
clause. For example:
1 Adjectives before a to-infinitive, or a prepositional phrase as part of the adjective phrase:
 It was a speech calculated to appeal to the unions.
 He is a manager capable of making difficult decisions.
2 Some -ible and -able adjectives such as available, imaginable, possible, suitable. However,
we use these adjectives immediately after a noun only when the noun follows the or when
the noun is made definite by what follows in a relative clause:
 This was the most difficult decision imaginable.
 It is a treatment suitable for all children with asthma.
3 The adjectives concerned, involved, opposite, present, proper, responsible. These words
have different meanings when they are used before a noun and immediately after it.
Compare:
 All the people present (= who were there) approved of the decision.
 I was asked for my present address. (= my address now)
The adverbs fairly (= to quite a large degree, but usually less than ‘very’), really (= ‘very
[much]’) and pretty (= similar to ‘fairly’; used in informal contexts) are commonly used with
both gradable and non-gradable adjectives:
 She’s fairly popular at school. It was a fairly awful film.
 I’m really busy at the moment. The flooding was really terrible.
 It’s a pretty important exam. The bill was pretty huge.
However, note that we don’t generally use fairly (or very) with gradable adjectives which
indicate that something is very good or necessary:
 Experience is really / pretty essential for the job. (not … fairly essential …)
 The weather was really / pretty perfect. (not … fairly perfect.)
Also: invaluable, superb, tremendous, wonderful.
Some adjectives have both gradable and non-gradable senses.

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(i) Some adjectives have different senses when they are gradable and non-gradable.
Compare:
 Smith is a very common name. (= frequently found; gradable) and
 We have a lot of common interests. (= shared; non-gradable; not very)
 The house is very old. (= existed many years; gradable) and
 I met my old politics professor the other day. (= former; non-gradable; not very)
Also: civil, clean, critical, electric (= ‘exciting’ when gradable), empty, false, late, odd, original,
particular, straight.
(ii) Some adjectives have similar meanings when they are gradable and non-gradable.
However, when they are gradable we talk about the quality that a person or thing has (i.e.
they are qualitative adjectives and therefore can be used with an adverb), and when they are
non-gradable we talk about the category or type they belong to (i.e. they are classifying
adjectives). Compare:
 I don’t know where he came from, but he sounded slightly foreign. (= not from this
country; gradable) and
 She is now advising on the government’s foreign policy. (= concerning other
countries; non-gradable)
 They had a very public argument. (= seen / heard by a lot of people; gradable) and
 He was forced to resign by public pressure. (= from many people in the community;
non-gradable)
Also: academic, adult, average, diplomatic, genuine, guilty, human, individual, innocent,
mobile, private, professional, scientific, technical, true, wild
In spoken English in particular, we can use good and …, lovely and …, and nice and … followed
by another gradable adjective in order to emphasise the second adjective. Possible patterns
include:
good and ready and more colloquially good and proper / relaxed / strong (but not usually
good and beautiful / rich / tall):
 If you’re all feeling good and relaxed after the break, let’s get on with the meeting.
lovely and dry / soft / sunny / warm (but not usually lovely and decent / empty / short):
 It’s lovely and warm in here. Freezing outside, though.
nice and bright / clean / cold / comfortable / early / fresh / quiet / simple / soft / tidy / warm
(but not usually nice and interesting / handsome / exciting):
 ‘Shall we get some strawberries?’ ‘Yes, they look nice and fresh.’
We can also link comparative adjectives with and to talk about an increasing degree of the
quality described in the adjective. We use more and more + adjective in a similar way:
 As she got more and more excited, her voice got higher and higher and louder and
louder.
 The taxi driver just drove faster and faster and faster until I told him to stop, and I got
out.
We can use many participle adjectives immediately after nouns when they identify or define
the noun.
This use is similar to defining relative clauses and they are often called ‘reduced relatives’:

22
  We had to pay for the rooms used. (or ... the rooms that were used.)
Some of these are rarely used before the noun:
 My watch was among the things taken.
Note that ‘My watch was among the taken things’ is grammatically correct, but the first one,
"My watch was among the things taken," is more commonly used and sounds more natural.
Also:
 The damage caused was extensive.
 The items found were returned to their owners.
 The features included make this product stand out.
 The services provided exceeded our expectations.
Others can be used before or immediately after nouns:
 The crowd watching grew restless. or
 The watching crowd grew restless.
The infrastructure affected by the storm needs The affected infrastructure needs urgent
urgent repairs. repairs after the storm.
The suspect alleged to have committed the The alleged suspect was apprehended by the
crime was apprehended. authorities.
The funds allocated for the project were The allocated funds for the project were
insufficient. insufficient to cover the expenses.
The window broken during the incident has The broken window has been replaced
been replaced. following the incident.
The candidate chosen for the position has The chosen candidate has extensive experience
extensive experience. in the field.
The individuals identified as potential witnesses The identified individuals are potential
were interviewed. witnesses to the crime.
The patients infected with the virus were The infected patients were isolated to prevent
isolated. further spread of the virus.
The audience interested in attending the The interested audience should register in
seminar should register in advance. advance for the seminar.
The resources remaining after the distribution The remaining resources will be reallocated for
will be reallocated. other purposes.
The changes resulting from the new policy will The resulting changes from the new policy will
be implemented gradually. be implemented gradually.
The items stolen from the warehouse were The stolen items from the warehouse were
recovered. eventually recovered.

In formal English, that and those can be used as pronouns before a participle adjective:
 The flour is of a higher quality than that produced by other varieties of wheat. (= the
flour which is produced)
 The touch screens perform less well than those manufactured elsewhere. (= the
touch screens which are manufactured elsewhere)
 Here is some advice for those (= people) preparing to go on holiday.
 The book was different from those written by other authors. (= the books which are
written)
 The paintings in this gallery are less vibrant than those displayed at the museum. (=
the paintings which are displayed)

23
  The solutions proposed by this committee are more effective than those suggested by
the previous panel. (= the solutions which are suggested)
 The cars produced by this company are more fuel-efficient than those manufactured
by its competitors. (= the cars which are manufactured)
 The movies directed by this filmmaker are more engaging than those filmed by
others. (= the movies which are filmed)
Compound adjectives
Many compound adjectives include a participle adjective. Common patterns are:
 adverb + -ed participle: They are well-behaved children.
 adverb + -ing participle: Social networking is a fast-growing activity.
 adjective + -ed participle: She seems to live on ready-made meals.
 adjective + -ing participle: He’s the longest-serving employee in the company.
 noun + -ed participle: The public square was tree-lined.
 noun + -ing participle: I hope it will be a money-making enterprise.
 -ed participle + particle: Did it really happen, or was it a made-up story? (from two-
word verbs)
Some examples:
 She works for a New York-based publishing company.
 The artist is known for her Paris-born elegance and style.
 The house is constructed with brick-built walls for durability.
 His easy-going attitude makes him popular among his colleagues.
 The UN has sent peace-keeping troops to the region to maintain order.
 This furniture is known for its long-lasting quality.
 The actor's good-looking appearance helped him land the lead role.
 Grandma's home-made cookies are everyone's favorite.
 The movie's hair-raising climax had everyone on the edge of their seats.
 The new policy will have far-reaching consequences for the industry.
 The organization is well-resourced and able to handle any crisis.
 Walking through the garden, you're greeted by sweet-smelling flowers.
 The strange noise had a strange-sounding quality that made everyone uneasy.
 His soft-spoken mannerisms contrast sharply with his imposing appearance.
 The dish had a sour-tasting sauce that didn't quite suit everyone's palate.
 The presentation was nerve-wracking, but she managed to deliver it flawlessly.
Patterns Following Adjectives After Linking Verbs: Infinitive, -ing, That-Clause, and Wh-
Clause
When an adjective comes after a linking verb (e.g. appear, be, become, seem) we can use a
number of patterns after the adjective including a to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause, and wh-
clause.
Pattern (Adj+ ) example adjectives used in this pattern
to-infinitive: (un)able, careful, crazy, curious, difficult, easy,
You’re free to leave at any time foolish, free, good, hard, impossible, inclined, mad,
you want. nice, prepared, ready, stupid, welcome, willing
-ing: busy, crazy, foolish, mad, stupid; (after the verb
He was busy doing his feel) awful, awkward, bad, good, guilty, terrible
homework.
that-clause: afraid, alarmed, amazed, angry, annoyed, ashamed,
24
He became worried (that) she astonished, aware, concerned, disappointed, glad,
might fall down. (un)happy, pleased, shocked, sorry, upset, worried;
certain, confident, positive, sure
wh-clause: afraid, not aware / unaware, not certain /
I’m not certain (of / about) why uncertain, doubtful, not sure / unsure, worried
he wants to borrow the money
to-infinitive or that-clause: afraid, alarmed, amazed, angry, annoyed, ashamed,
She was afraid to say anything. astonished, concerned, disappointed, glad,
I was afraid that I would be late. (un)happy, pleased, shocked, sorry, upset, worried;
certain, sure
to-infinitive or –ing: crazy, foolish, mad, stupid
He’d be stupid to leave now.
He’d be stupid giving up the job.
-ing or that-clause: (after the verb feel) awful, awkward, bad, good,
She felt awful leaving him with guilty, terrible
all the clearing up.
She felt awful that she was late.

Examples:
To-infinitive:
 She was eager to learn new skills.
 He was determined to finish the race.
 They were reluctant to admit their mistake.
-ing:
 She felt guilty lying to her parents.
 He seemed confident presenting his ideas.
That-clause:
 She became worried that he might not arrive on time.
 He was certain that they would win the competition.
 They were disappointed that the event got canceled.
Wh-clause:
 She wasn't sure why he was acting so strangely.
 He was uncertain about where they should go for vacation.
 They were doubtful whether they should trust his advice.
To-infinitive or that-clause:
 She was glad to hear that he got the job.
 He was afraid to tell her the truth.
 They were pleased that she agreed to help.
To-infinitive or –ing:
 He'd be foolish to ignore her advice.
 She'd be crazy trying to fix that on her own.
 They'd be mad not to take advantage of this opportunity.
-ing or that-clause:
25
  She felt terrible leaving him alone at the party.
 He felt guilty that he couldn't attend the meeting.
 They felt relieved that the problem was finally solved.
Note. After certain adjectives we often include of + subject between the adjective and a to-
infinitive:
 It was rude (of them) to criticise her. or
 They were rude to criticise her.
 It was brave of him to confront the bully.
 It was generous of her to donate to charity.
 It was kind of them to offer their help.
 It was mean of her to spread rumors about him.
 It was thoughtful of them to bring flowers.
 It was unprofessional of him to arrive late to the meeting.
 It was unreasonable of them to demand such high prices.
Note. When we talk about how somebody reacts to a situation we can use it + make with an
adjective and to-infinitive, -ing or that-clause:
 It made me angry (to discover) that so much money was wasted. (or It made me
angry discovering that ... or I was angry to discover that ...)
 It made her ashamed to realize she had forgotten his birthday.
 It made him furious to see the injustice happening.
 It makes me glad to hear you're doing well.
 It makes them happy to spend time with their grandchildren.
 It made him miserable staying in that toxic environment.
 It makes her nervous to speak in front of large crowds.
 It made them sad to say goodbye to their friends.
 It makes me tired to work long hours without breaks.
 It makes her uncomfortable being the center of attention.
adjective + though + noun / pronoun + verb
We can give special emphasis to an adjective by putting it before though in the pattern
adjective + though + noun / pronoun + verb (usually a linking verb such as appear, be,
become, feel, look, seem, sound, prove, etc.). As (but not although) can be used instead of
though. Compare:
 Hot though (or as) the night air was, they slept soundly. And
 Although / Though the night air was hot, they slept soundly.
 Happy though the children were, they missed their parents terribly.
 Exhausted as he was, he continued working late into the night.
 Excited though she was about the trip, she couldn't shake off her anxiety.
 Beautiful as the garden was, it lacked the charm of her grandmother's.
 Annoying though the noise from the construction site was, they managed to focus on
their work.
 Surprising as it may seem, he had never traveled outside his home country.
 Relieved though she was to finish the project, she couldn't help but feel a sense of
emptiness.
 Amazing as the view from the mountaintop was, it was nothing compared to the sight
of the sunset.
 Difficult though the decision was, she knew it was the right one.
 Busy as the city streets were, she found solace in the chaos.
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Adverb
Adverbs are words, phrases or clauses modifying verb, adjectives, other adverbs and
sometimes a whole sentence. They answer the question of why, how, where and when.
Examples:
 They merrily sang along to their favorite songs.
 After the spa day, she felt makeover-like, with her skin glowing and her mind
refreshed.
 They danced gracefully under the moonlit sky, lost in the rhythm of the music.
commonly used adverbs Conjunctive Adverbs Adverbs that don’t end in –ly
(Flat adverbs)
accidentally again Bad/bright
angrily anyway Cheap/clean
brightly besides Clear/close
cheerfully certainly Deep/different
deliberately consequently Easy/even
eventually elsewhere Fair/far
exactly finally Fast/fine
finally furthermore Flat/hard
fortunately however High/kind
frequently in fact Late/long
happily instead loud
honestly likewise near
never meanwhile quick
often nevertheless right
only nonetheless safe
perfectly otherwise sharp
quickly rather slow
seriously similarly soon
slowly subsequently straight
sometimes still sure
usually then tight
very therefore tough
thus wrong

Comment adverbs and viewpoint adverbs

Some comment adverbs and examples:
Indicate how likely we think something is: Apparently, Certainly, Clearly, Definitely,
Obviously, Presumably, Probably, Undoubtedly.
Indicate our attitude to or opinion of what is said: Astonishingly, Frankly, Generally, Honestly,
Interestingly, Luckily, Naturally, Sadly, Seriously, Surprisingly, Unbelievably,
Show our judgment of someone’s actions: Bravely, Carelessly, Foolishly, Generously, Kindly,
Rightly, Stupidly, Wisely, Wrongly.
Some adverbs are used to make clear what viewpoint we are speaking from; that is,
identifying what features of something are being talked about: biologically, environmentally,
financially, ideologically, industrially, logically, medically, morally, outwardly, politically,
technically, visually. Or: politically speaking, in terms of politics, from a political point of view,
as far as politics is /are concerned.

27
Some adverbs or phrases are used to say whose viewpoint we are expressing: to my / his /
her (etc.) knowledge, from my / his / her (etc.) perspective, personally, in my / his / her (etc.)
opinion
Flat adverbs
A flat adverb is an adverb that doesn’t end with ‘-ly’. Flat adverbs are also known as bare
adverbs or simple adverbs. Flat adverbs aren’t exclusively when and where adverbs, though.
There are some flat adverbs that can keep the same form of the adjective. For example,
‘please drive slowly’ can also be said as ‘please drive slow’, and the meaning of the sentence
remains unchanged. There are some phrases that require flat adverbs as there isn’t an
alternative with an ‘-ly’ ending. For example, the phrase ‘stand still’ needs a flat adverb
because ‘stand stilly’ doesn’t make any sense.
Some useful collocations of adv + adj:
 She was feeling rather happy after receiving the good news.
 The party was immensely popular, drawing in crowds from all over town.
 He spoke dreadfully fast during the presentation, leaving everyone struggling to keep
up.
 Despite being young, she was immensely clever, often surprising her teachers with
her intelligence.
 The city was extremely busy during rush hour, with cars honking and people rushing
to get to work.
 The young athlete was slightly weak at the beginning of the race, but she gained
strength as she went on.
 After a long day of work, he felt dreadfully tired and just wanted to relax.
 The restaurant was hugely popular, often requiring reservations weeks in advance.
 She was slightly angry when she found out about the mistake, but she quickly calmed
down.
 The big city was extremely noisy compared to the quiet countryside where he grew
up.
 Despite being rich, he lived a rather simple life, preferring to focus on experiences
rather than material possessions.
 The clever student was immensely important to the success of the team, contributing
innovative ideas.
 The common cold left him feeling dreadfully weak and unable to focus on his work.
 The young couple was immensely happy on their wedding day, surrounded by friends
and family.
 The extremely quiet library was the perfect place for her to study in peace.
 She was absolutely ecstatic when she received the news of her promotion.
 The project was completely impossible to complete within the given timeframe.
 His explanation was entirely wrong, as it contradicted all the available evidence.
 The cake turned out perfectly moist and delicious, much to the delight of the guests.
 The town was practically unknown until the discovery of ancient ruins brought
tourists flooding in.
 Their performance at the concert was simply superb, leaving the audience in awe.
 The storm had totally devastated the coastal town, leaving behind a scene of
destruction.
 His argument was utterly convincing, persuading even the most skeptical members of
the jury.

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  The new technology has virtually eliminated the need for manual labor in many
industries.
 She was almost fully recovered from her illness and ready to return to work.
 The company was largely responsible for the economic revitalization of the region.
 His research was primarily focused on finding solutions to agricultural challenges in
developing countries.
 The house was nearly perfect, with just a few minor flaws that needed fixing.
 The awful smell emanating from the dumpster made it clear that it needed to be
emptied immediately.
Adverbs of participle adjectives
Most participle adjectives ending in –ed don’t have an adverb form and so we use a
prepositional phrase instead:
 They rose to greet me in a subdued manner. (not … subduedly.)
or we use a preposition and a related noun if there is one:
 She looked at me in amazement. (not … amazedly.)
However, some do have an adverb form with -ly. Compare:
 The storm was unexpected. and
 The weather turned unexpectedly stormy.
More:
 He paced the room agitatedly while waiting for the news.
 She smiled deservedly as she accepted the award.
 Despite the setbacks, they continued determinedly towards their goal.
 She sighed disappointedly when she realized the concert was canceled.
 The children chattered excitedly about their upcoming field trip.
 They packed their bags hurriedly before catching the train.
 She glanced at him pointedly during the meeting.
 The doorbell rang repeatedly as they waited for their guests.
 The news was reportedly leaked by an anonymous source.
 The castle is reputedly haunted by the ghost of a former queen.
 He supposedly left the office early, but no one saw him go.
 She paced worriedly outside the hospital room, waiting for news.
 The suspect allegedly committed the crime during the early hours of the morning.
To put ly or not to put ly; this is the question
Some adverbs have two forms, one ending in -ly and the other not. We can sometimes use
either form without changing the meaning, although the form ending in -ly is grammatically
correct and more formal:
 She ran quick / quickly towards the door.
and must be used if the adverb comes immediately before the verb:
 She quickly ran towards the door. (not She quick ran ...)
Also: cheap(ly), clean(ly), clear(ly), fine(ly), loud(ly), thin(ly), slow(ly), Quick / Quickly, Hard /
Hardly, Near / Nearly.
Some adverbs have different meanings with and without -ly. Compare:
29
  She gave her time free. (= for no money) and She gave her time freely. (= willingly)
 I arrived late for the concert. (= not on time) and I haven’t seen Amy lately. (=
recently)
Compare:
He wandered deep into the forest and got He felt deeply hurt by her criticisms. (= very)
lost. (= a long way) They loved each other deeply. (= very much)
You don’t have to change trains. You can go I’ll be with you directly. (= very soon)
direct. (= without stopping) He saw Hassan directly ahead. (= straight)
It sounded awful – one of the choir This time I flatly refused to lend him any
members was singing flat. money. (= definitely; completely)
‘Is Emil here yet?’ ‘He’s just arrived.’ You can be justly proud of your musical
She looks just like her mother. achievements. (= rightly; justifiably)
Which of these cheeses do you like most? Her novels are now mostly out of print.
(= most of them)
We mostly go on holiday to France.
(= usually)
They cut short their holiday when The speaker will be arriving shortly
Lina fell ill. (= went home early) (= soon). Please take your seats.
The door was wide open so I just went You won’t have any problems getting the
straight in. (= completely) book. It’s widely available. (= in many places)
He kicked the ball high over the goal. Everyone thinks highly of her teaching.
(= they think her teaching is very good)

Hardly, no sooner, scarcely

When we say that one event happened immediately after another we can use sentences
with hardly, no sooner, and scarcely. After hardly and scarcely the second clause begins with
when or before; after no sooner it begins with than or when:
 The concert had hardly begun before all the lights went out.
 I had no sooner lit the barbecue than / when it started to rain.
We often use a past perfect in the clause with hardly (etc.), no sooner or scarcely and a past
simple in the other.
More:
 Hardly had I finished my breakfast when the phone rang.
 Scarcely had she closed her eyes when the alarm clock went off.
 No sooner had he left the house than he realized he forgot his keys.
 Hardly had the meeting started when the fire alarm went off.
 No sooner had we left the party than it started pouring rain.
 Scarcely had I begun reading the book when I heard a loud noise outside.
 Hardly had she hung up the phone when it rang again.
 No sooner had they finished their meal than the waiter brought the bill.
 Scarcely had he stepped out of the door when he realized he forgot his wallet.
 Hardly had I arrived home when the electricity went out.
Conjunction
Conjunctions are words that link sentences together. There are three types of conjunctions:
coordinators, correlative (paired) conjunctions, and subordinators. Note that conjunctive
adverbs are also used to link sentences.

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coordinators correlative (paired) subordinators conjunctive adverbs
conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, Both… and, not For Adverb Clause: Also, besides,
yet, so (FAN BOYS) only…but also, after, as, as long as, furthermore, in
either…or, before, as soon as, addition, moreover,
neither…nor, when, while, however,
whether…or. whenever, as if, nevertheless,
since, as though, nonetheless, still, in
where, anywhere, contrast, on the
everywhere, so that, other hand,
in order that, though, meanwhile,
although, if, unless, afterward, then,
whereas. subsequently, as a
For Adjective Clause: result, consequently,
who, whom, whose, thus, therefore, for
which, that, when, example, for
where. instance, similarly,
For Noun Clause: likewise, instead, on
that, whether, the contrary, rather,
whether or not, if, if alternatively,
or not, who, otherwise, in other
whoever, whom, words, indeed, in
which, what, where, fact.
when, why, how,
how much, how
many, how long, how
often.

Verb
A verb denotes an action or a state and can be categorized differently according to various
criteria. Generally speaking, ten different types of verbs can be mentioned:
Action Describes a physical or mental action: eat, run, walk.

Stative Describes a state or condition: know, love, believe, hate, desire.

Transitive Requires a direct object. buy, give, hit, read, paint

Intransitive Does not require a direct object. Sing, rise, laugh, smile, dance, sleep.

Linking (copulas) Connects the subject with a subject complement: appear, seem, become,
grow, turn, prove, remain.
Auxiliary Assists the main verb in forming verb tenses: to be, to do, to have, modals.

Modal Expresses necessity, possibility, or permission: can, could, may, might, shall,
should, would, must.
Regular Follows a standard conjugation pattern: walk, talk, create.

Irregular Does not follow the standard conjugation pattern: do, have, go, come.

phrasal Consists of a verb with an adverb or preposition after it: look after, look for,
put out.

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Note. We can employ the present continuous tense with certain state verbs (such as attract,
like, look, love, sound) to emphasize the temporary nature of a situation or its duration
around the present. To illustrate, consider the contrast between these sentences:
 Ella frequently stays with us. The children consistently love having her here. (Present
Simple - depicting regular or habitual situations.)
 Ella is with us at the moment. The children are currently loving having her here.
(Present Continuous - highlighting a temporary or ongoing situation.)
It's noteworthy that certain state verbs, like believe, consist of, doubt, and own, are seldom
used with the present continuous. These verbs describe more stable or inherent qualities and
are better suited to the present simple tense. For instance, we say "I believe in you" (present
simple) rather than "I am believing in you," conveying a lasting belief.
Certain verbs exhibit different meanings when used to describe states versus actions. When
expressing their 'state' meanings, these verbs typically take simple forms rather than
continuous forms. However, when conveying their 'action' meanings, these verbs may adopt
either simple or continuous forms, contingent on the context. For instance:
State Meaning:
 "The app doesn't appear to work on my phone." (appear: state = seem)
In this instance, "appear" implies a state of seeming or presenting in a particular way. The
simple form "doesn't appear" is apt for expressing this state.
Action Meaning:
 "Carley Robb is currently appearing in a musical on Broadway."
 "She often appears in musicals." (appear: action = take part)
In these cases, "appear" is used with its action meaning, signifying active participation in a
musical. The choice between the continuous form "is currently appearing" and the simple
form "often appears" depends on the specific context.These examples illustrate how the
appropriate form of these verbs aligns with their intended meaning, emphasizing the
importance of context in conveying states or actions accurately.
Let's explore the state and action meanings of some other verbs:
Cost:
 State Meaning: "The car costs a lot." (state = has a particular price)
 Action Meaning: "We are currently costing out the project." (action = determining the
cost)
Expect:
 State Meaning: "I expect you'll be on time." (state = anticipate)
 Action Meaning: "She is expecting a package." (action = anticipating the arrival)
Feel:
 State Meaning: "The fabric feels soft." (state = has a certain texture)
 Action Meaning: "She is feeling the temperature of the water." (action = actively
perceiving)
Fit:

32
  State Meaning: "The dress fits perfectly." (state = has the right size)
 Action Meaning: "I am fitting the pieces together." (action = putting together)
Have:
 State Meaning: "I have a cat." (state = possess)
 Action Meaning: "I am having lunch." (action = consuming)
Imagine:
 State Meaning: "I can imagine the scene." (state = form a mental image)
 Action Meaning: "She is imagining possibilities." (action = actively engaging in mental
visualization)
Measure:
 State Meaning: "The length measures ten meters." (state = has a specific
measurement)
 Action Meaning: "We are measuring the dimensions of the room." (action =
determining measurements)
Think:
 State Meaning: "I think he is right." (state = hold an opinion)
 Action Meaning: "She is thinking about the problem." (action = actively considering)
Weigh:
 State Meaning: "This package weighs five pounds." (state = has a specific weight)
 Action Meaning: "He is weighing the ingredients." (action = actively measuring
weight)
Certain verbs that describe mental states (e.g., find, realize, regret, think, understand) can be
used with the present continuous to emphasize recent contemplation or uncertainty about
something. Consider the following comparisons:
 "I regret that the company will have to be sold." (I've made the decision and feel sorry
about it.)
 "I'm regretting my decision to give her the job." (I'm increasingly aware that it was
the wrong decision.)
When the meaning is 'think carefully about,' consider is exclusively used with the present
continuous:
 "He's considering taking early retirement." (not He considers taking early retirement.)
Some other verbs that describe preferences and mental states (e.g., agree, believe, conclude,
know, prefer) are seldom used with the present continuous:
 "I believe you now." (not I'm believing you now.)
While "prefer" doesn't denote an action like many other verbs, it rather expresses a state or
condition, making it a linking verb. Here's an example to illustrate its use as a linking verb:
 She prefers chocolate ice cream. (In this sentence, "prefer" links the subject "She"
with the subject complement "chocolate ice cream," indicating her choice or
preference.)

33
Note. The structure "prefer not to" is idiomatic and widely recognized. Thus, between
sentences below, although the second one is acceptable, the first one is generally preferred:
 I prefer not to go back.
 I prefer to not go back.
Verbs that directly perform the action they describe, known as performatives, are typically
used in the present simple tense. Consider the following examples:
 "I suggest you park outside the city and get the bus to the centre."
 "We request that you read the terms and conditions carefully before signing."
Certain verbs, when employed as performatives in affirmative sentences (e.g., apologise,
deny, guarantee, promise, suggest), can have a similar meaning when used in either the
present simple or the present continuous in negative sentences:
 "I don't deny / I'm not denying taking the books, but Miguel said it would be okay."
To add a sense of tentativeness or politeness, modals are often paired with performatives:
 "We would advise you to arrive two hours before the flight leaves."
 "I must beg you to keep this a secret."
Also included in the category of performatives are verbs such as acknowledge, admit, advise,
apologize, beg, confess, congratulate, declare, deny, forbid, guarantee, name, order, permit,
predict, promise, refuse, remind, request, thank, and warn. These verbs carry the inherent
ability to perform the action they describe through verbal expression, making them pivotal in
various communicative contexts.
Note. When an adjective or noun phrase is used after a verb to describe the subject or say
what or who the subject is, the adjective or noun phrase is a complement and the verb is a
linking verb:
 Clara is a doctor. She seemed unable to concentrate.
Verbs can be categorized based on their functions as 'being' linking verbs, 'becoming' linking
verbs, and 'seeming' linking verbs. The group of 'being' linking verbs includes words like 'be,'
'keep,' 'prove,' 'remain,' and 'stay,' which often serve to link the subject to a state or
condition. On the other hand, 'becoming' linking verbs, such as 'become,' 'come,' 'end up,'
'grow,' and 'turn out,' highlight processes or changes in state. Lastly, 'seeming' linking verbs
encompass terms like 'appear,' 'look,' 'seem,' and 'sound,' emphasizing perception or the
outward impression of something. These categorizations aid in understanding the diverse
roles that verbs play in connecting subjects with various states, processes, or appearances
within sentences.
After the verbs 'appear' (meaning 'seems true'), 'look' (meaning 'seem'), 'prove,' 'seem,' and
'turn out,' we can often either include or omit 'to be':
 The room appears (to be) brighter than when I last saw it.
However, following these verbs, 'to be' is usually included before the adjectives 'alive,'
'alone,' 'asleep,' and 'awake,' and before the -ing forms of verbs:
 I didn’t go in because she appeared to be asleep. (not … she appeared asleep.)
 I found him lying on the couch, appearing to be alive. (not ... appearing alive.)
 After the movie, they sat in the dark, appearing to be alone. (not ... appearing alone.)
 As I entered the room, she sat quietly, appearing to be asleep. (not ... appearing
asleep.)
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  In the early morning, the city was peaceful, appearing to be awake. (not ... appearing
awake.)
Before a noun, we include 'to be' when the noun tells us what the subject is, but often leave
it out when we give our opinion of the person or thing in the subject. We leave out 'to be' in
formal English. Compare:
 He walked into what seemed to be a cave. (not … what seemed a cave.)
 She seems (to be) a very efficient salesperson.
Note: We use the linking verb 'become' to describe a process of change. A number of other
linking verbs can be used instead of 'become,' including 'come,' 'get,' 'go,' 'grow,' 'turn' (into).
We use 'get' rather than 'become' in informal speech and writing before 'difficult,' 'ill,'
'interested,' 'pregnant,' 'suspicious,' 'unhappy,' and 'worried'; in imperatives; and in phrases
such as 'get changed' (clothes), 'get dressed,' 'get married/divorced':
 I first got suspicious when he looked into all the cars. (more formally … became
suspicious …)
 Don’t get upset about it! Where did you live before you got married?
Note: We use 'go' or 'turn,' not usually 'get' or 'become,' when we talk about colors
changing:
 The traffic lights turned / went green, and I pulled away.
We often use 'go' to talk about changes, particularly for unwanted situations. For example,
'go deaf,' 'go blind,' 'go bald,' 'go mad,' 'go crazy,' 'go wild,' 'go bad,' 'go off,' 'go mouldy,' 'go
rotten,' 'go bust,' 'go dead,' 'go missing,' 'go wrong.' But note: 'get ill,' 'get old,' 'get tired.'
 The company went bust and had to close.
 My computer’s gone wrong again.
 Some people get ill very easily.
After the verbs 'come,' 'get,' and 'grow' (but not after 'become'), we can use a to-infinitive.
'Come' and 'grow' are often used to talk about gradual change:
 I eventually came / grew to appreciate his work. (not … became to appreciate his
work.)
Agreement between subject and the verb
If the subject is a clause, we usually use a singular verb:
 To keep these young people in prison is inhuman.
 Having overall responsibility for the course means that I have a lot of meetings.
 Whoever took them remains a mystery.
However, if we use a what-clause as subject, we use a singular verb if the following main
noun is singular, and either a singular or a plural verb if the following main noun is plural
(although a plural verb is preferred in more formal contexts):
 What worries us is the poor selection process.
 What is needed are additional resources. (or more colloquially … needed is …)
Some nouns with a singular form, referring to groups of some kind, can be used with either a
singular or plural form of the verb. These nouns are sometimes called collective nouns:
 The council has (or have) postponed a decision on the new road.
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We use a singular verb if the focus is on the institution or organisation as a whole unit, and a
plural verb if the focus is on a collection of individuals. Often you can use either with very
little difference in meaning, although in formal contexts (such as academic writing) it is
common to use a singular verb.
Some commonly used collective nouns: army, association, audience, class, club, college,
commission, committee, community, company, crew, crowd, department, electorate,
enemy, family, federation, generation, government, group, institute, jury, opposition,
orchestra, population, press, public, school, team, university; the Bank of England, the BBC,
IBM, Sony, the United Nations (specific organisations)
When names and titles ending in -s refer to a single unit we use a singular verb. Examples
include countries; newspapers; titles of books, films, etc.; and quoted plural words or
phrases:
 At this time of the year the Netherlands is one hour ahead of the UK.
 The Machine Gunners was one of Robert Westall’s most successful books.
 ‘Daps’ is the word used in the south-west of the country for sports shoes.
Finite/non-finite verbs: Verbs are also classified as either finite or non-finite. A finite verb
makes an assertion or expresses a state of being and can stand by itself as the main verb of a
sentence.
 The truck demolished the restaurant.
 The leaves were yellow and sickly.
Non-finite verbs cannot, by themselves, be main verbs:
 The broken window …
 The wheezing gentleman …
There are three types of non-finite verbs: infinitives, gerunds, and participles.Examples: "to
walk" (infinitive), "walking" (gerund), "walked" (past participle).
Note that there are some verbs after which only a gerund can follow, some verbs that can be
followed only by a to-infinitive, and some verbs that can be followed by both. The common
verbs followed by gerund and infinitive could be seen in the table below:
Verbs followed by Gerund Both Verbs followed by to-infinitive
enjoy, appreciate, mind, quit, Group 1: stop, remember, Hope, plan, intend, decide,
finish, avoid, postpone, delay, forget, regret, try, go on, promise, agree, offer, refuse,
keep, consider, discuss, quit. seem, appear, pretend, ask,
mention, admit, anticipate, expect, would like, want, need,
complete, delay, deny, tell, encourage, remind,
dislike, finish, keep, miss, require, permit, allow, warn,
practice, recall, recollect, Group 2: go, advise, begin, force, order, expect, afford,
recommend, resent, resist, start, continue, like, love, arrange, beg, care, claim,
risk, understand, suggest. prefer, can’t stand, can’t consent, demand, deserve, fail,
bear learn, hesitate, challenge,
cause, dare, forbid, instruct,
manage, mean, prepare,
struggle, swear, talk, threaten,
wish, wait, invite, persuade,
remind, teach, urge.

36
Note: If a gerund or to-infinitive follows the verbs in Group 1 in the middle column, the
meaning of the sentence will change. Consider examples:
 He stopped smoking last year. She stopped to smoke a cigarette.
 I remember seeing him at the party. Please remember to lock the door.
 She forgot bringing her umbrella. Don't forget to bring your ID card.
 He regrets losing his temper. She regrets to inform you that the event is canceled.
 We tried eating sushi for the first time. She tried to solve the puzzle quickly.
Note: There are some verbs in the third column that take an indirect object and are followed
by an infinitive. This object can be a noun or an object pronoun.
 She advised him to study more.
 They allowed us to enter the premises.
 She asked her to bring some snacks.
 We encourage our employees to take training courses.
 The teacher permitted the students to leave early.
 She persuaded him to join the team.
 The doctor advised her to take the medication.
 The manager allowed the employees to take a longer lunch break.
 She reminded me to buy groceries.
 They invited us to attend the party.
 He told his sister to be careful.
 The teacher permitted the students to use calculators.
 The general commanded his soldiers to march forward
Note: there are some expressions followed by gerund:
 We had a great time having dinner together.
 She had trouble finding her keys.
 They had difficulty catching the train.
 He spent the afternoon reading a good book.
 She wasted no time complaining about the situation.
 They sat in the park enjoying the sunshine.
 He stood by the window watching the rain.
 She spent the whole day lying on the beach.
 He found pleasure exploring new places.
 They caught him cheating on the exam.
 She looks forward to meeting her friends next week.
 They are used to working long hours.
 He is accustomed to speaking in public.
 The movie is worth watching again.
 She is good at playing the piano.
 They are interested in learning new languages.
 He is dedicated to improving his skills.
 She is committed to helping the community.
 They are opposed to raising taxes.
 He is responsible for organizing the event.
Although there are no hard and fast rules, the use of the gerund tends to be more passive,
often looking backwards, whereas the use of the infinitive is more active, looking forwards.
Consider examples below:

37
  Don't forget to send me a postcard, will you?
 Have you tried ringing the concert hall to see if they've got any tickets?
 He always dreads opening his bank statement.
 We tried to get seats for the concert, but they were all sold out.
 Did you remember to buy milk?
 He got a double first at Oxford and went on to become a brilliant historian.
 I'm broke, but I can't bear to ask him for any more money.
 I really can't bear being as broke as this.
 We were quite tired, so we stopped to have a rest.
 Everyone just went on doing what they were doing.
 I don't remember locking the door this morning.
 They stopped working so that they could watch the Grand National on TV.
 I dread to think what might have happened if the police hadn't arrived.
 I'll never forget looking out over Paris from the top of the Eiffel Tower.
 I fancy having pasta for supper. How about you?
 They promised to finish the work by Friday, at the latest.
 He's agreed to let us use his car for the weekend.
 She really enjoys visiting far-flung places.
 Can you imagine running your own business?
 Don't you just adore listening to music in the bath?
 I've volunteered to help out at a charity do next week.
 He has asked me to be his best man.
 It is said that eating snacks between meals isn't very healthy.
 Since leaving school he has had several jobs.
 Would you prefer to call back later?
 When I lost my wallet, I didn't know what to do.
 It's definitely worth booking your holiday in advance.
 It's always important to read the instructions very carefully.
 I'm really fed up with having so much extra work to do.
 People think that watching too much TV is bad for you.
 I'm really looking forward to meeting my future in-laws.
 I'd love to go and see that sculpture exhibition.
 Can you really afford to pay for all this?
 They accused me of driving through a red light.

Verb + Gerund Verb Be +Adjective Verb + Infinitive Verb +Infinitive

+Preposition +Preposition or Gerund
+Gerund +Gerund
I advise studying I have adapted to I am capable of I aim to master I began learning
gerunds. living in the U.S. learning English the infinitive. English 10 years
grammar. ago.
I began to learn
English 10 years
ago.
acknowledge adapt to be accustomed to agree attempt
admit adjust to be afraid of aim can/can't
advise admit to be angry about afford bear
anticipate agree on be ashamed of appear can/can't
appreciate apologize for be capable of arrange stand
avoid approve of be certain about ask cease

38
consider argue about be concerned care continue
defend ask about with choose forget
defer believe in be critical of claim go on
delay blame for be discouraged consent hate
deny care about from dare like
detest complain about be enthusiastic decide love
discuss consist of about decline neglect
dislike confess to be familiar with demand prefer
endure decide on be famous for deserve regret
enjoy depend on be fond of desire propose
escape disapprove of be glad about expect remember
excuse discourage from be good at fail see
feel like engage in be happy about guarantee start
finish forgive for be interested in happen stop
go give up be known for hope try
imagine help with be nervous about intend begin
involve inquire about be perfect for know
keep insist on be proud of learn
mention interfere with be responsible manage
mind (object to) keep on for need
miss look forward to be sad about offer
omit object to be successful in plan
postpone participate in be suitable for pledge
practice persist in be tired of prepare
prevent plan on be tolerant of pretend
quit prepare for be upset about promise
recall profit from be used to refuse
recollect prohibit from be useful for resolve
recommend put off be worried about seem
regret result from tend
resent resort to struggle
resist succeed in swear
resume suffer from volunteer
risk talk about wait
suggest take part in want
tolerate there's no point wish
understand in would
think about like
warn about
work on
worry about

Note: Some verbs can be followed either by an object + -ing or a possessive + -ing with a
similar meaning, although the possessive + -ing form is usually considered to be rather
formal:
 I resented Tom winning the prize. (more formally I resented Tom’s winning the prize.)
 Mia recalled him buying the book. (more formally Mia recalled his buying the book.)
More examples:
 She detested John eating with his mouth open. more formally: She detested John's
eating with his mouth open.
 The teacher disapproved of the students talking during the exam. more formally: The
teacher disapproved of the students' talking during the exam.

39
  They liked their friends joining them for dinner. more formally: They liked their
friends' joining them for dinner.
 He hated his brother borrowing his clothes without asking. more formally: He hated
his brother's borrowing his clothes without asking.
 She loved her daughter singing in the school choir. more formally: She loved her
daughter's singing in the school choir.
 They objected to their neighbors playing loud music late at night. more formally: They
objected to their neighbors' playing loud music late at night.
 I forgot my friend mentioning that movie. more formally: I forgot my friend's
mentioning that movie.
 She imagined her parents moving to a new city. more formally: She imagined her
parents' moving to a new city.
 He remembered his sister mentioning the upcoming event. more formally: He
remembered his sister's mentioning the upcoming event.
 We think of our team winning the championship. more formally: We think of our
team's winning the championship.
Tenses of the Verbs
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect
Continuous
Present I go I am going I have gone I have been
going
Past I went I was going I had gone I had been going

Future I will go I will be going I will have gone I will have been
going

Future in the I would go I would be going I would have I would have

past gone been going

Note: consider the structures below and the possible tenses collocating with them:
It has been a long time/many years/tens of years/ more than a hundred year/ + since +
subject + different verb tenses:
 It has been a long time since she has visited her family.
 It has been many years since they graduated from college.
 It has been tens of years since we have been working on this project.
 It has been more than a hundred years since the team was exploring the region.
 It has been a long time since I had seen him before our recent meeting.
 It has been many years since she had been living in that town.
It is high time + subject + past simple tense/present perfect tense:
 It is high time we addressed the environmental challenges and took decisive actions.
 It is high time he finished his assignment.
 It is high time they implemented the new policies.
 It is high time I upgraded my computer.
Note: In narratives and anecdotes, the present simple finds application in emphasizing
specific events. Frequently, it is employed following past tenses and enhanced by expressions
like "suddenly" or "all of a sudden." For instance:
40
  while I was peacefully sitting in the park, engrossed in a newspaper, all of a sudden,
this dog jumps at me.
Note: The present continuous can be employed with adverbs like always, constantly,
continually, or forever to underscore the frequency of an action, making it a characteristic
trait of a person, group, or thing. For instance, in a conversation where A expresses hesitancy
about staying, B observes,
 "You're constantly changing your mind."
In another context, Jacob's consistent kindness is highlighted as someone notes,
 "He's always offering to help me with my work."
This construction is often utilized to convey disapproval, akin to how the past continuous
operates with such adverbs (e.g., "Was Olivia always asking you for money, too?").
Additionally, the present continuous allows us to depict regular activities at specific times,
such as,
 "At eight o'clock, I'm usually driving to work, so phone me on my mobile," Or
 "Seven o'clock is a bit early; we're generally eating then.
Note: In sentences containing a time clause with "since," it is generally preferred to use a
past simple verb in the time clause and a present perfect verb in the main clause, with the
time clause referring to a specific point in the past. For instance
 Since Mr. Dodson became president, unemployment has increased
is preferred over ... has become ..., and
 "She hasn't been able to play tennis since she broke her arm
is favored over ... has broken ....
However, it's important to note that the present perfect is employed in the time clause if the
situations described in both the main clause and the time clause extend until the present, as
in
 Have you met any of your neighbors since you've lived here?" (not "... you lived ...").
Note: When using time clauses introduced by words such as after, when, until, as soon as,
once, by the time, and time expressions like the minute/second/moment, the past simple
tense indicates past completed events, while the present perfect tense refers to future
events. Here's a comparison with examples:
 "After she left the hospital (past), she had a long holiday."
 "After Lucas has left school (future), he will be spending six months in India."
 "The minute I got the news about Anna (past), I telephoned my parents."
 "I’ll contact you the minute I’ve got my exam results (future)."
In such sentences, it is possible to use the past perfect instead of the past simple (e.g., "After
she had left..."), and the present simple instead of the present perfect (e.g., "After Lucas
leaves...") with the same meaning.
Note: After the pattern "It/This/That is/will be the first time," it is common to use the
present perfect in the next clause. Consider the following examples:
 "That’s the first time I’ve seen Jan look embarrassed." (reporting a past event)

41
  "It won’t be the first time she has voted against the government." (talking about a
future event)
These sentences demonstrate the use of the present perfect tense to convey the idea that
the specified event (seeing Jan look embarrassed, voting against the government) occurred
at some point before the current moment. However, it's important to note that after the
pattern "It/This/That was the first time," the past perfect is typically employed, as illustrated
in the example:
 "It was the first time I’d talked to Dimitra outside the office."
More examples:
 This is the first time I've tried sushi, and I absolutely loved it."
 "It was the first time they had traveled abroad together as a family."
 "It will be the first time he has ever performed on a big stage."
 "This is going to be the first time we will have hosted a dinner party at our new
house."
Note that for talking about a future event simple future, present perfect and future perfect
are acceptable. The choice between them often depends on personal preference or stylistic
considerations:
 "It will be the first time he has ever performed on a big stage." (present perfect)
 "It will be the first time he will have performed on a big stage." (future perfect)
 It will be the first time he will perform on a big stage.
More examples:
 "It will be the first time she has ever traveled abroad."
 "This marks the first occasion he has tried his hand at public speaking."
 "It's the initial time they have ventured into entrepreneurship."
 "This will be the inaugural moment he has participated in a professional
competition."
 "It will be the first instance she has led a team project at work.
Note: We have the flexibility to use either the past continuous or past simple with certain
verbs when expressing intentions that were planned but didn't materialize. For instance:
 "We were meaning to call in and see you, but Marc wasn't feeling well."
(Alternatively, "We meant...")
Moreover, verbs like "consider," "expect to," "hope to," "intend to," "plan to/on," "think
about/of," and "want to" can be utilized with the present and past continuous to report
potential actions in the future. The past continuous, in particular, introduces a less definite
tone compared to the present continuous:
 "I was thinking of going to China next year, but it depends on my financial situation."
(This is less definite than "I'm thinking of going...")
 "We were wondering about inviting Eva over tomorrow." (This is less definite than
"We're wondering about...")
Both the past perfect and past simple can be employed when discussing intentions that were
not fulfilled or will not be realized in the future:
 "I had hoped to visit the gallery before I left Florence, but it's closed on Mondays." (or
"I hoped..., I was hoping..., I had been hoping...")
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The use of past perfect, past simple, and even past continuous or past perfect continuous
allows for various nuances in expressing the unfulfilled intention to visit the gallery.
 "Aron planned to retire at 60, but we have persuaded him to stay for a few more
years." (or "Aron had planned..., Aron was planning..., Aron had been planning...")
Note: The present perfect continuous is not used with verbs such as belong, know, (dis)like,
and understand, which describe unchanging states:
 "Have you known each other long?" (not "Have you been knowing...")
 "I haven't liked ice cream since I ate too much and was sick." (not "I haven't been
liking...")
When discussing situations, which involve general characteristics or circumstances persisting
until the present, it is often possible to use either the present perfect or the present perfect
continuous:
 "We've been looking forward to this holiday for ages." (or "We've looked forward
to...")
Note: When discussing the result of circumstances or an activity, the present perfect is
preferred over the present perfect continuous. However, when emphasizing the ongoing
process, either the present perfect or the present perfect continuous is often suitable. Let's
compare:
 "Prices have decreased by 7%." (not "Prices have been decreasing by 7%.")
 "Prices have been decreasing recently." (or "Prices have decreased...")
In the first example, the focus is on the result of the activity (prices decreasing), so the
present perfect is used. In the second example, the emphasis is on the ongoing process, and
both the present perfect continuous and the present perfect are acceptable.
 "I've used three tins of paint on the kitchen walls." (not "I've been using three tins of
paint on the kitchen walls.")
 "I've been using a new kind of paint on the kitchen walls." (or "I've used...")
In the third example, the result of using three tins of paint is highlighted, favoring the use of
the present perfect. In the fourth example, the focus is on the ongoing process of using a
new kind of paint, and both the present perfect continuous and the present perfect can be
used interchangeably.
Note: When discussing the frequency of events within a specific period leading up to a
particular past time, the past perfect is preferred over the past perfect continuous:
 "How many times had you met him before yesterday?" (not "How many times had
you been meeting...")
This usage emphasizes the total number of meetings up to a certain point in the past.
 "I had stayed in the hotel twice in the 1990s." (not "I had been staying in the hotel
twice...")
In this case, the past perfect is used to convey the number of stays in the hotel within the
specified period leading up to the past reference point.
Note: The future perfect tense is employed to express that something will be completed,
ended, or achieved by a specific point in the future:
 "By the time you get home, I will have cleaned the house from top to bottom."
43
  "I'm sure his awful behavior will soon have been forgotten." (passive form)
On the other hand, the future perfect continuous is used to emphasize the duration of an
ongoing activity at a particular point in the future:
 "Next year, I will have been working in the company for 30 years."
In both cases, it is customary to specify the future time, such as "By the time you get
home..." or "Next year...".Additionally, the future continuous, future perfect, and future
perfect continuous can be applied to express beliefs or imaginations about ongoing events
around the present:
 "We could ask to borrow Joe's car. He won't be using it today – he went to work by
bike."
 "Most people will have forgotten the fire by now."
 "Tennis fans will have been queuing at Wimbledon all day to buy tickets."
Moreover, the future perfect continuous can be used to convey assumptions about ongoing
events at a particular point in the past:
 "Motorist Vicky Hesketh will have been asking herself whether speed cameras are a
good idea after she was fined £100 last week for driving at 33 mph in a 30 mph zone."
Note: Other ways of talking about the future
Certain phrases are commonly employed to indicate future actions or events with a meaning
akin to "be about to + infinitive". Expressions such as "be on the verge of," "brink of," and
"point of" (followed by either -ing or a noun) are used to convey that something is imminent:
 "People are on the verge of starvation as the drought continues."
 "Scientists are on the brink of making major advances in the fight against AIDS."
 "Exhausted, mentally and physically, she was on the point of collapse."
The use of "be on the brink of" typically refers to something significant, exciting, or
potentially very adverse.
Additionally, we use "be due to + infinitive" to indicate that something is anticipated to
happen at a specific time, "be sure/bound to + infinitive" to express likelihood or certainty,
and "be set to + infinitive" to convey readiness for an impending event:
 "The company’s chief executive is due to retire next year, but following today’s
announcement of further losses, she is sure to be asked to leave sooner."
 "'Will there be somewhere to get a coffee at the station?’ ‘Oh, yes, there’s bound to
be.’"
 "Her new film is set to be a great success."
It's important to note that "due to + noun" is used to provide the reason for something,
rather than to discuss future events (e.g., "Due to fog, all flights from the airport have been
canceled"). Some more examples:
 "The company is on the brink of bankruptcy if drastic measures aren't taken soon."
 "They are on the brink of discovering a breakthrough in renewable energy
technology."
 "She was on the point of tears after hearing the surprising news."
 "The negotiations were on the point of collapse before a last-minute agreement was
reached."
 "The train is due to arrive at the station in five minutes."
44
  "The report is due to be submitted by the end of the week."
 "With his talent, he is sure to succeed in his new venture."
 "Given the circumstances, it's bound to cause some controversy."
 "The team is set to launch their innovative product next month."
 "She is set to take on a new role as the head of the department."
While all of the construction provided above are important for a well-crafted text, try to use
‘be + due to’ more:
 "The concert is due to start at 8 PM, so please arrive early."
 "The flight is due to depart in two hours, and passengers are requested to proceed to
the boarding gate."
 "Her promotion is due to be announced at the company meeting tomorrow."
 "The project completion is due to happen by the end of the month."
 "The new software update is due to be released next week."
 "The annual conference is due to take place in the convention center downtown."
 "The book is due to be published in the fall, generating anticipation among avid
readers."
 "The renovations in the office are due to finish by the beginning of next year."
 "The official statement from the government is due to be issued shortly."
 "The decision on the matter is due to be communicated to all employees by Friday."
Note: To discuss an activity or event that was anticipated in the future at a specific point in
the past, "was/were to + infinitive" is employed for things that actually occurred, while
"was/were to have + past participle" is used for things that were expected but did not
materialize:
 "At the time, she was probably the best actor in the theatre company, but, in fact,
some of her colleagues were to become much better known."
 At the conference, he was expected to deliver the keynote address, but, to everyone's
surprise, the guest speaker was to captivate the audience with an impromptu speech
that became the highlight of the event.
 The initial plan was to launch the product in the spring, but due to unforeseen delays,
the company was to postpone the release until the summer.
 "The boat, which was to have taken them to the island, failed to arrive."
 "He was to find out years later that the car he had bought was stolen."
However, in less formal contexts, it is more common to use "be supposed to":
 "I was supposed to help, but I was ill." (more natural than "I was to have helped...")
Modals
Modals indeed express various shades of possibility, necessity, permission, and other related
meanings. They often convey a sense of likelihood, ability, obligation, or potentiality. Modals
inherently refer to potentialities and are not conjugated in the traditional sense (i.e., they
don't change based on tense or person. Certain modals, like "could," may inherently imply a
past aspect, but their specific meaning often depends on the context. The flexibility of
modals allows them to convey nuanced meanings in different situations.
So modals, do not use "had" in their constructions. Instead, they are followed by the base
form of the main verb, and "have" is used to form the perfect aspect.
 I could have gone.
 She may have studied.
45
  We must have missed the bus.
 They will have arrived.
So these are not acceptable:
 I could had gone.
 She may had studied.
 We must had missed the bus.
 They will had arrived.
In these examples, "have" is the auxiliary verb indicating the perfect aspect, and the main
verb's past participle follows it. "Had" is not used in conjunction with modals to form this
construction. Now consider the table below:
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect
Continuous
Can I can go I can be going. I can/could have I can/could have
Could I could go I could be going. gone. been going.
Had better I had better go I had better be I must/should have I had better have
May I may go going. gone. been going.
Might I might go I may better be I had better have I may/might have
Must I must go going. gone. been going.
Ought (to) I ought to go I might better be I may/might have I must have been
Shall I shall go going. gone. going.
Will I will go I must be going. I ought to have I ought to have
Should I should go I ought to be gone. been going.
would I would go going. I shall have gone. I should have
I should be going. I would/will have been going
I will be going. gone.
I would be going.

Phrasal modals
Phrasal modals are phrases which form a single verb group with another verb and which
affect the meaning of that verb in the same way that a modal verb does.
Some phrasal modals begin with be or have: be able to, be bound to, be going to, be liable
to, be meant to, be supposed to, be sure to, have got to, have to.
Examples:
 I am able to swim across the river.
 With his skills, he is bound to succeed.
 She is going to visit her grandparents next weekend.
 If you don't wear a helmet, you are liable to get a ticket.
 This key is meant to open the treasure chest.
 You are supposed to finish your homework before going out.
 I am sure to complete the project by the deadline.
 I have got to finish this report before the meeting.
 Students have to attend the lecture.
 She is able to solve complex math problems.
 Their dedication is bound to make a positive impact.
 We are going to discuss the new project tomorrow.
 Ignoring safety guidelines is liable to result in accidents.
46
  This tool is meant to simplify the assembly process.
 Employees are supposed to submit their reports by Friday.
 Double-check your work to be sure it's accurate.
 I have got to attend the training session this afternoon.
 Students have to complete the assignment before the deadline.
The first word in these phrases changes its form depending on the subject and the tense, in
the way that be and have normally do:
 I am liable to panic,
 She is liable to panic,
 We have to leave tonight,
 We had to leave last night.
The other phrasal modals do not change in this way:
 I would rather go by bus.
 He would rather go by bus.
 I would rather eat at home.
 She would rather read a book.
 We would rather stay indoors during the storm.
 They would rather discuss the matter in private.
 He would rather work on the project alone.
Note. We can use the prefer instead of would rather as well:
 I prefer to travel by train.
 She prefers to study in a quiet environment.
 We prefer to eat dinner early.
 They prefer to work on separate tasks.
 He prefers to take a walk in the evening.
Most phrasal modals are made negative by putting not after the first word in the phrase, as:
 He is not able to be with us.
 You ought not to eat so quickly.
However, had best, had better, would rather, would just as soon, and would sooner are made
negative by putting not after the whole phrase, as:
 You had best not go by yourself
 I would just as soon not go by myself.
 You had better not forget to call your parents.
 I had best not make any further changes without consulting my team. (it would be
wise or advisable not to proceed with making additional changes without first
consulting the team)
 She would rather not attend the meeting.
 We would just as soon not deal with that issue right now.
 They would sooner not disclose the details until the investigation is complete.
Consider the structure of had best:
 You had best finish your assignment before the deadline.
 We had best double-check the details before submitting the proposal.
 He had best address the issue immediately to avoid complications.

47
  She had best not ignore the warning signs of burnout.
 They had best review the contract terms before signing any agreements.
 I had best take my umbrella; the weather forecast predicts rain.
 The team had best discuss the project timeline before moving forward.
 You had best prioritize your tasks to meet the project milestones.
The negative of would do well to is made by putting not after well, as
 She would do well not to forget that.
 He would do well not to underestimate the challenges of the project.
The phrasal modal used to has three negative forms: used not to, didn't used to, and didn't
use to.
The interrogative of verb groups formed with most phrasal modals is made by placing the
Subject after the first word in the phrase, as
 Have you got to go?
 Would you sooner stay?
The interrogative form of have to is do you have to as
 Do you have to go?
The interrogative form of used to is did you used to, as:
 Did you used to eat sweets?
Note: Could is generally more natural than 'be able to,' especially in negative sentences:
 I tried to get up but I couldn't move.
It is commonly used with verbs of the senses (feel, hear, see, smell, taste) and verbs of
thinking (believe, decide, remember, understand):
 I could remember the crash, but nothing after that.
Additionally, it is preferred after phrases like 'the only thing/place/time' and after 'all' when
it means 'the only thing':
 All we could see were his feet.
Moreover, 'could' is employed to suggest that something almost didn't happen, particularly
with words like almost, hardly, just, nearly:
 I could nearly touch the ceiling.
Note: We refrain from using 'may' to pose questions about the possibility of something
happening. Instead, alternatives such as 'could(n’t)' or the phrase 'be likely' are employed:
 Could it be that you don’t want to leave? (not May it be that you …?)
 Are you likely to be in Spain again this summer? (not May you be in Spain …?)
 Could it be that he misunderstood your instructions? (not May it be that he …?)
 Are they likely to accept the proposal? (not May they accept the proposal …?)
 Could it be that the email went to your spam folder? (not May it be that the email …?)
 Is she likely to join us for dinner tonight? (not May she join us for dinner …?)
 Could it be that the package got delivered to the wrong address? (not May it be that
the package …?)

48
  Are you likely to finish the project by the deadline? (not May you finish the project
…?)
 Could it be that they forgot about the meeting? (not May it be that they …?)
 Is he likely to attend the conference next month? (not May he attend the conference
…?)
 Could it be that the document was misplaced? (not May it be that the document …?)
 Are we likely to experience heavy rain tomorrow? (not May we experience heavy rain
…?)
While it is feasible to use 'might' in this type of question, it tends to be more formal:
 Might they be persuaded to change their minds?
 Might she be convinced to attend the event with us?
 Might the team be swayed to consider the alternative strategy?
 Might he be influenced to support the new initiative?
 Might the authorities be prompted to reevaluate the zoning regulations?
 Might your colleagues be encouraged to participate in the volunteer program?
 Might the committee members be moved to reconsider the proposal?
 Might the customers be inclined to try the new product line?
 Might the employees be persuaded to adopt the updated work procedures?
 Might the students be motivated to explore additional research topics?
 Might the residents be open to discussing the neighborhood improvements?
It's noteworthy that 'may' is appropriate for formally seeking permission and offering help:
 May I leave now?
 May I help you?
The structure "Would it be possible" is also often used to inquire about the feasibility or
likelihood of a certain request or action.
 Would it be possible to reschedule our meeting for next week?
 Would it be possible to extend the deadline for submitting the project?
 Would it be possible for you to provide additional details on the proposal?
 Would it be possible to arrange a conference call for the team members?
 Would it be possible to have a copy of the report before the end of the day?
 Would it be possible for us to meet in person to discuss the contract?
 Would it be possible to consider alternative solutions to the problem?
 Would it be possible to accommodate a larger group for the workshop?
 Would it be possible to access the files remotely during the weekend?
 Would it be possible to implement the changes without affecting the timeline?
Note: We use may/might (not 'can') + have + past participle and may/might (not 'can') + be +
-ing to talk about possible events in the past, present, and future:
 Do you think Laura may/might have completed the report by now? (past)
 His maths may/might have improved by the time the exam comes around. (future)
 Marco isn’t in his office. He may/might be working at home today. (present)
 When I go to Vienna, I may/might be staying with Max, but I’m not sure yet. (future)
Note that 'could' can be used in these sentences instead of 'may' or 'might':
 Do you think Laura could have completed the report by now?

49
We can use may/might have been + -ing to talk about possible situations or activities that
went on over a period of past time:
 Callum didn’t know where the ball was, but he thought his sister might have been
playing with it before she left for school.
Note: To draw conclusions about various temporal scenarios, we use the following
constructions:
For something that happened in the past, we use must + have + past participle:
 'That’s not Clara’s car. She must have borrowed it from her parents.'
For something happening at or around the time of speaking, we use must be + -ing:
 'I can’t hear a noise. You must be imagining things.'
For something likely to happen in the future, we use must be going to or must be + -ing:
 '‘What are all those workmen doing?’ ‘I think they must be going to dig up the road.’'
 'I was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening next Friday.'
For a present situation, we use must be, or have (got) to be in informal speech:
 'Their goalkeeper has got to be at least two metres tall! (or … must be …)'
To conclude something based on what we know about a present situation:
 'I can’t access the database. You must/ have to put in a password.' (= a password is
necessary)
To conclude something about a past situation:
 'Matt wasn’t at home when I went round. He must have had to go out unexpectedly.'
Note that we can't say 'must’ve (got) to' but we can say must’ve had to.
Note: When it is a modal verb, 'need' is most commonly used in negative sentences:
 I’ve already cleaned the car, so you needn’t bother to do it.
 I was very nervous before the interview, but I needn’t have worried – I got the job!
Other verbs often used with 'need not' (needn’t): apply, concern, fear, involve, mean, panic:
 You need not apply for the position; it's already been filled.
 This issue needn't concern you; we have it under control.
 You needn't fear the outcome; we have a backup plan.
 The task is straightforward; it needn't involve complicated procedures.
 His silence needn't mean he disagrees; he's just a thoughtful listener.
 In case of a minor setback, there's no need to panic; we can handle it calmly.
Note: It is sometimes used in questions, but we prefer to use 'need' as an ordinary verb or
'have to':
 Need you go so soon? (= modal verb; less common and rather formal)
 Do you need to go so soon? (= ordinary verb) or Do you have to go so soon?
It is rarely used in affirmative sentences (that is, not questions or negatives), but is
sometimes found in written English, particularly in fiction:
 We need have no fear for Nicole; she can take care of herself.
50
In other styles of formal written English, it is used in this way with negative words such as
hardly, never, nobody / no one, and only:
 The changes need only be small to make the proposals acceptable. (less formally, The
changes only need to be ...)
 Nobody ever need know about the money. (less formally, Nobody ever needs to know
...)
 'I don’t want my parents to know.' 'They need never find out.' (less formally, They
never need to find out.)
Note: We use 'should' / 'ought to' + 'have' + past participle to talk about something that
didn’t happen in the past, and we are sorry that it didn’t:
 We should / ought to have waited for the rain to stop. (I’m sorry we didn’t)
We often use this pattern to indicate some regret or criticism, and the negative forms
'shouldn’t' / 'oughtn’t to have' are almost always used in this way.
We also use 'should' / 'ought to' + 'have' + past participle to talk about an expectation that
something happened, has happened, or will happen:
 If the flight was on time, he should / ought to have arrived in Jakarta early this
morning

51
Lesson 2: Passive voice (B1/B2)
Consider three important aspects of the passive structure. Firstly, it is applicable only to
transitive verbs. For example, we are not allowed to make a passive sentence with the
phrasal verb ‘grow up’, because it describes a natural process of development rather than an
action done by someone else; however, we can make a passive sentence with the verb ‘bring
up’:
 I grew up in London.
 I was brought up in London.
Secondly, note that the present perfect continuous as well as future continuous tenses lack a
passive form. Thirdly, the formula for constructing passive sentences is be + past participle.
Consider the sentence 'I eat an ice-cream,' which will be transformed into the passive form in
the table below.
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect
Continuous

Present An ice-cream is An ice-cream is An ice-cream has -

eaten being eaten been eaten

Past An ice-cream An ice-cream An ice-cream -

was eaten was being eaten had been eaten

Future An ice-cream - An ice-cream -

will be eaten will have been
eaten

Verb + object + infinitive

In active sentences some verbs follow the pattern:
subject + verb + object + to-infinitive
 The receptionist told me to wait.
 They made him take a test.
In most cases these can be made passive. In the passive, all verbs (including make) are
followed by to + infinitive.
subject + passive verb + to-infinitive
 I was told to wait (by the receptionist).
 He was made to take a test.
More examples:
 Active: Mr. Wang has taught Peter to sing for years. Passive: Peter has been taught to
sing (by Mr. Wang) for years.
 Active: The coach encourages the team to practice daily. Passive: The team is
encouraged to practice daily (by the coach).
 Active: She advises her students to study regularly. Passive: Her students are advised
to study regularly (by her).
 Active: The manager expects the employees to meet deadlines. Passive: The
employees are expected to meet deadlines (by the manager).

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  Active: We allowed the kids to stay up late on weekends. Passive: The kids were
allowed to stay up late on weekends (by us).
 Active: The teacher requires the students to submit their assignments on time.
Passive: The students are required to submit their assignments on time (by the
teacher).
 Active: They asked him to join the committee. Passive: He was asked to join the
committee (by them).
 Active: The scientist taught the students to conduct experiments. Passive: The
students were taught to conduct experiments (by the scientist).
 Active: The supervisor orders the workers to wear safety gear. Passive: The workers
are ordered to wear safety gear (by the supervisor).
 Active: The parents encourage their children to pursue their dreams. Passive: The
children are encouraged to pursue their dreams (by the parents).
 Active: The company allows employees to work from home. Passive: Employees are
allowed to work from home (by the company).
Note that in some contexts it is possible to make both verbs passive:
 Changes to the taxation system are expected to be proposed. (compare the active We
expect the government to propose changes to the taxation system.)
More examples:
 Active: We need you to submit your report by Friday.
 Passive: Submitting your report by Friday is needed to be done (by us).
 Active: The manager requires employees to attend the training session.
 Passive: Attending the training session is required to be done (by the manager).
 Active: She prefers her students to complete the assignments on time.
 Passive: Completing the assignments on time is preferred to be done (by her).
 Active: They allow visitors to access the exhibition during business hours.
 Passive: Accessing the exhibition during business hours is allowed to be done (by
them).
 Active: The teacher instructs students to read the assigned chapters.
 Passive: Reading the assigned chapters is instructed to be done (by the teacher).
 Active: The committee recommends the city to invest in renewable energy.
 Passive: Investing in renewable energy is recommended to be done (by the
committee).
 Active: We encourage people to participate in the community cleanup.
 Passive: Participating in the community cleanup is encouraged to be done (by us).
 Active: The chef advises customers to try the signature dish.
 Passive: Trying the signature dish is advised to be done (by the chef).
 Active: The manager allows employees to use flexible work hours.
 Passive: Using flexible work hours is allowed to be done (by the manager).
Verbs used like this include advise, allow, ask, expect, instruct, make, mean, order, require,
teach, tell.
Advise:
 Active: She advised me to study.
 Passive: I was advised to study.
Allow:

53
  Active: They allow him to leave early.
 Passive: He is allowed to leave early.
Ask:
 Active: He asked her to help.
 Passive: She was asked to help.
Expect:
 Active: We expect them to arrive soon.
 Passive: They are expected to arrive soon.
Instruct:
 Active: The teacher instructed the students to complete the assignment.
 Passive: The students were instructed to complete the assignment.
Make:
 Active: He made me clean my room.
 Passive: I was made to clean my room.
Mean:
 Active: This means you to pay attention.
 Passive: Attention is meant to be paid.
Order:
 Active: The boss ordered her to finish the report.
 Passive: She was ordered to finish the report.
Require:
 Active: The job requires you to have certain skills.
 Passive: Certain skills are required.
Teach:
 Active: She teaches them to dance.
 Passive: They are taught to dance by her.
Tell:
 Active: The manager told us to attend the meeting.
 Passive: We were told to attend the meeting by the manager.
Certain verbs that are followed by an object + to-infinitive in the active but don't have a
passive form:
 Active: Susan liked Karl to be there.
 No Passive Form: Karl was not liked to be there.
These verbs fall into the category of "liking" and "wanting" verbs and include: (can’t) bear,
Hate, Love, Need, Prefer, Want, Wish.
For instance:
 I can't bear him to interrupt me.
 She loves her children to play in the garden.
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  He prefers his coffee to be strong.
 We want the project to finish on time.
 They wish her to succeed.
Note that While using "need" in a passive construction is grammatically acceptable, it may
not be as common or natural in everyday English. Native speakers often prefer more
straightforward and concise expressions. In many cases, using "need" in an active
construction or rephrasing the sentence can make the expression sound more natural. It's
essential to consider both grammatical correctness and the natural flow of language when
constructing sentences.
Note. - let is not used this way in the passive; we need to use allow instead.
 We were let to stay up late
 We were allowed to stay up late.
Note. - some verbs followed by an infinitive in active sentences are not used in the passive -
like, dislike, hate, prefer, love, wish, etc.
Infinitives after wh-words
These structures usually come after active verbs, eg - I don't know who to ask, but
sometimes occur after passives, especially with tell and show.
 We were told where to go.
 They were shown what to do and how to do it.
Infinitive of purpose
We can also use an infinitive to mean in order to or something like so that. These are usually
in the active, but passives are also possible.
 He was selected to represent his country.
 It has been designed to withstand high temperatures.
 The bushes were planted there to hide the rubbish bins.
Verbs with two objects
Some verbs can take two objects. The first one is usually a person or group of people, and
the second one a thing or things. Some verbs can take to or for: bring, leave, pay, play, post,
read, send, sing, take, write.
Sometimes there's little difference:
 Shall I sing you a song? = Shall I sing a song to/for you?
 I'll leave you the washing to do = I'll leave the washing to/for you to do.
 Could you bring me a glass? = Could you bring a glass to/for me, please?
but sometimes there is, in which case the subject + verb + indirect object + direct object
structure is only used for the to meaning.:
 I posted her the letter = I posted the letter to her.
 She couldn't leave the house, so I posted the letter for her.
 She took her granny the basket = She took the basket to her granny.
 Her granny had her hands full, so she took the basket for her granny.
Some verbs, especially those connected with giving or refusing permission, are only used in
the indirect verb pattern and not with prepositional phrase.

55
  I asked him the way to the city centre.
 NOT I asked the way to the city centre to him.
These include: allow, ask, cost, deny, envy, forgive, guarantee, permit, refuse.
Other verbs take prepositional phrases, but are not used in the indirect object pattern:
 He mentioned the matter to me yesterday
 NOT He mentioned me the matter yesterday
 They collected some money for the young couple
 NOT They collected the young couple some money
With to - mainly reporting verbs - admit, announce, confess, demonstrate, describe, explain,
introduce, mention, point out, prove, report, say, suggest.
With for - collect, mend, raise.
for + noun/pronoun + to-infinitive
Quite often, we use an infinitive indicating purpose, especially with words like something,
somewhere etc. It usually comes at the end of the whole expression:
When we use the pattern with an indirect object, this follows the direct object.
 I'll get you a book to read.
 She made me something to eat.
 He found me a tie to wear.
When we use a prepositional phrase after the direct object, it usually follows the
prepositional phrase.
 I'll get a book for you to read.
 She made something for me to eat.
 He found a tie for me to wear.
when the direct object is a personal pronoun, especially it, we usually use a pepositional
phrase structure rather than an indirect object structure.
 Pass it to your sister.
 Pass your sister it.
Passive versions of active structures with two objects
When we can use the subject + verb + indirect object + direct object structure, the indirect
object (or prepositional object) - generally a person - usually becomes the subject of the
passive construction, but it is also possible to make the direct object - generally a thing - the
subject, depending on what we want to focus on.
When the direct object becomes the subject of the passive sentence, we usually have to add
the preposition, usually to, but occasionally for.
Active
 They gave Natasha Johnson the prize for swimming.
Passive
 Natasha Johnson was given the prize for swimming.
 The prize for swimming was given to Natasha Johnson.

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Active
 They baked us a special cake.
Passive
 We were baked a special cake.
 A special cake was baked for us. (more common)
with verbs which can only be used in the indirect object pattern, the personal object usually
becomes the subject of the passive sentence. Very occasionally, the active indirect object is
made the subject of the passive sentence, in which case the preposition is not added.
Active
 They refused us permission.
Passive
 We were refused permission.
 Permission was refused us. (rather rare)
with verbs where only the subject + verb + direct object + prepositional phrase structure is
possible, only the direct object can become the subject of the passive sentence.
Active
 They explained the procedure to me.
Passive
 The procedure was explained to me.
 NOT I was explained the procedure.
Verbs followed by object + complement in the active have one passive form:
Active: V + object + complement
 They elected her president.
Passive:
 She was elected president.
Also: appoint, declare, make, nominate, vote (to do with giving a particular position);call,
name, title (= ‘naming’ verbs)
Some verbs that are followed by object + bare infinitive (= an infinitive without 'to') in the
active are followed by a to-infinitive in the passive:
Active: V + object + bare infinitive
 They have made him return the money.
Passive:
 He has been made to return the money.
Also: feel, hear, help (also +object + to-infinitive), observe, see.
Passive with modals
to make sentences with modals in passive form follow the structures below:

57
modal + be+ past participle
 The car can be repaired by the mechanic.
 A new project must be initiated by the team leader.
 The report should be submitted by Friday.
 The document may be lost somewhere in the office.
 The concert will be attended by many music enthusiasts.
modal + have been+ past participle
 The keys could have been misplaced during the event.
 The issue must have been resolved by the IT department.
 The assignment should have been completed by now.
 The package may have been delivered while you were out.
 The decision will have been made by the board of directors.
Non-Progressive/stative Passive Verbs
It simply means that the past participle is used with BE and functions as an adjective.
 He was discriminated against because of the color of his skin.
 This yoga mat is made out of recycled plastic.
 I am opposed to people being able to buy as many guns as they want.
 She is separated from her husband. Hopefully they will get back together.
 Okinawa is well known for its beautiful beaches. You will love snorkeling there.
The most common stative passive verbs:
be absorbed in be covered with/in be involved in be thrilled at/with
be accustomed to be dedicated to be known for be terrified of
be acquainted with be delighted at/with be limited to be tired of/from
be addicted to be derived from be made of (if there be troubled with
is only physical
change in the raw
material)
be amazed at be disgusted at/with be made from (if be upset with
the raw material someone
changes chemically
as well as physically)
be annoyed with be devoted to be made out of (if be used to
someone you alter an item,
and use it with a
different aim)
be annoyed be disappointed be married to be worried about
at/about something with/at
be associated with be discriminated be obliged to be shocked at
against someone
be astonished at be divorced from be opposed to be surprised at
be based on be done with be pleased be synchronized
about/with with
be bored with be dressed in be prepared for be shocked at
be blessed with be engaged to be provided with be furnished with
be committed to be equipped with be related to be impressed with
be composed of be excited about be remembered for be interested in
be concerned about be exposed to be satisfied with be connected to
/with
be confused with be filled with be scared of be convinced of
be crowded with be finished with be separated from be coordinated with

58
The passive with get
 Get married: She got married last summer.
 Get divorced: They got divorced after ten years of marriage.
 Get hired: I got hired by the company after the interview.
 Get fired: Unfortunately, he got fired from his job.
 Get promoted: After years of hard work, she finally got promoted.
 Get involved: Don't get involved in things you don't understand.
 Get interested: He got interested in photography at a young age.
 Get started: Let's get started on the project right away.
 Get lost: I'm afraid I got lost in the unfamiliar city.
 Get caught: The thief eventually got caught by the police.
 Get tired: After the long hike, we got tired quickly.
 Get confused: The instructions were so complex that I got confused.
 Get upset: She got upset when she heard the bad news.
 Get accustomed: It takes time to get accustomed to a new environment.
 Get accepted: He was thrilled when he got accepted into the university.
 Get rejected: Unfortunately, his job application got rejected.
 Get vaccinated: It's essential to get vaccinated to prevent illnesses.
 Get informed: Stay updated on current events to get informed.
 Get distracted: It's easy to get distracted in a noisy environment.
 Get inspired: Many artists get inspired by nature.
 Get arrested: The suspect eventually got arrested by the police.
 Get repaired: The car needs to get repaired after the accident.
 Get finished: The project will get finished by next week.
 Get updated: Make sure to get your software updated regularly.
 Get replaced: The old furniture will get replaced soon.
 Get nominated: She was surprised when she got nominated for an award.
 Get involved: He got involved in community service activities.
 Get discharged: The patient will get discharged from the hospital tomorrow.
 Get re-elected: The mayor hopes to get re-elected in the upcoming election.
 Get stolen: Unfortunately, her purse got stolen in the crowded market.
 Get cleaned: The house needs to get cleaned before the guests arrive.
 Get examined: The students will get examined at the end of the semester.
 Get disturbed: The peace and quiet got disturbed by the loud noise.
 Get repaired: The broken window will get repaired next week.
 Get enrolled: Students need to get enrolled for the new academic year.
 Get questioned: The suspect refused to get questioned without a lawyer.
 Get published: Her novel finally got published after years of writing.
 Get cancelled: The flight got cancelled due to bad weather.
 Get replaced: The old technology will get replaced by a new one.
 Get adopted: The stray dog was lucky to get adopted by a loving family.
 Get investigated: The case will get investigated by the authorities.
 Get upgraded: It's time to get your computer system upgraded.
 Get discouraged: Don't let challenges get you discouraged.
 Get delivered: The package will get delivered to your doorstep.
 Get chosen: She was thrilled to get chosen for the lead role.
 Get rewarded: Hard work and dedication will eventually get rewarded.
 Get dismissed: The students will get dismissed early for the holiday.
 Get reimbursed: You can get reimbursed for travel expenses.
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  Get acquainted: It's important to get acquainted with new colleagues.
 Get evacuated: Residents were urged to get evacuated before the hurricane.
 Get involved: The community encouraged everyone to get involved in local events.
 Get forgiven: He apologized sincerely and hoped to get forgiven.
 Get nominated: The film got nominated for several awards.
 Get accustomed: It's challenging to get accustomed to a different climate.
 Get revealed: The mystery behind the disappearance will get revealed soon.
 Get postponed: Due to unforeseen circumstances, the meeting will get postponed.
 Get infected: It's crucial to take precautions to avoid getting infected.
 Get overlooked: Sometimes, small details can get overlooked in a big project.
 Get dismissed: The case against him may get dismissed if there's not enough
evidence.
 Get misunderstood: Communication can get misunderstood without clear
explanations.
 Get acknowledged: Her contributions to the project will get acknowledged.
 Get completed: The construction of the new building will get completed by the end of
the year.
 Get ignored: It's frustrating when your opinions get ignored during a discussion.
 Get tested: Everyone should get tested for common health screenings regularly.
 Get celebrated: The team's victory will get celebrated with a grand party.
 Get influenced: Peer pressure can lead individuals to get influenced easily.
 Get distributed: The promotional materials will get distributed before the event.
 Get remembered: His kindness will always get remembered by those who knew him.
 Get interviewed: The candidates will get interviewed for the job position.
 Get transformed: The old warehouse will get transformed into a modern art gallery.
 Get abolished: Outdated policies will eventually get abolished.
 Get disrupted: The ongoing construction may get disrupted due to weather
conditions.
 Get praised: The exceptional performance will get praised by the management.
 Get elected: Politicians campaign hard to get elected into public office.
 Get witnessed: The event will get witnessed by thousands of spectators.
 Get discouraged: It's important not to get discouraged by temporary setbacks.
 Get misunderstood: Sometimes, your intentions may get misunderstood by others.
 Get introduced: New technology will get introduced in the market next month.
 Get transported: Goods will get transported to various locations by the logistics team.
 Get circulated: The news will get circulated through social media.
 Get influenced: People often get influenced by the opinions of those around them.
 Get scrutinized: The proposal will get scrutinized during the board meeting.
 Get alarmed: Residents should get alarmed in case of emergency situations.
 Get eradicated: Efforts are being made to get diseases eradicated globally.
 Get expanded: The company plans to get its business operations expanded.
 Get reviewed: The manuscript will get reviewed by a panel of experts.
 Get exhausted: After a long day of work, one may get exhausted.
 Get discouraged: It's important not to get discouraged by initial challenges.
 Get approved: The budget proposal will get approved by the finance committee.
 Get secured: The premises will get secured with enhanced security measures.
 Get bored: Students may get bored during long lectures.
 Get crowded: Tourist attractions often get crowded during peak seasons.
 Get done: The assignment needs to get done by tomorrow.

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  Get dressed: It's time to get dressed for the formal event.
 Get drunk: Celebrating too much can lead to getting drunk.
 Get engaged: They recently got engaged and are planning their wedding.
 Get excited: Children often get excited about upcoming holidays.
 Get fixed: The broken window will get fixed next week.
 Get hurt: Be careful not to get hurt while playing sports.
 Get killed: Unfortunately, some characters may get killed in the movie.
 Get prepared: It's essential to get prepared for the upcoming exam.
 Get scared: People may get scared during horror movies.
 Get sunburned: Without sunscreen, you may get sunburned at the beach.
 Get worried: Parents often get worried about their children's safety.

simple continuous perfect Perfect

continuous
Present I get married. I am getting I have got I have been
married. married. getting
married.
past I got married. I was getting I had got I had been
married. married. getting
married.
future I will get married. I will be getting I will have got I will have been
married. married. getting
married.
Future in past I would get I would be I would have I would have
married. getting married. got married. been getting
married.

simple continuous perfect Perfect

continuous
Present I get killed. I am getting I have got killed. I have been
killed. getting killed.
past I got killed. I was getting I had got killed. I had been
killed. getting killed.
future I will get killed. I will be getting I will have got I will have been
killed. killed. getting killed.
Future in past I would get killed. I would be getting I would have got I would have
killed. killed. been getting
killed.

We also use get+ pp for changing an active causative sentence into a passive one:
 They made me clean the entire house.
 I got made to clean the entire house.
 The teacher made the students solve the complex problems.
 The students got made to solve the complex problems.
 My parents made me study for the exam all night.
 I got made to study for the exam all night.
 The manager made the team complete the project ahead of schedule.
 The team got made to complete the project ahead of schedule.

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  The chef made the kitchen staff prepare a special meal for the guests.
 The kitchen staff got made to prepare a special meal for the guests.
 The coach made the players practice the new strategy repeatedly.
 The players got made to practice the new strategy repeatedly.

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Lesson 3. Types of Verbs (B1/B2)
1. Intransitive phrasal verbs
An intransitive verb is one that doesn't require a direct object to complete its meaning. It
expresses an action that is self-contained and doesn't involve the transfer of the action to an
object. In contrast, a transitive verb does require a direct object to make sense.
 back down: Retreat from a position in an argument.
 back out: Desert; fail to keep a promise.
 back up: Move backwards.
 bear up: Endure.
 blow in: Drop in to visit unexpectedly.
 blow over: Pass without doing harm.
 blow up: Explode; lose one's temper.
 came about: Happened.
 call up: Telephone.
 calm down: Become calm.
 carry on: Continue as before; misbehave.
 catch on: Understand.
 catch up: Cover the distance between oneself and a moving goal.
 check out: Leave; pay one's bill.
 check up: Investigate.
 cheer up: Become cheerful.
 clear out: Leave.
 clear up: Become clear.
 close down: Close permanently.
 close up: Close temporarily.
 come about: Happen.
 come along: Accompany; make progress.
 come back: Return.
 come by: Visit someone in their home.
 come out: Appear; make a social debut.
 come over: Come to someone's house, to where someone is.
 come through: Succeed.
 come to: Regain consciousness.
 cut in: Interrupt.
 die away: Fade; diminish.
 die down: Fade; diminish.
 die off/out: Disappear; become extinct.
 dress up: Don fancy or unusual clothes.
 drive back: Return by car.
 drop in: Visit someone casually without planning.
 drop out: Abandon some organized activity; leave; quit.
 drop over: Visit someone casually.
 fall behind: Not progress at required pace.
 fall off: Decrease; lose weight.
 fall through: Fail; not be accomplished.
 fill in: Substitute.
 find out: Learn.
 fly back: Return by air.
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  fly over: Fly to where someone is.
 get ahead: Make progress.
 get along: Have a friendly relationship.
 get around: Circulate; move about.
 get away: Escape.
 get by: Manage; either just barely or with a minimum of effort.
 get in: Enter.
 get off: Descend from; leave.
 get on: Enter (a vehicle); mount (a horse, etc.).
 get on/along: Progress; be compatible.
 get up: Rise.
 get through: Finish.
 give out: Become exhausted.
 give up: Surrender; fail to finish.
 go back: Return.
 go off: Explode.
 go on: Happen; continue.
 go out: Stop burning; leave one's residence.
 go over: Go; succeed.
 grow up: Mature.
 hang around: Remain idly; dawdle.
 hang up: Replace a telephone receiver on its hook.
 hold on: Grasp tightly; persevere; wait while telephoning.
 hold out: Continue to resist; persevere; persist.
 keep on: Continue.
 keep up: Maintain the required pace or standard; continue.
 let up: Diminish in intensity.
 lie down: Recline.
 look on: Be a spectator.
 make out: Progress; succeed.
 make up: Become reconciled.
 move over: Move to the side.
 pan out: Turn out well; be successful.
 pass out: Become unconscious.
 pass on: Die.
 pick up: Grow; increase.
 pull in: Arrive.
 pull out: Deport.
 pull through: Survive (barely).
 ride over: Ride to where someone is.
 run away: Escape; leave; leave quickly without permission.
 run down: Slowly lose power so as to stop functioning.
 run off: Depart running; drain.
 sell out: Sell the ownership or responsibility.
 settle up: Pay one's bills or debts.
 show off: Boast by words or actions.
 show up: Arrive; appear unexpectedly.
 shut up: Stop talking.
 slow up: Reduce speed.

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  stand by: Wait; be prepared to assist.
 stand up: Stand; rise from sitting; last; endure.
 stay over: Remain at someone's house overnight or longer.
 step aside: Move to one side.
 take off: Leave the ground.
 take over: Assume command.
 talk back: Answer impolitely.
 throw up: Vomit.
 turn around: Turn so that one is facing another direction.
 turn in: Go to bed.
 turn out: Succeed; come; appear, as at a public meeting.
 turn up: Arrive; be found unexpectedly.
 wait up: Remain awake in anticipation.
 wake up: Awaken.
 walk back: Return on foot to where one was.
 walk over: Walk to where someone is.
 wash out: Fade or disappear from washing.
 watch out: Be careful.
 wear off: Fade; disappear through use or time.
 wear out: Become unusable through use; become used up.
 work out: Be successful.
Some examples:
Intransitive phrasal verbs Example
Break down The car broke down on the highway.
Come across I came across an old friend at the store.
Show up She didn't show up to the party
Turn around The project turned around unexpectedly.
Give in They refused to give in to the pressure.
Set off The alarm set off suddenly.
Wake up I woke up early this morning.
Go away The bad smell finally went away.
Move on It's time to move on from the past.
Run out We ran out of coffee.

2. Causative Verbs
Causative verbs designate the action necessary to cause another action to happen. In "The
devil made me do it." the verb "made" causes the "do" to happen. Here is a brief list of
causative verbs, in no particular order: let, help, allow, have, require, allow, motivate, get,
make, convince, hire, assist, encourage, permit, employ, force. Most of them are followed by
an object (noun or pronoun) followed by an infinitive: "She allows her pet cockatiel to perch
on the windowsill. She hired a carpenter to build a new birdcage."
Three causative verbs are exceptions to the pattern described above. Instead of being
followed by a noun/pronoun and an infinitive, the causative verbs have, make and let are
followed by a noun/pronoun and the base form of the verb (which is actually an infinitive
with the "to" left off).
 Professor Villa had her students read four short novels in one week.
 She also made them read five plays in one week.
 However, she let them skip the final exam.
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Causative verbs indeed have two main types: the active causative and the passive causative.
These types describe different ways in which an action is caused to happen, either by
someone actively making it occur or by someone allowing it to happen.
Active Causative:
In an active causative construction, the subject causes someone else to do an action or
causes something to happen.
Form: Subject + Causative Verb + Object + Base Verb
 Example: "I made him clean the room." (I caused him to clean the room.)
Passive Causative:
In a passive causative construction, the subject allows or arranges for someone else to do an
action or for something to happen to them.
Form: Subject + Get/Have + Object + Past Participle of the Verb
 Example: "I had the room cleaned." (I arranged for the room to be cleaned.)
We can create both an active causative and a passive causative version:
 Non-Causative: She cleaned the car.
 Active Causative: She made someone clean the car.
 Passive Causative: She had the car cleaned.
Non-Causative Active Causative Passive Causative
He fixed the broken He got Peter to fix the He had the window fixed.
window. broken window.
They planted the trees in They made the gardener They had the trees planted
the garden. plant the trees. in the garden.
I painted the fence. I got the painter to paint the I had the fence painted.
fence.
The chef prepared the The chef had the cook The chef had the meal
meal. prepare the meal. prepared.
The teacher explained the The teacher made her best The teacher had the lesson
lesson. student explain the lesson. explained.
We built a new house. We had the constructor We had the new house built.
build a new house.
I cut my hair. I made the barber cut my I had my hair cut.
hair.
They mowed the lawn. They made the children They had the lawn mowed.
mow the lawn.
She washed the dishes. She got her husband to wash She had the dishes done.
the dishes.

Now consider this sentence: He fixed the broken window.

Tense Non-Causative Active Causative Passive Causative
Simple present He fixes the car. He has the mechanics He has the car fixed.
fix the car.
Simple past He fixed the car. He had the mechanics He had the car fixed.
fix the car.
Simple future He will fix the car. He will have the He will have the car
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 mechanics fix the car. fixed.
Present He is fixing the car. He is having the He is having the car
Continuous mechanics fix the car. fixed.
Past continuous He was fixing the car. He was having the He was having the
mechanics fix the car. car fixed.
Future He will be fixing the He will be having the He will be having the
continuous car. mechanics fix the car. car fixed.
Present perfect He has fixed the car. He has had the He has had the car
mechanics fix the car. fixed.
Past perfect He had fixed the car. He had had the He had had the car
mechanics fix the car. fixed.
Future perfect He will have fixed the He will have had the He will have had the
car. mechanics fix the car. car fixed.
Present Perfect He has been fixing the He has been having He has been having
Continuous car. the mechanics fix the the car fixed.
car.
Past Perfect He had been fixing the He had been having He had been having
Continuous car. the mechanics fix the the car fixed.
car.
Future Perfect He will have been He will have been He will have been
Continuous fixing the car. having the mechanics having the car fixed.
fix the car.

3. Ergative verbs
Ergative verbs are a special group of verbs which can be used both transitively and
intransitively, and where the object of the transitive verb becomes the subject of the
intransitive verb. Most of them are related to four types of activity: Change of some kind;
General movement; Movement in vehicles; Cooking.
Verbs of transform or Verbs of cooking Verbs of transportation Verbs of movement
change
Break Bake Drive Walk
Transform Boil Fly Shake
Burst Cook Reverse Turn
Form Fry Run Move
Heal Smash sail Sweep
Melt Crack Spin
Tear Warm Bounce
Increase Roast Skid
Decrease Burn turn
Start Freeze
Stop Rip
Begin
Finish
Close

Examples:
 Intransitive: The fragile vase broke when it fell off the shelf.
 Transitive: She accidentally broke the fragile vase while dusting the shelf.
 Intransitive: Over time, the caterpillar transformed into a beautiful butterfly.

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  Transitive: The magical potion transformed the ordinary pumpkin into a dazzling
carriage.
 Intransitive: The overinflated balloon burst with a loud pop.
 Transitive: The children burst the balloons during the birthday celebration.
 Intransitive: The clouds began to form in the sky, announcing an impending storm.
 Transitive: The sculptor used clay to form a stunning sculpture of a lion.
 Intransitive: Given time, the wound will heal on its own.
 Transitive: The doctor worked diligently to heal the patient's injuries.
 Intransitive: The ice cream cone melted quickly in the warm summer sun.
 Transitive: The chef melted chocolate to drizzle over the decadent dessert.
 Intransitive: The paper easily tears if handled roughly.
 Transitive: Be careful not to tear the delicate wrapping paper when opening the gift.
 Intransitive: The intensity of the storm increased as the wind picked up.
 Transitive: The company decided to increase its production to meet growing demand.
 Intransitive: As the sun set, the temperature began to decrease.
 Transitive: The manager implemented strategies to decrease expenses and improve
profitability.
 Intransitive: The engine roared to life as the car started smoothly.
 Transitive: She pressed the button to start the washing machine.
 Intransitive: The rain will stop soon, and we can go outside again.
 Transitive: The police officer signaled for the traffic to stop during the parade.
 Intransitive: The concert will begin in a few minutes.
 Transitive: The conductor raised his baton to begin the symphony.
 Intransitive: The race participants sprinted to the finish line.
 Transitive: The artist worked tirelessly to finish the masterpiece before the exhibition.
 Intransitive: The flowers close at night and reopen in the morning.
 Transitive: She asked him to close the door quietly as she left the room.
Although it is sometimes possible and meaningful to make passive form from ergative verbs,
in general we don’t need to, because when used in their intransitive form, they convey the
implication of a passive action or process. Consider sentences below made with the ergative
verb break:
 Little Johnny broke the window when playing with his ball.
 The window was broken when little Johnny was playing with his ball.
 The window broke when little Johnny was playing with his ball.
The second example is a passive construction, but the third example achieves a similar
passive sense without explicitly using the passive voice. This is one reason why it's not always
necessary to create a passive form for ergative verbs; the intransitive form can already
convey a sense of passivity or lack of agent. In the table below you can see the list of ergative
verbs.
accelerate click disperse hang open out rhyme spray transfer
accumulate clink dissipate harden operate ring spread translate
adjust clip dissolve heal organize ripen sprout transmute
age clog up divide hush originate rock square treble
with
amalgamate close dock ignite ossify roll squeeze trickle
assimilate close up double inch overheat rotate stall triple
average out close down double- incline pair off ruffle stampede turn
park
awake coil drain increase pair up run start twang
bake combine dress up industrialize pan rupture stick twine
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balance commence dribble inflate parachute rush stiffen (up) twirl
(into)
beat compress drip integrate pass scuff still twist
begin conflate drive interlink peel sell stir unfold
belch out conflict drop interlock percolate separate stop unfurl
bend connect drown interweave petrify settle straighten unravel
blacken contort dry off jam pile up sharpen strengthen unroll
up
blare contract dry out jerk play shatter stretch unzip
blister contribute dry up kick off plop shear off strike up vaporize
blow convene ease knot plunge shorten submerge vibrate
blow up convert edge land pour shrivel suckle waft
blur convulse emanate leak prick up shut suffocate waggle
boil cook empty lengthen puff shut sweep wake (up)
down
boil away cool end lessen put up shut up swell waken
boil down condense engage lighten quadruple shuttle swerve warm up
boil down co-ordinate enroll line up qualify sign up swill wash
to
bond correlate erode liven up quieten sink swing weaken
break crack evaporate lower quieten slacken swirl wear
down away
break off crash even out march radiate slam swivel wear
down
break up crash land expand marinate rain down slew tack wear out
brighten crease fade mark(=stain) rank slide tan whirl
bruise crisp fasten marry rate slim tangle widen
down
buckle crumple up fatten mass rattle slop taper wind
down
budge crystallize fill match rearm slot tarnish winter
build up curl finish match up redouble slow taxi withdraw
bulk up darken flatten meet (with) reflect slow up tear
bulk out decompose float melt reform slow tense (up)
down
burn decrease flutter mesh refuel slur terminate
burn down deepen focus mist (over) register snap thaw
burn up deflate fold up mix relate sober up thaw out
burst demobilize form move relax soften thicken
capsize derail fray move along reopen solidify thin
catapult derive freak multiply reorganize sound thrash
(out) about
center detach funnel muster resettle speed thump
up
change develop fuse mutate rest spew tie in/up
with
burst devolve graze narrow restart spill tighten
capsize dig grill naturalize return spill out tilt
catapult dilute group navigate reunite spin toll
worsen dim grow nestle rev splash toot
wrinkle diminish grow out nose rev up splinter topple
cheer up disband gush open revive split touch
clear disengage halt open up rewind split up train

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Lesson 4.Infinitive and Gerund (C1)
Consider the table below:
Past Present Future Modal To-infinitive Gerund

Simple Did Do Will do Could do To do Doing

Continuous Was Is doing Will be Could be doing To be doing Doing

doing doing

perfect Had Have Will have Could have To have done Having
done done done done done

Perfect Had Have been Will have Could have To have been Having
Continuous been doing been doing been doing doing been doing
doing

We usually use to-infinitive after certain adjectives, after certain verbs and in certain passive
constructions:
 I was delighted to hear about you.
 It is important to study regularly.
 It is bad not to wash your hands.
 She agreed to meet me.
 She is said to have forty grandchildren.
And we usually use gerund after prepositions and certain verbs:
 They thanked me for helping them.
 He confessed stealing the money.
Although it is more common in everyday situations to use the simple form of the gerund and
to-infinitive, using the perfect form can give a clever and more academic sound to our
sentences. Let’s compare these two sentences:
 I was delighted to hear about you.
 I was delighted to have heard about you.
The use of the perfect form "to have heard" implies that the action of hearing occurred
before a specific point in the past, and the speaker was delighted by the completion of this
prior action. In essence, the second sentence ("I was delighted to have heard about you")
suggests a sense of reflection or looking back on the past action of hearing about the person
with a feeling of delight. The first sentence ("I was delighted to hear about you") simply
conveys the delight at the time when the information was received. In many contexts, the
two sentences can be used interchangeably without a significant change in meaning. The
difference is subtle, and in everyday communication, people might use either form based on
personal preference or without giving much thought to the nuanced distinction.
Now let’s compare these two sentences:
 She agreed to meet me.
 She agreed to have met me.

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But, here we generally cannot use "She agreed to meet me" and "She agreed to have met
me" interchangeably because they convey different meanings. The choice between the two
depends on the timing of the meeting and the agreement.
Indeed, whether to use the simple to-infinitive or the perfect infinitive can depend on various
factors, including the context, the verb involved, and the structure of the sentence. In
sentences where the to-infinitive is used with adjectives, especially to express feelings or
reactions, both forms are often interchangeable. The examples with "I was delighted"
demonstrate this flexibility. However, when the to-infinitive is used after verbs, as in above
example "She agreed to meet me," and "She agreed to have met me," the choice is more
nuanced. The verb and the intended meaning play crucial roles in determining which form is
appropriate. Context becomes especially important in this regard. So remember when
dealing with adjectives, the interchangeability is more common, but when dealing with
verbs, context and the intended meaning guide the choice between the simple to-infinitive
and the perfect infinitive.
Now, let’s turn to simple and perfect gerund. We can use both forms approximately
interchangeably. Compare sentences below:
 They thanked me for helping them.
 They thanked me for having helped them.
In many contexts, both sentences are acceptable, and the choice may depend on personal
style or preference. However, the perfect gerund ("having helped") can convey a slightly
stronger sense of completion or emphasis on the entire action being finished. Note that the
difference in nuance is often subtle, and the choice between simple and perfect gerunds is
not always strictly defined. Consider examples:
 She apologized for interrupting the meeting.
 She apologized for having interrupted the meeting.
 He enjoys playing the guitar in his free time.
 He enjoys having played the guitar at the concert.
 They discussed renting a beach house for the summer.
 They discussed having rented a beach house for the summer.
Active and Passive forms of to-infinitive
forms of the to-infinitive active passive
Simple To do To be done
Continuous To be doing -
Perfect To have done To have been done
Perfect continuous To have been doing -
Examples:
 We were told to do it immediately.
 He is thought to be doing it right now.
 She was meant to have done it already.
 They are thought to have been doing it for hours.
 The task is scheduled to be done before the end of the week.
 The job was reported to have been done rather well.
Exercise: Make sentences below passive.

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  I would like to eat an ice cream.
 I would like to be eating an ice cream right now.
 I would like to have eaten an ice cream.
 I would like to have been eating ice cream all day.
Answer:
 An ice cream is desired to be eaten by me.
 No direct passive equivalent due to the progressive aspect
 An ice cream is desired to have been eaten by me.
 No direct passive equivalent due to the perfect progressive aspect.
There are a couple of structures that can be used after verbs of perception, such as see, hear
etc. We can use an -ing form to suggest that something was in progress, or a bare infinitive to
suggest that the person witnessed the whole action. Notice what happens to these in the
passive.
Subject + verb perception + object + -ing form
 She saw a man climbing out of a window.
 A man was seen climbing out of a window.
Subject + verb perception + object + bare infinitive
 They heard someone shout a warning.
 Someone was heard to shout a warning.
Notice the change to a to-infinitive in the passive infinitive version. In practice, only see, hear
and observe are used much in the passive. There's also a small group of verbs used in a
similar way, but that are used only with the -ing form - catch, bring, show, notice, discover,
find, keep (sb waiting), leave (sb doing sth).
Some verbs that can be followed by an -ing form can be used with a passive form being +
past participle:
 I really love being given presents.
 The children enjoyed being taken to the zoo.
Also: avoid, deny, describe, dislike, face, hate,(not) imagine, like, remember, report, resent:
 He avoided being assigned to the difficult task.
 The suspect denied being involved in the crime.
 The phenomenon is often described without being fully understood.
 She dislikes being criticized in public.
 The team faced being eliminated from the tournament.
 I hate being ignored.
 She couldn't imagine being stuck in traffic for hours.
 They like being given opportunities to showcase their talents.
 I remember being told about the changes.
 The incident was reported without being thoroughly investigated.
 He resents being treated unfairly.
Active Voice with -ing form:
 I saw her reading a book in the park.
 We observed the children playing in the garden.
 He heard someone singing in the distance.
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  She noticed her cat sleeping on the couch.
Passive Voice with -ing form:
 A book was seen being read by her in the park.
 Children were observed playing in the garden.
 Someone was heard singing in the distance.
 Her cat was noticed sleeping on the couch.
Active Voice with bare infinitive:
 They heard him shout for help.
 We saw the chef cook a delicious meal.
 She observed her colleague solve the problem.
 I noticed the door open slowly.
Passive Voice with to-infinitive:
 He was heard to shout for help.
 A delicious meal was seen to be cooked by the chef.
 Her colleague was observed to solve the problem.
 The door was noticed to open slowly.
Note. Compare these sentences:
 I noticed the door open slowly.
 I noticed the door was being opened.
 I noticed that the door was opened.
The meanings of the sentences are slightly different:
 I noticed the door open slowly.
This sentence suggests that you observed the door in the process of opening. The action of
the door opening was ongoing when you noticed it.
 I noticed the door was being opened.
This sentence conveys a similar idea, but it specifically implies that someone was in the
process of actively opening the door. It focuses on the action of opening rather than the
state of being open.
 I noticed that the door was opened.
This sentence indicates that, at the time you noticed, the door was already in the fully open
position. It emphasizes the result of the action rather than the ongoing process.
The differences are subtle, but they revolve around the timing and the specific aspect of the
door's state or action that you observed.
Note. Compare these sentences:
 He was heard to shout for help.
 He was heard shouting for help.
They are similar in meaning, but there is a subtle difference in emphasis.
 He was heard to shout for help.

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This construction emphasizes the action itself. It suggests that the act of shouting for help
was audible to someone, without specifying who heard it. It implies a clear perception of the
action.
 He was heard shouting for help.
This construction emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action. It suggests that someone
heard him while he was in the process of shouting for help. The emphasis is on the
continuous activity of shouting rather than the singular act.
In practical use, the distinction is often subtle, and the choice between the two forms
depends on the nuance you want to convey. Both constructions are grammatically correct
and commonly used.
Using to-infinitive to talk about intentions
Certain verbs are used with a "to-infinitive" to express intentions:
 "We guarantee to refund your money if you are dissatisfied with the computer."
The present simple with a "to-infinitive" or present continuous with a "to-infinitive" can be
employed with verbs like (aim, agree, expect, hope, intend, mean, plan, promise, propose,
resolve, undertake, want) to communicate intentions:
 "I aim to get to Bangkok by the end of June." (or "I’m aiming to get…"; "I was aiming
to get…" is also possible, but it conveys more tentativeness)
In some cases, particularly in speech and journalism, "be looking + to-infinitive" is used to
signify planning a course of action:
 "We’re looking to create 3,000 jobs in the city over the next year."
Note. We rarely use just not + to-infinitive, but instead use so as not to or in order not to:
 He kept the speech vague in order not to commit himself to one side or the other.
 He kept the speech vague not to commit himself to one side or the other
The second sentence, "He kept the speech vague not to commit himself to one side or the
other," while technically correct, may sound slightly awkward and less clear, as it lacks the
explicit indication of purpose conveyed by "in order not to; so better to use so as not to or in
order not to.
 I wrote down her name so as not to forget it. (not … name not to forget …)
 He left early so as not to miss the train.
 She studied hard so as not to fail the exam.
 They spoke quietly so as not to disturb the sleeping baby.
 He saved his money so as not to be broke during the trip.
 She packed her umbrella so as not to get wet in case it rained.
 They arrived early so as not to be late for the meeting.
 He wore gloves so as not to burn his hands while cooking.
 She set multiple alarms so as not to oversleep in the morning.
 He double-checked the address so as not to get lost on the way.
 They locked the door so as not to be burglarized while away on vacation.
Verb + (object) + to-infinitive clause
When reporting offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, promises, requests, etc., certain verbs
in the reporting clause can be followed by:

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to-infinitive clause:
 Example: 'The theatre will be built next to the town hall.' → They propose to build the
theatre next to the town hall. (Not: They propose them to build…)
Verbs include: agree, demand, guarantee, offer, promise, swear, threaten, volunteer.
object + to-infinitive clause:
 Example: 'You should take the job, Fran.' → She encouraged Fran to take the job.
Verbs include: advise, ask, call on, command, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend,
remind, request, urge, warn, tell.
The object typically refers to the person to whom the offer, suggestion, etc., is made – the
person who performs the action in the reported clause.
Compare the use of 'ask' with and without an object before a to-infinitive clause:
 We asked to leave our bags outside the exam room. (This is something we wanted)
 They asked us to leave our bags outside the exam room. (This is something they
wanted)
More examples:
 The company promised to launch a new product line next year.
 She guaranteed to finish the project ahead of the deadline.
 He volunteered to organize the charity event.
 They threatened to take legal action if the issue wasn't resolved.
 We agreed to participate in the community cleanup initiative.
 The manager advised the team to reconsider their marketing strategy.
 The professor urged the students to submit their assignments on time.
 I reminded my friend to pick up groceries on the way home.
 She requested her colleague to assist with the presentation.
 They instructed the employees to attend the mandatory training session.
 The teacher commanded the students to remain quiet during the exam.
 The coach told the players to focus on improving their skills.
After the verbs insist, order, say, and suggest, we use a that-clause but not a to-infinitive
clause:
 There were cheers when he suggested that we go home early. (Not: … suggested to
go …)
 She insisted that the project be completed by the end of the week.
 The manager insisted that everyone attend the mandatory training session.
 The teacher ordered that the students remain seated until the bell rang.
 The commander ordered that the troops advance cautiously.
 He said that he would consider the proposal before making a decision.
 The spokesperson said that the company was committed to sustainability.
 The committee suggested that a new policy be implemented to address the issue.
 She suggested that we meet at the café for our discussion.
Advise and order can be used with an object + to-infinitive clause or a that-clause:
 I advised that she should accept. (or I advised her to accept.; but not I advised to
accept …)

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Verb + to-infinitive clause (not verb + that-clause)
After some verbs we use a to-infinitive clause but not a that-clause:
 Carolyn intends to return to Dublin after a year in Canada. (not Carolyn intends that
she should return …)
 She longs to explore new cultures and traditions during her travels.
 He offered to help with the project after seeing the team's struggle.
 Despite the pressure, she refused to compromise her principles.
 They volunteered to organize the charity event for the local community.
 The team wants to improve their performance in the upcoming competition.
Be+ to infinitive structure
Consider the table below:
Tense Active Passive
Simple Is/was/were to do Is to be done
Continuous Is/was/were to be doing -
Perfect Was/were to have done Was/were to have been done
Perfect Continuous Was/were to have been doing -

This structure could be used for conveying the meaning of ‘something is/was/were supposed
to’ or ‘something is/was/were going to’. This structure is used to express planned or
scheduled future events, actions, or intentions. It often implies a sense of obligation,
expectation, or intention and conveys a sense of formality or official planning.
Notice examples:
 New students are to meet their teacher next week.
 In two days, I am to fly to Texas.
 Students are to protest rising tuition at the capital.
 Government is to spend an extra 2 million dollars on housing.
 She is to be presenting the findings at the conference next week.
 The project is to be showcasing the latest technological advancements in the industry
during the exhibition.
 A property development company was to have cut down a 200-year-old tree, but
community members protested this.
 You are to think he is cute.
 You are not to touch my stuff when I’m gone.
 Employees are to complete their work satisfaction forms.
When the structure "be to + infinitive" refers to the future from the past, it is frequently
utilized to narrate what transpired to someone, irrespective of whether they had the ability
to influence events or not:
 "Matthew Flinders sailed past Tasmania in 1770, but it was to be a further 30 years
before he landed there."
This construction conveys that despite the initial sailing past Tasmania, it was destined to
take an additional 30 years for Matthew Flinders to eventually land there.
 "Clare Atkins was to write two more books about her experiences in Africa before her
death in 1997."

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Here, the structure suggests that Clare Atkins was destined or intended to write two
additional books about her experiences in Africa, and this occurred before her death in 1997.
In if-clauses, we frequently employ "be to + infinitive" to express that something must occur
first (in the main clause) before another event can take place (in the if-clause):
 "If the human race is to survive, we must look at environmental problems now."
 "The law needs to be revised if justice is to be done." (passive form)
For comparison, observe the use of "be to + infinitive" and the present simple for the future
in if-clauses:
 "If Lopez is to win gold at the next Olympics, he needs to work on his fitness."
 "If Lopez wins gold at the next Olympics, he has said that he will retire from athletics."
It's noteworthy how the order of cause and effect in if-sentences is reversed with these two
tenses:
 "If Lopez is to win gold..." (effect), he needs to work... (cause)
 "If Lopez wins gold..." (cause), he has said that he will retire... (effect)
We can make the active form into passive according to the following structure:
Active Passive
The teacher is to assign the homework The homework is to be assigned tomorrow.
tomorrow.
The company was to launch the new The new product was to be launched on
product on Monday. Monday.
They were to organize a meeting for all A meeting was to be organized for all
employees. employees.
The chef is to prepare a special dish for the A special dish is to be prepared for the
event. event.
The team was to have completed the task The task was to have been completed by
by the deadline. the deadline.
She was to have submitted her application Her application was to have been
last week. submitted last week.
The students were to have finished their Student’s exams were to have been
exams by today. finished today.
The project was to have reached the final The final stage was to have been reached
stage by now. by now.
He was to have attended the meeting The meeting was to have been held
yesterday. yesterday.

The continuous and perfect continuous tenses with the "Is/was/were to be doing" and
"Was/were to have been doing" structures are not typically used in the passive voice. Passive
voice is more commonly associated with simple tenses and perfect tenses. So, for example,
we wouldn't usually say something like "The task is to be being completed" or "The project
was to have been being done." Instead, simpler forms like "The task is to be completed" or
"The project was to have been done" are more typical.
Exercise. Change the provided active sentences into passive.
 The team is to complete the research report by the end of the month.
 The students were to submit their assignments before the deadline.
 The contractor was to have completed the construction of the building last week.
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  We were to have finished the project by yesterday, but unexpected challenges arose.
Answer:
 The research report is to be completed by the end of the month.
 Student’s assignments were to be submitted before the deadline.
 The construction of the building was to have been completed last week.
 The project was to have been finished yesterday but unexpected challenges arose.
Gerunds used with a passive meaning
With a very few verbs, we can use a gerund in a passive sense. Here the gerund replaces a
passive infinitive. The verb most commonly used in this way is need.
 The car needs servicing soon. = to be serviced.
 That shirt needs ironing. = to be ironed.
 The water heater needs seeing to. = to be seen to.
 In case you need reminding, tomorrow's Judy's birthday = to be reminded.
Other verbs sometimes used like this are: require, deserve, and in informal British English:
want.
 This form requires filling in. = to be filled in.
 One thing deserves mentioning here. = to be mentioned.
 The dishes want washing. = to be washed.
 That bloke wants locking up. = to be locked up (e.g. in prison).
Sometimes a gerund is used instead of a past participle after an object. This construction is
known as a "gerund-participle complement" or "object + gerund" construction.
 My car always needs something doing to it. (or done).
 He wants his head examining. (or examined).
 The house requires some painting. (or painted)
 I heard him singing in the shower. (or sung)
 She felt her heart racing. (or raced)
 He noticed his computer malfunctioning. (or malfunctioned)
 The teacher kept the students busy studying. (or studied)
 I smell something burning in the kitchen. (or burnt)
 She left the window open, leaving the room freezing. (or frozen)
 The mechanic heard the engine running. (or run)
 The chef observed the sauce thickening. (or thickened)
Possessives with gerunds
Sometimes a noun or pronoun comes before the gerund and they together form the subject,
object etc. For example:
 Stephen leaving like that really upset her.
Some linguists consider this a wrong structure, asking users to avoid it and rebuild the
sentence. They believe this structure should either be turned into a participle clause as:
 Leaving like that, Stephen really upset her.
Or that the noun or pronoun should be in the possessive as:
 Stephen's behaviour really upset her. (noun + noun)

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  Stephen's leaving like that really upset her. (noun + gerund phrase)
Other examples:
 There's the small matter of our car being damaged. - common noun
 She quite understood him wanting to leave. - personal pronoun
 She was embarrassed at everyone laughing at her. - impersonal pronoun
Which according to some linguistics are not grammatically sound and should be changed as:
 There's the small matter of our car's being damaged.
 She quite understood his wanting to leave.
 She was embarrassed at everyone's laughing at her.
Anyhow, those with prescriptivist leanings tend to say you must use the possessive,
descriptivists, on the other hand, observe how language is used in real-life situations and
acknowledge that both forms are used in practice. They might emphasize that language is
flexible and evolves over time, and usage often depends on factors like context, formality,
and personal preference.
With a proper name - possessive normally used
 David's turning up at her wedding like that was a bit of a surprise.
With things and plurals - not normally used
 What is the reason for my foot swelling, I wonder.
 Because of the shops closing early, we couldn't but any last minute Christmas
presents.
Instead of:
 What is the reason for my foot's swelling, I wonder?
 Because of the shops’ closing early, we couldn't but any last minute Christmas
presents.
With personal pronouns - either way possible, depending on context and register
 Sarah didn't approve of me/my swearing.
 My/Me swearing like that really annoyed Sarah.
With indefinite pronouns - non-possessive more common
 She didn't approve of anyone telling her what to do.
Instead of:
 She didn't approve of anyone's telling her what to do.

Using a possessive adjective before a gerund is often considered more formal and
grammatically precise. It can provide clarity by indicating possession or association between
the noun and the action described by the gerund. This construction is commonly preferred in
more formal writing, academic contexts, or when a higher level of precision is desired.
For example:
 "My being late was due to unexpected traffic."

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In less formal contexts, and especially in spoken or informal writing, you might encounter
constructions without possessive adjectives, such as "me being late." While this is widely
used and generally accepted in everyday language, it may be considered less formal.
So, using the possessive adjective is a good choice when formality and precision are
important, but in casual or everyday language, both forms are encountered. In more formal
or precise writing, using gerunds with possessives is often recommended.
Some examples:
 I appreciate your coming to the meeting on short notice.
 We discussed his attending the conference next month.
 Her avoidance of my mentioning the issue made the conversation awkward.
 The company is considering their investing in renewable energy.
 Do you mind our using your computer for a moment?
 He was surprised by his wife suddenly changing her career.
 We celebrated our team winning the championship.
 She was excited about their hosting the event at her house.
 My concern is your not completing the assigned tasks on time.
 I recall his mentioning the project during the last meeting.
 My frustration is your consistently ignoring my messages.
 Our priority is your understanding the new software system.
 Her disappointment is your forgetting our anniversary.
 The challenge is your adapting to the fast-paced work environment.
 Their concern is your overlooking critical details in the project.
 The issue is your not responding to urgent emails promptly.
 Our goal is your achieving better work-life balance.
 The problem is your consistently arriving late to meetings.
 His worry is your not seeking help when you encounter difficulties.
 Our focus is your improving communication within the team.
Note that we only use a possessive form here to talk about a person or group of people:
 I remember the horse winning the race. (but not … the horse’s winning …)
 We appreciate John's contributing his time to the community.
 We appreciate the cat's contributing to the event.
 I was impressed by the team's completing the project ahead of schedule.
 I was impressed by the computer's completing the project ahead of schedule.
 The company acknowledged the employees' achieving their sales targets.
 The machine acknowledged the production's achieving the set goals.
Being as gerund
Being as a gerund can refer to an activity or the idea of an action. Here are examples
illustrating this usage:
 I appreciate the beauty of being in nature.
 His favorite part of the job is the challenge of being innovative.
 She dreams of being a successful entrepreneur.
 Try to deliver the gifts without being seen.
It can indeed come after a possessive adjective:
 I appreciate your being understanding about the situation.
 His success is attributed to his being diligent in his work.
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  We value our employees' being proactive in solving problems.
 Its being expensive does not mean it is good.
The use of "being" with attitudes and not with feelings is a common pattern in English. For
example:
 He is being nice.
 He is being stubborn.
Note. The continuous forms of to be and to have can be used after certain words and phrases
including: be used to, enjoy, like, look forward to, be advantages to, be worth, a reason for,
rather that, without.
Examples:
 I am not used to being away from my family.
 There are advantages to having a flat in the city centre.
 She is used to having breakfast early in the morning.
 They enjoy being outdoors on sunny days.
 We enjoy having friends over for dinner.
 He likes being the center of attention.
 She likes having her own space to work.
 We look forward to being reunited with our loved ones.
 She looks forward to having a vacation in the mountains.
 There are advantages to having a flexible work schedule.
 It is advantageous to being well-prepared for the exam.
 It's worth being patient and waiting for the right opportunity.
 The effort is worth having a clean and organized home.
 There's no reason for being rude to others.
 She found a reason for having a positive outlook on life.
 He prefers being active rather than sitting idle.
 She chose having a small gathering rather than a big party.
 She couldn't imagine living without having her morning coffee.
 He couldn't bear living without being surrounded by nature.
Some useful prepositional phrases with gerund
On the verge of: it indicates that something is very close to happening or being completed:
 She is on the verge of quitting her job.
 The company is on the verge of launching a new product.
 We are on the verge of finalizing the deal.
 They are on the verge of winning the championship.
 He is on the verge of achieving his lifelong dream.
In the process of: This phrase is used to describe actions or events that are currently
happening or unfolding. For example:
 He is in the process of writing a novel.
 They are in the process of renovating their house.
With the intention of: This phrase indicates the purpose or intention behind an action. For
example:
 She went to the gym with the intention of losing weight.

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  They invested in stocks with the intention of securing their financial future.
In lieu of: This phrase means "instead of" or "in place of." For example:
 She volunteered at the shelter in lieu of donating money.
 He offered his services in lieu of paying for his meal.
 The company provided extra vacation days in lieu of giving out bonuses.
 They opted for online training in lieu of attending the conference.
 The manager decided to offer flexible work hours in lieu of increasing salaries.
 They decided to send an email in lieu of making a phone call.
For the purpose of: This phrase is similar to "with the intention of" and is used to indicate
the purpose behind an action. For example:
 They conducted experiments for the purpose of gathering data.
 She attended the meeting for the purpose of voicing her concerns.
With the aim of: Similar to "with the intention of," this phrase indicates the goal or objective
behind an action. For example:
 They started a charity with the aim of helping homeless people.
 He enrolled in the course with the aim of improving his skills.
By way of: This phrase is used to introduce a means or method of doing something. For
example:
 He apologized by way of sending flowers.
 She expressed her gratitude by way of kissing her.
With a view to: This phrase is used to express intention or purpose. For example:
 They attended the seminar with a view to expanding their knowledge.
With a knack for: This phrase indicates a natural ability or talent for doing something. For
example:
 She approached the task with a knack for problem-solving.

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Lesson5. Types of Sentences (B2/C1)
Sentences are divided into four different types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-
complex.
Simple sentences consist of a single MC with a subject and a predicate and are categorized
into four different patterns as follows:
Patterns Type Formula Example
a S VI (Adv) She laughed (loudly).
Pattern 1
b S VB Adv The car is there.
Pattern 2 - S VI Adj The girl is mean.
Pattern 3 - S VI NP The brother is the boss.
a S VT DO [NP, P] The lady hit the dog.
b S VT IO DO [NP, P] She gave me her book.
Pattern 4
c S VT DO C [NP] Sam calls his brother BonBon.
d S VT DO C [Adj] The boy painted his car yellow.

Note that the verbs in pattern 4-C are called factitive .Factitive verbs are a specific type of
transitive verb that involve an action that results in a change of state or condition of the
direct object. These verbs typically transform the object into a different state or condition.
The structure of factitive verbs is often in the form of "subject + transitive verb + direct
object + object complement."
Here are some examples of factitive verbs:
 Appoint: They appointed him the leader.
 Name: We named the baby Emily.
 Make: She made him a cup of coffee.
 Choose: I chose her the best gift.
 Elect: The people elected her president.
 Call: They called the dish "spicy noodles."
 Paint: She painted the room blue.
 Declare: The judge declared him innocent.
 Find: He found her a new job.
 Consider: We considered the idea feasible.
 Designate: The teacher designated her class president.
 Consider: He considered the plan feasible.
 Label: The scientist labeled the substance toxic.
 Appraise: The expert appraised the antique as valuable.
 Nominate: The party nominated her for the position.
 View: I view him a mentor.
 Dress: She dressed the child in warm clothes.
 Brand: The company branded the product innovative.
 Proclaim: The king proclaimed him a hero.
 Term: They termed it a success.
 Judge: The panel judged the performance exceptional.
 Consider: The committee considered her a reliable candidate.
When using factitive verbs, it is not necessary to use "as" to introduce the complement.
Instead, the direct object can directly receive the complement without the preposition "as."

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  I consider him a friend. (Not I consider him as a friend.)
 They named the baby Emily. (Not They named the baby as Emily.)
 We elected her president." (Not We elected her as president.)
Using "as" after factitive verbs is not strictly wrong, but it can sound less natural in many
cases. For example, both sentences below are grammatically correct, however the first one is
more natural and commonly used.
 Do you regard yourself an experienced writer?
 Do you regard yourself as an experienced writer?
Tree diagram
To facilitate the understanding of simple sentences in linguistics, we can use a diagram to
show the internal hierarchical structure of sentences. The root of the tree is at the top of the
diagram, indicated by 'S' (sentence). From this point, branches descend, corresponding to the
categories specified by the rules. First in the order of descent will be phrases (NP and VP),
followed by word classes (parts of speech), and finally, the individual words drawn from the
lexicon, which comprise the individual sentence. The rules:
S ==> NP VP
NP ==> (art) (adj) N
VP ==> V (NP) (PP)
PP ==> P NP
Example: The cat devoured the tiny mouse.

Compound sentences consist of two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating

conjunction, semicolons, or conjunctive adverbs.
 She likes to swim, but he prefers to hike.
 The sun was shining brightly; the birds were singing.
 He loves playing basketball; however, she enjoys soccer more.

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Complex sentences consist of one MC and one or two SCs. The SC cannot stand alone and is
usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction. SCs can be noun clauses (NC), adverb
clauses (AC), or relative clauses (RC).
 That he had won the lottery surprised everyone (NC)
 The person who is standing near the door is my cousin (RC)
 Although she had studied diligently for the exam, she did not perform well (AC)
Compound-complex sentences are made up of two or more MCs and one or more SCs.
 While I was studying for my exams, my sister was playing loud music, and my brother
was cooking dinner.
 She signs well, but she is not confident in her ability when she performs in front of a
large audience.
Exercise. Identify types of sentences in the following texts.
From Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway:
1. When the boy came back the old man was asleep in the chair and the sun was down. The
boy took the old army blanket off the bed and spread it over the back of the chair and over
the old man's shoulders. They were strange shoulders, still powerful although very old, and
the neck was still strong too and the creases did not show so much when the old man was
asleep and his head fallen forward. His shirt had been patched so many times that it was like
the sail and the patches were faded to many different shades by the sun. The old man's head
was very old though and with his eyes closed there was no life in his face. The newspaper lay
across his knees and the weight of his arm held it therein the evening breeze. He was
barefooted.
Answer:
When the boy came back the old man was asleep in the chair and the sun was down.
(compound- complex)The boy took the old army blanket off the bed and spread it over the
back of the chair and over the old man's shoulders. (compound) They were strange
shoulders, still powerful although very old, and the neck was still strong too and the creases
did not show so much when the old man was asleep and his head fallen forward.
(compound-complex)His shirt had been patched so many times that it was like the sail and
the patches were faded to many different shades by the sun. (complex)The old man's head
was very old though and with his eyes closed there was no life in his face. (compound)The
newspaper lay across his knees and the weight of his arm held it there in the evening breeze.
(compound)He was barefooted.(simple)
2. Where did you wash? the boy thought. The village water supply was two streets down the
road. I must have water here for him, the boy thought, and soap and a good towel. Why am I
so thoughtless? I must get him another shirt and a jacket for the winter and some sort of
shoes and another blanket.
Answer:
Where did you wash? (simple)The boy thought (simple). The village water supply was two
streets down the road. (simple)I must have water here for him, the boy thought, and soap
and a good towel. (compound)Why am I so thoughtless? (simple)I must get him another shirt
and a jacket for the winter and some sort of shoes and another blanket.(compound)
Form The Great Gatsby

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4. This was untrue. I am not even faintly like a rose. She was only extemporizing, but a
stirring warmth flowed from her, as if her heart was trying to come out to you concealed in
one of those breathless, thrilling words. Then suddenly she threw her napkin on the table
and excused herself and went into the house.
Answer:
This was untrue. (simple)I am not even faintly like a rose. (simple)She was only
extemporizing, but a stirring warmth flowed from her, as if her heart was trying to come out
to you concealed in one of those breathless, thrilling words. (compound-complex)Then
suddenly she threw her napkin on the table and excused herself and went into the house.
(compound)
5. The telephone rang inside, startlingly, and as Daisy shook her head decisively at Tom the
subject of the stables, in fact all subjects, vanished into air. Among the broken fragments of
the last five minutes at table I remember the candles being lit again, pointlessly, and I was
conscious of wanting to look squarely at everyone, and yet to avoid all eyes. I couldn’t guess
what Daisy and Tom were thinking, but I doubt if even Miss Baker, who seemed to have
mastered a certain hardy skepticism, was able utterly to put this fifth guest’s shrill metallic
urgency out of mind. To a certain temperament the situation might have seemed intriguing—
my own instinct was to telephone immediately for the police.
Answer.
The telephone rang inside, startlingly, and as Daisy shook her head decisively at Tom the
subject of the stables, in fact all subjects, vanished into air. (compound)Among the broken
fragments of the last five minutes at table I remember the candles being lit again, pointlessly,
and I was conscious of wanting to look squarely at everyone, and yet to avoid all eyes.
(compound)I couldn’t guess what Daisy and Tom were thinking, but I doubt if even Miss
Baker, who seemed to have mastered a certain hardy skepticism, was able utterly to put this
fifth guest’s shrill metallic urgency out of mind. (compound-complex) To a certain
temperament the situation might have seemed intriguing (simple)—my own instinct was to
telephone immediately for the police. (simple)

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Lesson 6: Indirect and direct objects (A2/B1)
Many verbs can take two objects, typically involving both a person and a thing. This
frequently occurs with verbs used to describe the transfer or communication of items
between individuals or actions performed on behalf of someone else. Several other verbs are
also employed in this dual-object structure.
Some common examples include: bet, get, offer, post, send, tell, bring, give, owe, promise,
show, throw, build, leave, pass, read, sing, wish, buy, lend, pay, refuse, take, write, cost,
make, play, sell, and teach.
The thing that is given, sent, bought, etc is called the ‘direct object’; the person who gets it is
the 'indirect object'. Most often, the indirect object comes first.
 I bet you ten dollars you can’t beat me at chess.
 He built the children a tree house.
 Shall I buy you some chocolate while I’m out?
 Could you bring me the paper?
 The repair cost me a lot.
 I gave Jack the keys.
 If you’re going upstairs, could you get me my coat?
 He left his children nothing when he died.
 Lend me your bike, can you?
 I’ll make you a cake tomorrow.
 I owe my sister a lot of money.
 Can I play you some relaxing music?
 I’ll send her the report tomorrow.
 They promised me all sorts of things.
 Daddy, read me a story.
 He sent his mother a postcard.
 Let’s take her some flowers.
 Will you teach me poker?
 We bought the children pizzas.
 Throw me the ball.
 We wish you a Merry Christmas.
Indirect object last
We can also put the indirect object after the direct object. In this case it normally has a
preposition (usually to оr for).
 I gave the keys to Jack.
 I handed my licence to the police officer.
 Mrs. Norman sent some flowers to the nurse.
 Mother bought the ice cream for you, not for me.
Two pronouns
When both objects are pronouns, it is common to put the indirect object last. To is
occasionally dropped after it in informal British English.
 Lend them to her.
 Send some to him. Give it (to) me.
It is also possible to put the indirect object first.

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  Give her one.
 Send him some.
However, this structure is avoided in some cases: phrases ending with it or them (e.g. He
gave you it or Send them them) are often felt to be unnatural.
Prepositions are used in questions referring to the indirect object.
 Who did you buy it for? (not Who did you buy it?)
 Who was it sent to? (not Who was it sent?)
In these examples, the prepositions "for" and "to" are necessary to correctly convey the
relationship between the verb and the indirect object. Without the prepositions, the
questions would lack clarity and precision.
When these verbs are used in passive structures, the subject is usually the person who
receives something, not the thing which is sent, given, etc.
 I've just been given a lovely picture.
 We were all bought little presents.
However, the thing which is given, sent, etc. can be the subject if necessary.
 What happened to the stuff he left behind?
 Well, the picture was given to Mr. Ferguson.
Structures with donate, push, carry, explain, suggest, describe and take
Not all verbs that refer to transferring or communicating can be followed by the structure
indirect object + direct object. This structure is not possible, for example, with verbs like
donate, push, carry, explain, suggest, or describe.
 They donated money to the museum, (but not They donated the museum money.)
 I pushed the plate to Anna, (but not I pushed Anna the plate.)
 He carried the baby to the doctor, (but not He carried the doctor the baby.)
 I'd like him to explain his decision to us. (but not ... to explain us his decision.)
 Can you suggest a good dentist to me? (but not Can you suggest me a good dentist?)
 Please describe your wife to us. (but not Please describe us your wife.)
The verb "take" can be used with the structure indirect object + direct object when it means
'take to,' but not 'take from.' For example:
 I took her some money. (meaning: I took some money to her, not from her.)
In this context, "her" is the indirect object, and "some money" is the direct object, indicating
the action of taking something to someone. However, it doesn't convey the idea of taking
something from her.

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Lesson 7: Dependent clauses (B2/C1)
Noun Clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun and can be a subject or object.
There are three types of noun clauses:
 That clause, beginning with the word that,
 If/Whether clause, which begins with the words whether or if,
 Question clauses, which begins with a question word such as who, what, where,
when, or how.
The most common position of a noun clause is after the verb of the independent clause,
where it functions as the object of that verb. It also can follow certain adjectives such as
happy, glad, proud, pleased, sad, upset, worried, sorry, certain, surprised, sure and nouns
such as idea, theory, thought, claim, assertion, statement, belief, notion and opinion.
While a sentence can start with a 'that' clause, which functions as the subject, another
effective way to emphasize or highlight information is by using cleft sentences. Cleft
sentences involve a more complex structure with 'it' and a form of 'to be,' providing an
alternative method for structuring sentences.
Types of cleft sentence Example
It + be + noun/pronoun + that/who + It was Mary who suggested the idea.
main clause It is believed that carbon dioxide is responsible for
global warming.
It was agreed that the meeting would be postponed
until next week.
It has been proven that the world’s deserts are
expanding.
What + be + noun/pronoun + main What surprised me was his sudden resignation.
clause
All + be + noun/pronoun + that/who + All I want is some peace and quiet.
main clause
For example, consider sentences below:
 That Earth is getting warmer is certain.
 It is certain that Earth is getting warmer.
Expletives
Expletives, also known as dummy subjects or existential subjects, are linguistic elements used
as placeholders in sentences to fulfill syntactic requirements. The most common type of
expletive in English is the word "it," but there are different types of expletives that serve
various syntactic functions. Here are some types of expletives:
 There are many ways to solve this problem. (Existential Expletive)
 It is raining. (Weather Expletive)
 It is true that he is coming. (Factual Expletive)
 It is a long way to the top. (Distance Expletive)
 It was midnight when they arrived. (Time Expletive)
 It seems that the project is delayed. (Impersonal Expletive)
 It is expected that the results will be announced tomorrow. (Preparatory Subject)
 It's unbelievable how quickly time passes. (Emotional Expletive)
Note: When a that-clause begins that + there …, we can make a corresponding passive form
there +passive verb + to be / to have been. Compare:
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  It is thought (that) there are too many obstacles to peace. and
 There are thought to be too many obstacles to peace.
 It is believed (that) there will be a breakthrough in medical research.
 There is believed to be a breakthrough in medical research.
 It is known (that) there have been multiple attempts to solve the problem.
 There are known to have been multiple attempts to solve the problem.
 It is rumored (that) there is a new product launch happening soon.
 There is rumored to be a new product launch happening soon.
 It is suggested (that) there could be improvements in the current system.
 There are suggested to be improvements in the current system.
 It is reported (that) there were significant changes in the company's leadership.
 There are reported to have been significant changes in the company's leadership.
Exercise: Use a noun clause to subordinate one of the ideas in each pair of sentences below.
 Did you hear his remarks to the class? They astonished everyone.
 Rupert won the literary award. This fact puzzled everyone.
 English is basically simple. I will demonstrate this in my lecture.
 The Black Sox threw the world series. Their reasons remain a mystery to baseball
fans.
 His remarks astonished everyone. Did you hear them?
 There will be no school Friday. My teacher said so.
 Moby Dick contains a lot of symbolism. Everyone know that.
 My family doesn’t understand me. They certainly don’t know my plans.
Answer:
 Did you hear what he said about the class, which astonished everyone?
 That Rupert won the literary award puzzled everyone.
 I will demonstrate in my lecture that English is basically simple.
 Why the Black Sox threw the world series remains a mystery to baseball fans.
 Did you hear what he said? It astonished everyone.
 My teacher said that there will be no school Friday.
 Everyone knows that Moby Dick contains a lot of symbolism.
 That my family doesn’t understand me is because they certainly don’t know my plans.
If/Whether clauses
An if/whether clause is a dependent noun clause that starts with the subordinator if or
whether. Whether is more formal than if. The optional phrase or not may be added in two
places with whether and in one place with if. So, there are five possible patterns:
 The patient wants to know whether Dr. Chen practices acupuncture.
 The patient wants to know whether or not Dr. Chen practices acupuncture.
 The patient wants to know whether Dr. Chen practices acupuncture or not.
 The patient wants to know if Dr. Chen practices acupuncture.
 The patient wants to know if Dr. Chen practices acupuncture or not.
For changing a question into if/whether clause, a subordinator should be added, the word
order should be changed to statement order, and auxiliary verb do should be removed. Note
that maintain the tense of the verb in these clauses, and commence the sentence following
whether/if with the respective pronoun/noun. When forming questions into whether/if
clauses, the auxiliary verb (like "is") stays in its usual position and does not come before the
subject.
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Is the test easy? The students want to know if the test is easy.
Does he know the answer? My father wants to know whether he knows the answer.
Did she go to the party? They want to know whether she went to the party or not.

Other verbs can be followed by whether + to-infinitive: choose, consider, debate, determine,
discuss, know (in questions and negatives), think about, wonder (= ‘talking’ or ‘thinking about
choices’ verbs):
 She couldn't choose whether to accept the job.
 We are considering whether to invest in the new technology.
 The team debated whether to implement the changes immediately.
 The committee needs to determine whether to proceed with the project.
 Let's discuss whether to extend the deadline for the project.
 Do you know whether to attend the conference?
 I'm thinking about whether to pursue further education.
 She wonders whether to relocate for a better job opportunity.
Some other ‘talking’ and ‘thinking about choices’ verbs are not used with whether + to-
infinitive, including ask, conclude, explain, imagine, realise, speculate, think.
In rather formal contexts, particularly in writing, we can use as to with a meaning similar to
‘about’ or‘ concerning’ before a wh-clause. This is most common before whether:
 Opinion was divided as to whether the findings from the study were representative of
the population as a whole. (or less formally … divided whether …)
 There is uncertainty as to whether the proposed changes will be implemented by the
next fiscal year.
 The committee is inquiring as to whether the new policy aligns with the organization's
core values.
 The experts are in disagreement as to whether the observed phenomenon can be
replicated under controlled conditions.
 The researchers are seeking clarification as to whether the methodology used in the
study is widely accepted in the scientific community.
 The board is deliberating as to whether the company should diversify its investment
portfolio.
 There is ongoing debate as to whether the current education system adequately
prepares students for the challenges of the modern workforce.
 The legal team is reviewing the evidence as to whether the accused is entitled to a
fair trial.
 Opinions vary as to whether the recent economic downturn is indicative of a long-
term trend.
Exercise. Change the questions provided into whether/if clause.
 Did you enjoy the movie?
 Have they received the invitation?
 Is she going to the conference?
 Did my brother complete the assignment on time?
 Will you attend the meeting tomorrow?
 Has it started raining outside?
 Did they find the missing keys?

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  Is the project due next week?
 Have you met the new team member?
 Did she solve the problem correctly?
Answer:
 My mother tried to find out whether you enjoyed the movie.
 The supervisor called me to work out if they received the invitation or not.
 I want to enquire whether or not she is going to the conference.
 The teacher called my mother in order to know whether my brother completed the
assignment on time.
 I am wondering if you will attend the meeting tomorrow.
 My father went outside the house in order to see whether the raining has started.
 I am writing this email to know if they found the missing keys.
 Jane telephoned his friend to ask whether the project is due next week.
 I want to know if you have met the new team member.
 The principal called her father to know if she solved the problem correctly.
Exercise.
 Is acupuncture a risky medical procedure?
 Are the needles made of stainless steel or of some other metal?
 Do the needles hurt when they are inserted?
 Has the effectiveness of acupuncture in relieving back pain ever been documented?
 Can acupuncture strengthen the immune system?
 Does acupuncture use the body’s energy to promote healing?
 Did you study acupuncture in China or in the United States?
Answer
 I am wondering if acupuncture is a risky medical procedure.
 I want to find out if the needles are made of stainless steel or of some other metal.
 My question is whether the needles hurt when they are inserted.
 Professor Peterson wanted to know if the effectiveness of acupuncture in relieving
back pain has ever been documented or not.
 My father wants to know whether or not acupuncture can strengthen the immune
system.
 He tried to find out whether acupuncture uses the body’s energy to promote healing.
 She called to inquire if you studied acupuncture in China or in the United States.
whether or if
We use whether rather than if –
after a preposition (although if is sometimes used informally) and before a to-infinitive:
 We argued about whether butter or margarine was better for you. (informally … if …)
 I couldn’t decide whether to buy apples or bananas.
in the pattern noun / adjective + as to whether to mean ‘about’ or ‘concerning’:
 There was some disagreement as to whether he was eligible to play for France.
Also: conflict, confusion, debate, discussion, doubt, question, speculation, uncertainty;
concerned, indifferent, uncertain, undecided, unsure.

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and we prefer whether rather than if:
after the verbs advise, choose, consider, depend on, discuss, talk about, and think about:
 You should consider whether the car you are interested in is good value.
in a clause acting as a subject or complement:
 Whether the minister will quit over the issue remains to be seen.
 The first issue is whether he knew he was committing a crime.
Question Clauses
A question clause, also known as an interrogative clause, is a type of dependent
(subordinate) clause that functions as a noun within a sentence. It begins with an
interrogative word or phrase such as who, what, when, where, why, how, how much, how
long, etc.
For changing a question into a question clause follow exactly the same rule explained for
changing questions into if/whether clauses. The interrogative word ("what," "how," "who")
introduces the question clause. The word order follows the statement order. The structure
creates a dependent (subordinate) clause that functions as a noun within the sentence.
Consider examples below.
What time is it? Please tell me what time it is.

How did the robbers enter the The police want to know how the robbers entered
apartment? the apartment.
who goes to the party? My friend wants to know who goes to the party.

Exercise.
 When and where will the concert take place?
 When did you last perform in Fog City?
 How many years have you been together as a group?
 Who writes your songs?
 Where do you practice on the road?
 How many songs have you recorded?
Answer:
 Do you know when and where the concert will take place.
 I want to find out when you last performed in the Fog City.
 I am surprised to know how many years you have been together as a group.
 I am wondering who writes your songs.
 I am trying to work out where you practice on the road.
 Could you please kindly let me know how many songs you have recorded.
Exercise.
 Under what circumstances might the intricate interplay of quantum particles lead to
observable macroscopic effects?
 Why do some scholars contend that the convoluted narrative structure of the novel
serves as a metaphor for the complexities of modern society?
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  In what ways can the intricate dance of neurotransmitters in the brain be harnessed
to enhance cognitive functions?
 What factors contribute to the intricate and delicate balance required for the
sustainable coexistence of diverse ecosystems within a changing climate?
 How can the multifaceted challenges posed by rapid technological advancements be
effectively addressed in a globally interconnected world?
Answer:
 I want to find out under what circumstances might the intricate interplay of quantum
particles lead to observable macroscopic effects.
 Professor asked thousands of questions to find out why some scholars contend that
the convoluted narrative structure of the novel serves as a metaphor for the
complexities of modern society.
 The psychoanalysts are trying to figure out in what ways the intricate dance of
neurotransmitters in the brain can be harnessed to enhance cognitive functions.
 The biologists today are working hard to understand what factors contribute to the
intricate and delicate balance required for the sustainable coexistence of diverse
ecosystems within a changing climate.
 The sociologists from Minnesota University are doing extensive research to grasp how
the multifaceted challenges posed by rapid technological advancements can be
effectively addressed in a globally interconnected world.
Reducing noun clause
In some cases, we can reduce noun clauses, using phrases:
 Noun clause: That he had been arrested before influenced the jury’s decision.
 Reduced form 1: His having been arrested before influenced the jury’s decision.
 Reduced form 2: His being arrested before influenced the jury’s decision.
More examples:
 That he is tall does not make any change in the basketball committee.
 His being tall does not make any change in the basketball committee.
 How he acts on the stage tonight would bring him success.
 His acting on the stage tonight would bring him success.
Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. It can tell when, where,
why, how, how long, how far, how often, and for what purpose something happened. It also
can express a contrast. The table below shows different types of adverb clauses and their
subordinators.
types of adverb clauses subordinator
Time clauses When, whenever, while, as soon as, after, since, as, before, until
Place clauses Where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere
Distance, frequency and As+ (adverb) +as, as, as if, as though, how
manner clauses
Reason clauses As, since, because
Result clauses So+ (adj/adv)+ that, such (a/an)+ (noun)+ that, so much/many +
(noun) + that, so little/few + (noun) + that

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Purpose clauses So that, in order that, in order to
Contrast clauses While, whereas
Concession clauses Although, even though, though, despite the fact that / in spite of
the fact that, despite / in spite of + -ing, despite / in spite of his /
her + noun

Examples for time clause:

 She will call you when she arrives.
 I feel happy whenever I see her smile.
 I listened to music while I was working.
 Please let me know as soon as you finish your assignment.
 We can go for a walk after it stops raining.
 She has been studying since morning.
 I saw him as I was leaving the building.
 Finish your homework before you go out to play.
 I will wait here until you come back.
For place clause:
 She lives where the river meets the sea.
 You can find inspiration wherever you go.
 The children scattered their toys everywhere.
 You can sit anywhere you like.
For reason clauses:
 She left early, as she had an important meeting to attend.
 He has been absent since he fell ill last week.
 I couldn't attend the party because I had a family commitment.
For result clauses:
 It was so hot that we decided to go swimming.
 It was such a beautiful day that we spent it outdoors.
 There was so much traffic that we were late for the meeting.
 There were so few tickets left that we couldn't get any.
Note. Result clauses can be inverted as:
 So + adjective + linking verb + that clause
 So + adverb + verb + that clause
 Such + be + noun phrase + that clause
 So much / little did ... that ...
Consider inverted sentences below:
 So hot was it that we decided to go swimming.
 Such a beautiful day was it that we spent it outdoors.
 So much traffic was there that we were late for the meeting.
 So few tickets were there that we couldn't get any.
We will talk about these construction in more detail in lesson 11.

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For purpose clauses:
 She studied hard so that she could pass the exam.
 He saved money in order that he might travel around the world.
 She woke up early in order to catch the first train.
For contrast clauses:
 She enjoys reading, while her brother prefers outdoor activities.
 I like coffee, whereas my sister prefers tea.
For concession clauses:
 Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.
 Even though she studied hard, she didn't perform well on the test.
 She decided to take the job, though it meant relocating to a new city.
For distance, frequency and manner clauses:
 She lives as far away as the neighboring town.
 He ran as fast as he could to catch the train.
 The hotel is not as close as I expected.
 They meet as often as possible.
 She calls her parents as frequently as once a week.
 He checks his email as seldom as once a month.
 He dances as gracefully as a swan.
 She spoke as quietly as a whisper.
 They worked together as efficiently as a well-oiled machine.
 She performed the experiment how the professor instructed.
 He sang the song how it was written.
 They decorated the room how they had planned.
 She always dresses how she feels comfortable.
 He explained the process how he understood it.
Exercise.
Use an adverb clause to subordinate on of the ideas in each pair of sentences below. The less
important idea is usually subordinated.
 Taylor crossed the goal. The crowd burst into cheers.
 The gas gauge registered empty. The motor began to sputter.
 You are going to the library. In that case, I’ll walk with you.
 The Boy Scout’s log cabin is in poor shape. They are working hard to raise money for a
new one.
Answer:
 After Taylor crossed the goal, the crowd burst into cheers.
 When the gas gauge registered empty, the motor began to sputter after.
 If you are going to the library, I’ll walk with you.
 Since the Boy Scout’s log cabin is in poor shape, they are working hard to rais money
for a new one.
Write sentences with the following pattern and underline the adverb clauses. Use this
subordinating conjunctions: when, after, because, since, before, although, while, as, until,
though.
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Pattern: If you ever hear the Preservation Hall Jazz Band, you will be amazed by their playing.
Answer:
 When I was old enough to have a cell phone, my parents bought me one.
 After the wind blew, the village houses were ruined.
 Although all the odds were against me, I went to the ring and fought.
 Since I am not ready to meet her, I postponed the rendezvous.
 Because there was not enough food, I left home.
 While Peter was eager to move to Canada, his will was dependent on his parents’
decision.
 Until I could work out what was going on in the supermarket, the thieves stole
everything.
Complete the sentences with the appropriate result clause. Write the structure you used.
 The weather was so _______________ that we decided to cancel the outdoor event.
 She sang _______________ that everyone in the room applauded.
 The teacher explained the concept _______________ the students could understand
it.
 There were so _______________ students interested in the club that they had to
schedule additional meetings.
 He spoke so _______________ that nobody could hear what he was saying.
Answer.
Hot (so + adj + that). So beautifully (s+ adv + that). So easily (so + adv + that). Many (so +
many +n). quietly (so+ adv+ that).
Rewrite the sentences, changing the structure of the result clause.
 The movie was so interesting that we stayed until the end. Rewrite using "such a"
structure.
 They spoke so quietly that nobody could hear them. Rewrite using "such (a/an)"
structure.
 The traffic was so heavy that we missed the flight. Rewrite using "so much" structure.
Answer.
 it was such an interesting movie that we stayed until the end.
 They spoke in such a quiet way that nobody could hear them.
 There was so much traffic that we missed the flight.
Exercise: Create your own sentences with result clauses using different structures.
 Use "so that" in a sentence.
 Create a sentence with "such (a/an) + (noun) + that."
 Create a sentence with "so much/many + (noun) + that."
 Create a sentence with "so little/few + (noun) + that."
Answer.
 I tried to gather my money so that I could buy the car I’ve always dreamed to have.
 Mike arrived his friend’s home lately, but it was such a mess that he decided to move
to a hotel.
 There were so people out there that I preferred to leave the café.

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  I came to realize that there is so much research in this field that I will finally find the
answer to my question.
 I was very busy last week and had so little time that I could not answer my email.
 I was very hungry but unfortunately there were so few sandwiches in the fridge that I
had to save them for my family.
Reduced form of adverb clause
If you want to reduce an adverb clause, make sure that the same subject is present in both
clauses, and then follow these steps:
1. Omit the subject of the adverb (dependent) clause.
 While she was driving to school, Betty got a flat tire.
 I ate breakfast before I left for work.
 My dog will run to the street when he is given the chance.
2. Omit the be form of the verb if there is one.
 While was driving to school, Betty got a flat tire.
 I ate breakfast before left for work. (no be)
 My dog will run to the street when is given the chance.
3. Change the verb to its present participle form (–ing) for the active voice, or leave it as the
past participle for the passive voice.
 While driving to school, Betty got a flat tire. (active voice present participle)
 I ate breakfast before leaving for work. (active voice present participle)
 My dog will run to the street when given the chance. (passive voice past participle)
Some examples:
1. Time sequences with after, before, once, since, until, when, and while:
 After they sang two songs, the performers did a dance. [clause]
 After singing two songs, the performers did a dance. [phrase]
 Before he answered the phone, he grabbed a pencil and notepad. [clause]
 Before answering the phone, he grabbed a pencil and notepad. [phrase] . . .
2. Giving reasons with because
When a clause introduced by because is reduced, because is omitted and the verb changes
form:
 Because she had always been interested in sports, Linda became an avid supporter of
the team. [clause]
 Having always been interested in sports, Linda became an avid supporter of the team.
[phrase]
3. Clauses of concession with although, despite, in spite of, though, and while:
 Although he was hurt, Jack managed to smile. [clause]
 Although hurt, Jack managed to smile. [phrase] . . .
 In spite of the fact that she works long hours, Joan spends a lot of time with her
family. [clause]
 In spite of working long hours, Joan spends a lot of time with her family. [phrase]
Note. Consider this sentence:
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  After he finished his homework, John went to bed.
For reducing it there are two possibilities:
 finishing his homework, John went to bed.
 after having finished his homework, John went to bed.
In the phrase "finishing his homework", "finishing" is a present participle. It indicates an
action that is happening at the same time as the main action of the sentence ("John went to
bed"). This form suggests simultaneity or immediate sequence. In "After having finished his
homework", "having finished" is a perfect participle. It indicates that the action of finishing
his homework is completed before the main action of the sentence ("John went to bed").
This form emphasizes the completion of the action before the main action takes place.
So, while both phrases convey the same basic idea, they emphasize the timing of the action
in slightly different ways: the first emphasizes immediate sequence, while the second
emphasizes completion before the main action.
Note. Adverbial meanings can also be added by a clause beginning with a conjunction or
adjective but with no verb. This kind of clause has the same meaning as a clause beginning
with a conjunction + subject + be and is used in fairly formal English (more informal
alternatives are given in brackets):
 While in Poland, they will play two concerts in Warsaw. (or While they are in Poland
…)
 Although just two feet apart, they didn’t speak. (or Although they were just …)
 I try to use public transport whenever possible. (or … whenever it is possible.)
 Unhappy with the decision, Johnson swore at the referee. (or Because he was
unhappy …)"
 While shopping in the mall, she ran into an old friend. (or While she was shopping in
the mall …)
 Despite his busy schedule, he always finds time for his family. (or Despite the fact that
he has a busy schedule …)
 With a heavy heart, she bid farewell to her childhood home. (or With her heart heavy,
she bid farewell to her childhood home.)
 Following the instructions carefully, she assembled the furniture. (or After she
followed the instructions carefully …)
 Beyond repair, the old car was scrapped. (or Because the old car was beyond repair
…)
 Overwhelmed with emotion, she burst into tears. (or Because she was overwhelmed
with emotion, she burst into tears.)
Note. In formal or literary written English we can also introduce a reason in a clause
beginning for, in that, or, less commonly, inasmuch as. For is a formal alternative to
‘because’; in that and inasmuch as introduce clauses which clarify what has been said by
adding detail:
 We must begin planning now, for the future may bring unexpected changes. (not For
the future …, we must …)
 The film is unusual in that it features only four actors. (or In that …, the film is …)
 Clara and I have quite an easy life, inasmuch as neither of us has to work too hard but
we earn quite a lot of money. (or Inasmuch as …, Clara and I …)
 We should strive to conserve water, for it is a precious resource that is becoming
increasingly scarce.

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  The novel stands out in that it explores themes of identity and belonging in a unique
and captivating way.
 His views are controversial, in that they challenge traditional beliefs and provoke
thought-provoking discussions.
 We must remain vigilant, for the security of our nation is of utmost importance.
 The painting is remarkable in that it captures the essence of the human condition
with remarkable depth and insight.
 His argument is compelling, in that it presents a nuanced perspective that considers
multiple factors.
 The company has thrived, inasmuch as it has adapted to changing market conditions
and embraced innovation.
 The proposal is ambitious, for it aims to address complex societal issues with
innovative solutions.
 The project is significant in that it promotes cross-cultural understanding and
collaboration.
 Our success is assured, inasmuch as we remain dedicated to our goals and work
diligently to achieve them.
In order that and so that
We use "in order that" and "so that" to talk about a purpose. Here's a comparison:
 She stayed at work late in order / so as to complete the report.
 She stayed at work late in order that / so that she could complete the report. (not …
in order that / so that to complete the report.)
"So that" is more common than "in order that" and is used in less formal situations. Note
that informally, we can leave out "that" after "so," but we always include it after "in order."
A present tense verb in the main clause is usually followed by a present tense verb (or a
modal with present or future reference – can, will, etc.) in the clause beginning "in order that
/ so that." A past tense verb in the main clause is usually followed by a past tense verb (or a
modal with past reference – could, would, etc.) in the clause beginning "in order that / so
that." Modal verbs are very often used after "in order that / so that":
 Regular checks are made in order that safety standards are maintained.
 Advice is given in order that students can choose the best course.
 Did you give up your job so that you could take care of your mother?
 I hid the presents so that Marianna wouldn’t find them.
Such that and in such a way that / as to; such … that
In formal contexts, such as academic writing, we can use such that to introduce a result:
 The model was designed such that the value of x could be calculated. (= ‘in a way that
has the result that …’; or … in order that …; or … so that …)
Less formally we can also use in such a way that or in such a way as + to-infinitive with a
similar meaning:
 The advertisement is printed in such a way that two very different pictures can be
seen depending on how you look at it.
 Our business is managed in such a way as to minimise its environmental impact.
We can also use such + noun phrase + that to introduce a result:
 It is such a popular play that all the performances were sold out after the first day.
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Conditional Clauses
Conditional clauses are indeed a type of adverb clause. Conditional clauses, often referred to
as "if clauses," express a condition that is necessary for the action or situation in the main
clause to take place. They introduce a dependent clause that usually begins with "if" or
another subordinating conjunction expressing a condition. There are four different types of
conditional as can be seen in the table below. Note that in all the instructions provided below
by ‘infinitive’ we mean infinitive without to.
Type Structure Usages
Zero conditional If+ present simple, present simple Real/possible conditions or
results
First conditional If + present simple, will (can/could, A possible future condition or
may/might, going to) + infinitive result
Second If + past simple, would Imaginary/unreal/hypothetical
Conditional (might/should) + infinitive condition or result
Third conditional If+ past perfect, would (could) have Unreal/impossible/hypothetical
+past participle condition or result

The choice between zero conditional and first conditional depends on the context and the
nature of the condition. Zero conditional is typically used for general truths, natural
phenomena, and facts that always happen under certain conditions. First conditional, on the
other hand, is often used for real or possible future conditions and their probable results.
Zero conditional:
 If the wind blows, the trees move.
 If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
 If it rains, the ground is wet.
 If I drink coffee after 12 o’clock, I don’t sleep at night.
 If you push this button, the lights come on.
 If you leave ice-cream under the sun, it melts.
 People get hungry if they don’t eat.
 If you don’t study hard, you don’t get through the exam.
 When you get home, call me.
 if Jane calls, don’t tell I am home.
We can usually replace if with when or whenever.
 If / When / Whenever I'm in town, I visit my aunt.
 If / When / Whenever the weather is fine, we go to the park.
 If / When / Whenever you buy two, you get an extra one free.
When we use the word you in Zero Conditional, it often refers to people in general, not
somebody in particular.
 What do you do if you have some free time? (you = you)
 What do you need if you want to make a model airplane? (you = people in general)
We can sometimes use unless instead of if not:
 Unless it's raining, I usually go for a walk in the forest on Saturdays.
 People can't fish in this river unless they have a permit.
First conditional:
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  If we don’t leave soon, we will miss our train.
 If I’m late for work, I might lose my job.
 When you tell Dan the news, he is going to faint.
Note: consider these two sentences:
 If any government does not control the inflation and the unemployment rate, social
protest is inevitable.
 If the government does not control the inflation and the unemployment rate, social
protest will be inevitable.
The use of "any" in the first sentence makes it more general, suggesting that the statement
applies to any government in a generic sense. In this context, the zero conditional is more
suitable. However, in the second sentence, where we specify "the government," it implies a
specific government, and the use of the first conditional is more appropriate. Anyhow, both
constructions can be grammatically correct; it's a matter of nuance and emphasis.
It is common to change the first conditional to an unless structure:
 If you don’t get an invitation, you can’t come to the party==>> You can’t come to the
party, unless you get an invitation.
 If this program does not load, I won’t be able to finish my work==>> Unless this
program loads, I won’t be able to finish my work.
 If you want get in, you should expect to receive an email==>> You will not get in,
unless you expect to receive an email.
Note. The first conditional is commonly used to talk about future possibilities, plans,
circumstances, and events that are likely to happen or have a high probability of occurring.
So it is a common mistake for even advanced learners to use unnatural structures like:
 In the next semester, If I'll be alive, and if you all will be alive as well, and if everything
will be ok, we will focus on T.S Elliot
The correct, or more natural, sentence is:
 In the next semester, if I am alive, and if you all are alive as well, and if everything is
okay, we will focus on T.S. Eliot.
Or:
 If I will be there at 10 o'clock, I will turn on the machine

The correct form of which is:

 If I am there at 10 o'clock, I will turn on the machine.
In a real conditional sentence, we use if … happen to, if … should, or if … should happen to
talk about something which may be possible, but is not very likely. If … happen to is most
common in spoken English:
 If you happen to be in our area, drop in and see us. (or If you should [happen to] be
...)
 If you happen to find my keys, please let me know.
 If you should need any assistance, don't hesitate to ask.
 If she happens to call, could you take a message for me?
 If it should rain tomorrow, we'll postpone the picnic.
 If I happen to see him at the party, I'll introduce you.

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  If you should encounter any problems, remember that I'm here to help.
 If the train happens to be delayed, I'll inform you immediately.
 If you should change your mind, just give me a call.
 If she happens to forget her lunch, remind her to buy something at the cafeteria.
Second conditional
Although in second conditional we use past simple, in fact we are speaking about unreal or
hypothetical present or future. This construction is employed to discuss situations that are
contrary to present or future reality.
 If I won the lottery, I would travel around the world.
 If I were shorter, I would wear heals more.
 If I were a wealthy man, I wouldn’t have to work hard.
 If I were you, I wouldn’t worry at all.
 If Peter were a little more industrious, he would pass the exam.
 If my sister were not such a cranky person, her boyfriend wouldn’t leave her.
 If I were more cautious about the gas gauge in my car, it wouldn’t run out of gas, and
I would never get stuck in the desert.
In unreal conditionals we can use if …were + to-infinitive rather than if + past simple to talk
about imaginary future situations, particularly when it is unlikely that the situation in the if-
clause will happen:
 If the technology were to become available, we would be able to expand the
business.
However, note that we don’t usually use this pattern with verbs such as belong, doubt, enjoy,
know, like, remember, and understand when they describe a state:
 If I knew they were honest, I’d gladly lend them the money. (not If I were to know …)
We sometimes use this pattern to make a suggestion sound more polite:
 Would it be too early for you if we were to meet at 5:30?
Third conditional
Third conditional is all about the past.
 If I had studied harder, I would have passed my exam.
 If I had known that Kate is coming, I would have made more food.
 If I hadn’t tripped, I could have won the race.
 If my mom had had me attend a French class, I would have mastered it by now.
 If I had had to choose a car, I would have chosen the red one.
In the table below you can compare all four conditionals:
Zero First Second Third
If we drive, we get If we drive, we will get If we drove, we would If we had driven, we
there faster. there faster. get there faster. would have gotten
faster.

facts specific situations we don’t have a car we didn’t drive

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Note: in the conditional type 1, we can also use present continuous or the present perfect:
 Sub-type 1: if you are looking for Tom, you will find him upstairs. (if+ present
continuous, will + infinitive)
 Sub-type 2: if you have finished your homework, we will watch TV (if+ present
perfect, will + infinitive). (not very common).
Clearly we can use may/can for permission, may/might/could for possibility and can/could
for ability in the main clause instead of will:
 If you are hungry, you can have my sandwich.
 If it’s foggy tonight, the plane may be late.
 If you are tired, you can sit down/you’d better sit down/ you should sit down/ why
don’t you sit down?
 If you aren’t too busy, would you help me with this? (this structure is usually used for
requests and is common in everyday English).
Note: in conditional type 2, we can use the sub-types below:
 Sub-type 1: if I were going by car, I would offer you a lift (if+ past continuous, would+
infinitive).
 Sub-type 2: if you wrote to him, he might answer (if+ past simple, might/could+
infinitive).
 Sub-type 3: if I were on holiday, I would be skiing (if+ past simple, would+ continuous
infinitive).
 Sub-type 4: if anyone tried to break in, the alarm went off (if+ past simple, past
simple).
Note: in conditional type 2, we can use the sub-types below:
 Sub-type 1: if you had been going more slowly, you would have been able to stop (if+
past perfect continuous, would+ have+ pp).
 Sub-type 2: if you had asked him, he might have helped you (this one is not a sub-
type exactly. The point is that we can use could or might instead of would for talking
about ability and possibility).
Inversion (C1)
On general, in conditionals type 2 and 3, we can omit if and put had/were/should etc.
instead. This is called inversion structure.
 Had the minister known all the facts, he would have acted differently.
 Had she known how he would react, she would never have said it.
 Were it not for the traffic, we would have arrived on time.
 Were it not for the rain, we could have had a picnic.
 Were he more experienced, he would handle the situation better.
 Were she in better health, she would have joined the hiking trip.
 Were it not for your help, I would have struggled with the project.
 Were the company more profitable, we might have received a bonus.
 Were the weather warmer, we would go for a hike this weekend.
 Had she known about the deadline, she would have submitted the report on time.
 Could he have uploaded the documents, he would have been accepted to the
university.
 Could he fix the car, we would travel.
 Should you need any help, don’t hesitate to call.
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With other verbs in past simple, we need to change the verb to the were to construction
before inverting.
 If the government introduced this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
 If the government were to introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
 Were the government to introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
Consider some other examples:
 Were she to win the election, she would implement new policies.
 Were the project to be delayed, it could impact the entire schedule.
 Were the price of oil to rise, it would have significant economic repercussions.
 Were they to discover a cure for the disease, it would be a major breakthrough.
 Were the team to lose the match, their chances of advancing would decrease.
 Were the technology to fail, the entire system might shut down.
 Were the company to expand its product line, it could attract a broader customer
base.
 Were you to miss the deadline, there might be consequences for the project.
Inverting negatives
 If she doesn't phone soon, we'll have to leave.
 Should she not phone soon, we'll have to leave.
NOT Shouldn't she phone…
 If he wasn't a diplomat, he wouldn't have immunity.
 Were he not a diplomat, he wouldn't have immunity.
NOT Weren't he a diplomat…
 If he hadn't told me himself, I'd never have believed him.
 Had he not told me himself, I'd never have believed him.
NOT Hadn't he told me himself…
So in conditionals, we can invert the subject and the auxiliaries should, were and had (but no
others), and omitting if:
 Should you see Peter, can you tell him I was looking for him?
 Were they not to offer me the job, I'd be very disappointed.
 Had he been listening more carefully, he might have realised his mistake.
Note - When inverting negative if-clauses, we can't use contractions: shouldn't, weren't and
hadn't; we must use the full negative: should ... not, were ... not and had ... not.
If we can reasonably add 'by any chance', 'happen to', or 'chance to' to a real time
conditional referring to the present or future, then we can replace that expression with
should and invert. We can do this with some 1st conditionals, and some conditionals that
don't fit the 1st conditional pattern:
 If you see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.
 If you chance to see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.
 If you should see Peter later, tell him I was asking for him.
 Should you see Peter later on, tell him I was asking for him.
 If he happens not to be at his office, you can contact him on this number.
 Should he not be at his office, you can contact him on this number.

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  If by any chance your friends are hungry, there's some pie in the fridge.
 Should your friends be hungry, there's some pie in the fridge.
There are two ways of inverting 2nd conditionals: if the main verb or the auxiliary in the if-
clause is was or were, we can simply invert it and omit if. Note that we can only invert with
were, so was must be changed to were.
 If she was/were a bit older, she could travel by herself.
 Were she a bit older, she could travel by herself.
 If he was/were offering us better discount, we would accept
 Were he offering us better discount, we would accept
In all other cases we need to change the verb in the if-clause from past simple to a were to
construction (usually used to make suggestions more tentative). We seem to be able to this
with most 2nd conditionals, especially when we think (or hope) that the condition is more
unlikely.
 If the government introduced this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
 If the government were to introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
 Were the government to introduce this tax, it would affect a lot of people.
 If they didn't accept our offer, we'd have to look elsewhere.
 Were they not to accept our offer, we would have to look elsewhere.
 The tornado could cause a lot of damage if it hit Havana.
 The tornado could cause a lot of damage were it to hit Havana.
We can invert any 3rd conditional by inverting had and the subject and omitting if:
 If you had told me earlier, I would have been able to do something about it.
 Had you told me earlier, I would have been able to do something about it.
 He'd never have believed it if he hadn't seen it with his own eyes.
 He'd never have believed it had he not seen it with his own eyes.
Mixed conditionals
In addition to the four types of conditional clauses explained above, there are six other mixed
structures native speakers use in everyday situations.
 If+ past perfect, would + infinitive. If they had finished their work earlier, they would
still have time to catch the train.
 If + past simple, would/should have+ past participle. If she knew about the traffic,
she would have taken a different route.
 If + past perfect, would + continuous infinitive. If they had studied consistently, they
would be passing the exams.
 If+ past simple, would +continuous infinitive. If we drove faster, we would be
sleeping now.
 If+ past continuous, would + be+ infinitive. If I was going on holiday sooner, I would
be happier.
 If+ will/would+ infinitive, will+ infinitive. If you will follow me, I will show you your
table.
Inversion in Mixed Conditionals
We can invert mixed conditionals with were or had, depending on whether the condition
clause relates to the present or the past
 Had he not worked so hard, he wouldn't be where he is now.
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(3rd / 2nd) - past condition, present result
 Were she not so lazy, she would have passed her exams.
(2nd / 3rd) - present (general) condition, past result
If it wasn't / weren't / hadn't been for
This is an idiom using the unreal past used to say that one event makes another event
possible (or impossible). We use if it wasn't / weren't for to talk about present and future
situations, and if it hadn't been for past situations. As with 1st and 2nd person singular in
Second conditionals, we can use was or were (more formal). We can invert these expressions
in the same way as with second and third conditionals. And as with second conditionals,
when we invert we must change was to were.
 If it wasn't for my father's help, we wouldn't be able to pay the mortgage.
 Were it not for my father's help, we wouldn't be able to pay the mortgage.
 If it wasn’t / weren’t for Nina, the conference wouldn’t be going ahead.
 If it hadn’t been for Dad, I wouldn’t have gone to college. (or If it wasn’t / weren’t for
…)
We can transform them to:
 Were it not for Nina …
 Had it not been for Dad…
More:
 She would never have entered the competition if it had not been for the
encouragement of her English teacher.
 She would never have entered the competition had it not been for the
encouragement of her English teacher.
We can use but for + noun with a similar meaning, particularly in formal contexts:
 The village school would have been closed years ago but for the determination of
teachers and parents to keep it open. (= … if it hadn’t been for the determination …)
 The project would have failed but for the dedication of the team members.
 The company would have gone bankrupt but for the timely investment from the
shareholders.
 He would have missed the flight but for the helpfulness of the airport staff.
 The business would have suffered but for the resilience of its leaders during the
economic downturn.
 The accident could have been fatal but for the quick actions of the paramedics.
 The event would have been cancelled but for the generosity of the sponsors.
 They would have been stranded but for the kindness of the strangers who offered
them a ride.
 The house would have been destroyed by the fire but for the prompt response of the
firefighters.
 The team would have lost the match but for the outstanding performance of the
goalkeeper.
 The resolution would have been rejected but for the persuasive arguments of its
supporters.
Exceptions 1 - should in 2nd conditionals

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We sometimes use a Second conditional to make a suggestion more tentative or polite, in
negotiations for example. In these cases we can use should, and can also invert with should
instead of were (to).
 If you increased your order, we would consider free delivery.
 If you should increase your order, we would consider free delivery.
 Should you increase your order, we would consider free delivery.
Exceptions 2 - were in 3rd conditionals
Sometimes a construction with were to have + past participle (3rd form) can be used instead
of had in a third conditional. This can suggest that something is even more hypothetical or
sometimes suggests that the consequences would have been very serious. We can also invert
this.
 If the police were to have found out, he would have been in trouble.
 Were the police to have found out, he would have been in trouble.
a variation on standard 3rd conditional form:
 If the police had found out, he would have been in trouble.
 Had the police found out he would have been in trouble
There are a few rather more exotic types of conditional inversion that ESL/EFL books don't
usually talk about. In a few cases with have for possession and have to for obligation.
Inversion is very occasionally used when talking about possession, especially with things like
time, money, space, understanding, money, inclination. This seems to happen most with
comparatives or other adjectives, and its use seems to be in decline:
 Had I the inclination, I would work harder; but I really can't be bothered.
 Had we the necessary time and resources, we could go ahead with this project.
 Had we a better understanding of what is involved, I might agree with you.
On very rare occasions it also happens with have to for obligation too, mainly with I and we.
This use also seems to be in decline:
 Had I to do it all over again, I would go about it rather differently.
 Had he to choose between the two locations, he says he would choose Spain.
 Had we to depend on his help, we should never get anything done.
Exercise.
Write the most appropriate conditional sentence that captures the essence of contexts
provided.
1. Your friend borrowed your bicycle, but unfortunately, it got a flat tire during their ride. As
a result, they had to return home earlier than planned. Now, you're discussing the situation
with your friend.
Answer: What an unfortunate situation. If my bicycle hadn't gotten a flat tire, you wouldn't
be at home now, and we could have gone out together.
2. You and your friends planned a picnic in the park, but on the day of the picnic, it started
raining heavily, forcing you to cancel the outing. Now, you're expressing your
disappointment.

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Answer. Shit! If it hadn’t started raining, we wouldn’t have been forced to stay home. Or if
we want to write a sentence in active form: If it hadn’t started raining, we wouldn’t have
stayed home.
3. You and your friend were planning to attend a concert, but due to unexpected traffic and
delays, you missed the performance. Now, you're expressing your disappointment.
Answer. If we had left earlier, we would have attended the concert.
4. You and your friend were planning a hiking trip, but you forgot to check the weather
forecast. Unfortunately, it started raining heavily during the hike, and you had to turn back.
Now, you're discussing the situation and considering what might have happened if you had
been more prepared.
Answer. If we had been more prepared, we wouldn’t have had to turn back. Or If we were
more prepared, we wouldn’t have to turn back.
5. Emma and David were planning a weekend getaway to a secluded cabin in the mountains.
However, a sudden work emergency arose for David, and they had to cancel the trip. Now,
they are discussing the situation.
Answer. If a sudden work emergency hadn’t arisen for David, they wouldn’t have had to
cancel the trip.
Other conditional expressions
Structure Example Comment
Unless + affirmative verb Unless I hurry, I will miss the
bus.
Otherwise We took a taxi. Otherwise we’d if somebody doesn’t do
have missed the plane. something
Provided You can park here, provided On the condition that
you leave before six.
If + auxiliary Do you want to eat out? If you Instead of ‘if you do’ we can
do, let’s book a table. use if so. For negative form we
can say if not.
In case of In case of fire, break this glass. If fire breaks out

In case She doesn’t let the little boy In case clause is not the same
play by the river in case he falls if-clause. It gives the reason for
in. the action in the main clause.
She didn’t let the little boy play
by the river in case he fell in.
In case he can't fix the car, we
won't plan a long trip.
I'll bring an umbrella in case it
rains during the picnic.

Expressing a preference with I would rather

The expressions would rather, would sooner, would just as soon and would prefer are all used
to talk about preference. Sometimes it's about a choice between two things (with than in
statements and or in questions), sometimes it's just a case of wanting something to happen
or not happen. Would rather is by far the most common of these expressions, with would
prefer coming second.

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  She'd rather jump off a bridge than go and speak to him.
 Shall we take the bus, or would you rather walk?
 She'd sooner buy a flat than rent one.
 I'd sooner not tell Maisie.
 I'd just as soon not invite him
 Wouldn't you just as soon stay in tonight?
 Would you prefer to go by train or take the coach?
 He'd prefer to keep quiet about the whole affair.
When only the subject is involved, as in the examples above, we use the bare infinitive (1st
form), or in the case of prefer, the to-infinitive.
But when the subject wants someone else to do something, either separately or together
with the subject, we use a clause in Unreal Past
 I'd rather we kept this to ourselves
 Would you rather I didn't come?
 She'd sooner we didn't tell Maisie.
 We'd sooner he was / were there with us.
 We'd just as soon she didn't come.
 I'd just as soon you didn't do that.
 I think they'd prefer it if I weren't / wasn't at the meeting.
 Wouldn't you prefer it if I told her?
Notice how we use prefer in a slightly different way to the others: subject + would prefer it if
+ clause in past simple.
We can also use would rather, sooner, soon as + past perfect to talk about things in the past
 I'd rather you hadn't spoken to him like that
 I'd sooner she hadn't done that.
 I'd just as soon you hadn't told him.
With prefer, we use a different construction - would have preferred it if + past perfect.
 I would have preferred it if she hadn't left like that.
But when talking about the past, I wish + past perfect is more common
 I wish you hadn't spoken to him like that
 I wish she hadn't left like that.
Hypothesizing with What if, supposing, suppose, imagine
Suppose, supposing and imagine can be used instead of if in real and unreal conditionals,
with the same tense forms as if conditionals. Supposing is not used so much in American
English.
 Suppose he moves his queen to there, it'll be checkmate.
- Like a 1st Conditional
 Imagine you won the lottery, what would you do?
- Like a 2nd Conditional
 Supposing we had played better, we might not have lost the match.
- Like a 3rd Conditional
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  Suppose you hadn't gone to the University you wouldn't be working here now.
- Like a Mixed Conditional
We can use what if ...? in a similar way, but the condition and result are expressed in two
separate sentences.
 What if it rains? We'll get soaked.
- Like a 1st Conditional
 What if you failed your exam? What would you do?
- Like a 2nd Conditional
 What if we had played better? We might not have lost the match.
- Like a 3rd Conditional
 What if you hadn't gone to university? You wouldn't be working here now.
- Like a Mixed Conditional
We can also use imagine, suppose and what if ...? to talk about the hypothetical
consequences of an action or situation, where the result part of the conditional is left unsaid.
 Imagine she turns up at her ex's party? (What will he say?)
 Suppose / supposing he was / were a spy? (What should we do?)
 What if they were to be late? (What should we do?)
 Imagine you'd never used a computer. (What would life be like?)
Look at the way the verbs are used in those sentences
 she turns up - Present simple - real tense use - we think it's quite possible
 he was / were - Past simple - Unreal Past - we think it's less likely
 they were to be - construction with were to - we think it's even less likely
 you'd never used - Past Perfect - unreal situation in the past
Supposing can also be used, along with suppose and what if, but NOT imagine, to introduce
suggestions for action:
 Supposing we go to that new Italian restaurant for lunch.
 Suppose we go somewhere a bit quieter.
 What if we skip this part of the lesson?
If we want the suggestion to be more tentative, we can use Unreal Past, and to be even more
tentative, we can use were to.
 What if / suppose / supposing we went somewhere a bit quieter?
 What if / suppose / supposing we were to go somewhere a bit quieter?
A note on imagine - this often comes after just - just imagine. And it is also often followed by
if - imagine if. Sometimes we use both - just imagine if.
As if and as though have the same meaning: that something seems or appears in a certain
way.
 It looks as if she is the boss. (And she probably is)
 Tom, you look as though you know the answer. (And he probably does)

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In the two sentences above, we think there is a real possibility, so we use real tenses for the
second verb. We do this especially with verbs like seem, appear, and verbs of the senses like
look, sound, taste and smell. But if we think the comparison is unreal, we can use an unreal
past tense.
 She acts is if she was / were the boss. (but she isn't)
 Peter, why look as if you knew the answer when you hadn't a clue?
To talk about a past condition with a present result, we can use a perfect tense; present
perfect (real) for a probable situation, past perfect (unreal) for a less likely situation:
 He looks as though he hasn't eaten for days. (And he probably hasn't)
 He looks as though he hadn't eaten for days. (He probably has eaten, he just looks as
if he hadn't)
If we use the first verb is in the past, the second verb is also in the past in both real and
unreal situations, so we can only work it out from context.
 She looked as if she was the boss. (And probably was)
 She acted as if she was the boss. (And perhaps wasn't)
 He looked as though he hadn't eaten for days. (Either possible)
It's time
This construction is often included in unreal past, but it's a little different from the others. It
is not so much about a hypothetical situation as to what we think should happen. We use this
when we feel the precise time when we should have done something has passed. Consider ‘It
is time I lived in the US’. This expresses more of a current or ongoing desire or suggestion
rather than a reflection on a past wish that did not come true. It suggests that at the present
moment, you feel it's the right time for you to live in the United States, or that it's something
you should consider doing soon.
Note how we use about and high.
 It's time (for me) to leave. (I should leave now, but perhaps there's no great rush)
 It’s time we went (we should have already left)
 It's about time I left / was leaving (I should leave now)
 It's time I left /was leaving. (I should leave this minute)
 It's high time I left /was leaving. (I really should have left five minutes ago)
Note that we only use this expression with the Indicative Past, not the Subjunctive Past.
 It's time I were thinking of going
better to use the following constructions:
 It's time I was thinking of going.
 It's time for me to start thinking about going.
 It's time I started thinking about going.
If it wasn't for / weren't for / hadn't been for
As mentioned above, this is an idiom suggesting that a situation would have been different
without someone or something or, that somebody/something stopped somebody/something
from happening. It is followed by a noun, a noun phrase, a pronoun or a gerund.

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As usual with Unreal Past, Past Simple - either Indicative was (informal) or Subjunctive were)
(formal) - is used for present situations, and Past Perfect for past situations. The result clause
follows the normal Conditional pattern.
Second Conditional
 If it wasn't for the nights, I think that I could make it. Abba
 I'd hardly get any exercise if it weren't for walking the dog.
 If it wasn't for Hedy Lamarr, we wouldn't have Wi-Fi. Article in the The Guardian
Third Conditional
 If it hadn't been for the awful weather, we would have had a good time.
 I'd never have succeeded if it hadn't been for you.
Mixed Conditional
 If it weren't for all her help, we'd never have managed.
 We would have got here sooner if it wasn't for these awful traffic jams.
If Only/I wish
"I wish" and "If only" are expressions used to communicate regrets or desires for different
situations. Here's a breakdown of the three ways you mentioned:
With a past form (usually past simple): Used to express regrets about the present.
 I wish I had more time for my hobbies. (regret about the present lack of time)
 If only I knew you were coming, I would have prepared a better meal.
With past perfect: Used to express regrets about the past.
 I wish I had studied harder in school. (regret about not studying harder in the past)
 If only I had taken that job offer, my life would be very different now.
With "would" for expressing annoyance or desire for a different behavior: Used to express a
desire for someone or something to behave differently.
 I wish you would stop interrupting me. (desire for a change in behavior)
 If only the weather would cooperate for our outdoor event.
These expressions are versatile and can be adapted to various contexts to convey different
types of wishes, regrets, or desires. Keep in mind that the exact usage may depend on the
specific context of the sentence or conversation.
Relative Clause
A relative or adjective clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective. It modifies
a noun or pronoun. A relative clause should come right after its antecedent.
 The book that I borrowed from the library is on the table.
Occasionally, other words may come between the antecedent and the relative clause.
 The house, with its red roof, that I bought last year, is my favorite.
Sometimes a relative clause modifies an entire sentence. In this case, it comes at the end of
the sentence, the relative pronoun is always which.
 I didn't enjoy the movie, which surprised me.

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Kinds of relative clauses
relative pronoun Example
For Subject RP: who, American football, which is the most popular sport in the
which, that United States, began at Harvard University
For object RP: whom, The address that he gave me was incorrect.
which, that, no pronoun
For possessive RC: whose, I returned the book whose cover was torn.
of which Now turn to Freud, from whose work the following quotation
is taken (or Freud, whose work the following quotation is
taken from.)
I returned the book, the cover of which was torn.

A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition in its own clause:

 For whom I did a favor. Whom I did a favor for.
 To which I sent my application. Which I sent my application to.
 With whom I shared a secret. Whom I shared a secret with.
 In which the gift was wrapped. That the gift was wrapped in.
A relative pronoun can occur in phrases of quantity and quality.
Quantity RP Example
All of whom The top students, all of which graduated with
honors, received scholarships.
Both of which He gave two answers, both of which were
correct.
Each of which I bought a variety of fruits, some of which are
Some of which exotic and rarely found in local markets.

Quality RP Example
The oldest of whom She has three daughters, the oldest of whom is
stydying abroad.
The best of whom The committee received many reports about
The most important of which the situation, the most important of which
were published in the minutes.

Some other examples:

 The citizens of Puerto rico, ninety percent of whom are literate, are well educated.
 There are many delicious tropical fruits in Puerti Rico, most of which I have never
tasted before.
 The team members, three-quarters of whom have international experience, bring a
diverse set of skills to the project.
 I visited a historical museum and saw artifacts from different time periods, many of
which were centuries old.
 The company offers a range of products, a significant portion of which are designed
for eco-friendly and sustainable living.
 The library has a vast collection of rare manuscripts, some of which date back to the
medieval period.
 We attended a cultural festival, where we enjoyed performances from various
countries, most of which were traditional dances and music.

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Note. RCs can also be introduced by the relative adverbs when and where.
 When I was born; on which I was born; which I was born on; I was born.
 Where I grew up; in which I grew up; which I grew up in; that I grew up in; I grew up
in.
Examples:
 I remember the day when I first met my best friend.
 He told me about the moment when he realized he had made a mistake.
 The year when the company was founded was a turning point in our industry.
 We visited a charming village where we spent our summer vacations.
 I found a cafe where I can relax and read my favorite books.
 The park is the place where we used to play as children.
Exercise. Use relative clause to subordinate one of the ideas in each pair of sentences below.
use appropriate relative pronouns or adverbs.
 He is the person. I meet him at the game.
 This is the book. you should read it.
 I told you about Alexandria. I was born there.
 He studies hard. He will succeed.
Answer:
 He is the person whom I met at the game.
 This is the book that you should read.
 I told you about Alexandria where I was born.
 He who studies hard will succeed.
Exercise. Use relative clause to subordinate one of the ideas in each pair of sentences below.
Use appropriate relative pronouns or adverbs.
 The girls are going to meet us at the beach. They are classmates of my sister.
 The reading list was posted on the bulletin board. It listed books for summer reading.
 That man over there will probably lend us a boat. His name is Capt Flint and he owns
several.
 The light plane was the secret agent’s sole means of escape. He had it well hidden.
 Dr. Strangelove was a macabre satire. I’m glad you told me about it.
 Anybody would enjoy the scenery in Dr. Zhivago. Most of the scenery consisted of
Julie Christie and Gerldine Chaplin.
 Bertrand Russell has been called the last nineteenth century rebel. His long life
spanned Victorian and contemporary times.
Answer:
 The girls who are classmates of my sister are going to meet us at the beach.
 The reading list that listed books for summer reading was posted on the bulletin
board.
 The man over there, whose name is Capt Flint and owns several, will probably lend us
a boat.
 The light plane, which had been well hidden by secret agent, was his sole means of
escape.
 Dr. Strangelove, which I’m glad you told me about, was a macabre satire.

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  Anybody would enjoy the scenery in Dr. Zhivago, most of which consisted of Julie
Christie and Gerldine Chaplin.
 Bertrand Russell, whose long life spanned Victorian and contemporary times,has
been called the last nineteenth century rebel.
Note. In formal styles, "noun + of which" is often preferred to "whose + noun":
 A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being felt. (or … whose
effects are still being felt.)
Using "that/which … of" in relative clauses:
 The school of which she is head is closing. (less formally The school (that/which) she is
head of is closing.)
After "both," we can use "of which" and "of whose," but not usually "which" or "whose":
 Lotta was able to switch between German and Russian, both of which she spoke
fluently.(not … both which she spoke fluently.)
Additionally, as mentioned in the tables above, after the following words, we can use "of
which" and "of whose," but not usually "which" or "whose":all, each, many, most, neither,
none, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.; the first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.), and
superlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.).
Examples:
 All of the books, many of which were classics, were donated to the library.
 Each of the students received a certificate, none of whose achievements went
unnoticed.
 Most of the participants, a number of whom were experienced hikers, completed the
trail.
 The painting won the prize for the best artwork, the biggest honor of which was
recognition from renowned critics.
 Many of the students, most of whom were freshmen, struggled with the advanced
calculus problems.
 Each of the applicants, none of whose qualifications met the job requirements, was
rejected.
 All of the guests, some of whom traveled from afar, enjoyed the wedding festivities.
 A number of the volunteers, half of whom were teenagers, helped clean up the park.
 The team won the championship, the first time in decades that such an achievement
had been accomplished.
 Most of the paintings in the gallery, the best of which were by renowned artists,
received critical acclaim.
 Neither of the candidates, both of whose policies were controversial, garnered
enough support to win the election.
 The company launched a new product, one of the biggest successes of which was its
widespread adoption by consumers.
 Some of the buildings in the historic district, the oldest of which dated back to the
17th century, were in need of restoration.
Note. When a preposition is needed with the relative pronouns "which" and "whom," we
usually put it before the relative pronoun in formal styles:
 The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
 There are 80 teachers in the Physics Department, among whom are 24 professors.
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After a preposition, we usually use "whom" rather than "who" in formal styles:
 Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the
public to whom they are accountable? (rather than … the public to who they are
accountable.)
Additionally, we don’t use "that" or no relative pronoun
 The valley in which the town lies is heavily polluted. (not The valley in that the town
lies is heavily polluted.; not The valley in the town lies is heavily polluted.)
In less formal English, we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause:
 The office that Juan took us to was filled with books. (rather than The office to which
Juan took us …)
And we prefer "who" (or "that") rather than "whom" in informal situations:
 The playground wasn’t used by the children who it was built for.
Note that while it's true that such constructions are common in everyday speech, particularly
in informal contexts, they are considered grammatically incorrect in formal writing. However,
in informal spoken language or less formal writing, such constructions may be more
commonly heard or seen. So, "The playground wasn’t used by the children who it was built
for" might be commonly used in everyday speech, it's still considered grammatically incorrect
in formal writing.
Note. The relative pronoun can be left out if it refers to the object of a verb, but not if it
refers to the subject of a verb. compare:
 The students that I teach all come from overseas countries.
Students is the object of the verb teach, so the relative pronoun that can be removed:
 The students I teach all come from overseas countries.
But in the sentence below
 The students who are studying EAP should see me today.
Students is the subject of the verb ‘are studying’, so the relative pronoun who cannot be left
out:
 The students are studying EAP should see me today.
However, the recent sentence could be reduced:
 The students studying EAP should see me today.
But the same sentence could not be written as:
 The students studied EAP should see me today
Reduced relative clause
An adjective
 person who was happy: happy person
An adjective phrase
 man who was responsible for: man responsible for

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A prepositional phrase
 boxes that are under the counter: boxes under the counter
A past participle
 student that was elected president: student elected president
A present participle
 people who are working on the report: people working on the report
Reduced object clause: A reduced object clause is a type of construction where a
subordinate clause acting as the object of a verb is simplified or reduced, typically by
omitting certain words. This reduction makes the sentence more concise and easier to
understand.
 She wants the job finished by the end of May.
 I want the car washed by 9 o’clock.

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Lesson 8: Phrases (B2/C1)
A phrase is an ensemble of words that is part of a larger unit, whether a clause or sentence.
The first phrase to be discussed is the noun phrase (NP).
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is a group of words where a noun plays a central role known as the head
noun, having different dependents. Those that come before the head noun are pre-
modifiers, and those that come after it are known as post-modifiers:
D-Adj- N- H- App- PP- IP- RC
Pre-modifiers Post-modifiers
Note that determiners (D) include articles, demonstrative adjectives, demonstratives,
possessive adjectives, quantifiers, numbers, intensifiers, and pre-determiners.
A noun phrase can function as subject, object or complement. Consider the examples:
 The exceptionally diligent and highly motivated student(S) scored (V)the highest
marks(O).
 Her greatest passion in life (NP- S), a thriving community garden filled with colorful
blossoms and aromatic herbs (NP- App- Complement), brings (V)joy (N- DO)to the
entire neighborhood (PP- Adverbial Complement).
Note. the adverb "namely" and the phrase "that is" are used to add details about a noun
phrase:
 This side effect of the treatment, namely weight gain, is counteracted with other
drugs.
 The main cause of global warming, that is the burning of fossil fuels, is to be the focus
of negotiations at the international conference.
Note. We can use for and with followed by a noun phrase to give a reason:
 She was looking all the better for her stay in hospital. (= ‘as a result of’)
 With so many people ill, the meeting was cancelled. (= ‘as a result of there being’)
Prepositional Phrase
A group of words beginning with a preposition and containing a noun or pronoun called the
object of the preposition. The preposition, its object and any modifiers form the
prepositional phrase. Usually PPs act as adjectives or adverbs in a sentence, providing
additional information about a noun, pronoun, verb or adjective. However, in some cases a
PP can act as noun, taking on the role of the subject, object, or complement.:
 In the morning (S) is the best time for a walk.
 Her favorite place is in the garden (Subject Complement)
 He has a passion for exploring new places around the world (O).
Object of a preposition can be a noun or noun phrase, a pronoun, gerund or gerund phrase,
and a noun clause:
 She sat on the chair (NP)
 He's waiting for him (P)
 She's interested in swimming (Gerund)
 We talked about what to do next(NC)

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Note. We commonly add information about a thing or person using a prepositional phrase
(especially in formal writing a prepositional phrase with ‘with’ is preferred.). Often these
have a meaning similar to a relative clause:
 She lives in the house with the red door. (or … the house which has the red door.)
 He works in a company with a great reputation. (or … a company that has a great
reputation.)
 She traveled to a city with stunning architecture. (or … a city that has stunning
architecture.)
 They attended a seminar with renowned speakers. (or … a seminar that had
renowned speakers.)
 I bought a car with advanced technology features. (or … a car that had advanced
technology features.)
 The restaurant served dishes with exotic flavors. (or … dishes that had exotic flavors.)
 We visited a park with beautiful gardens. (or … a park that had beautiful gardens.)
 They stayed at a hotel with excellent customer service. (or … a hotel that had
excellent customer service.)
 She received a gift with a handwritten note. (or … a gift that had a handwritten note.)
 He read a book with fascinating stories. (or … a book that had fascinating stories.)
 The store sells products with organic ingredients. (or … products that have organic
ingredients.)
Note. In written English, particularly in academic writing, a series of prepositional phrases
and relative clauses is often used to add information about a previous noun phrase. Note
that prepositional phrases can also be used with an adverbial function:
 Doctors are contacting patients with diabetes who have taken the drug in the last six
months.
 Scientists in Spain who have developed the technique are optimistic that it will be
widely used in laboratories within the next decade.
Note. We can also use participle clauses and noun phrases in a series of clauses/phrases
which add information to the preceding noun phrase:
 The waxwing is the only bird found in Britain with yellow and red tail feathers.
 Mr. Bob Timms, leader of the Democratic Party, MP for Three oaks, has announced
his resignation.
The latter example features an appositive noun phrase, which provides additional
information about the preceding noun phrase. In this case, "leader of the Democratic Party,
MP for Three oaks" serves as an appositive phrase describing "Mr. Bob Timms.
More examples:
 The car parked in front of the house with the blue door belongs to my neighbor.
 The restaurant across the street from the park with the large fountain serves delicious
food.
 The painting hanging above the fireplace with the ornate frame is an original
masterpiece.
 The building next to the library with the tall clock tower is the town hall.
 The shop on the corner of Main Street with the colorful sign sells handmade crafts.
 The house at the end of the road with the white picket fence is where the Smith
family lives.

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  The tree in the middle of the garden with the swing attached to its branch provides
shade.
 The café near the train station with the outdoor seating area is a popular spot for
locals.
 The trail through the forest with the wooden markers is perfect for hiking.
 The boat docked at the pier with the striped awning is ready for departure.
by, in, on + -ing
Consider these sentences:
 By working hard, she passed her maths exam. = the -ing clause indicates "the method
or means used"
 They only survived by eating roots and berries in the forest. = the -ing clause indicates
"the method or means used"
 On returning from Beijing, he wrote to the Chinese embassy. = the -ing clause
indicates "when"
 Josh was the first person I saw on leaving the hospital. = the -ing clause indicates
"when"
 In criticising the painting, I knew I would offend her.= the -ing clause indicates "cause"
 In choosing Marco, the People’s Party has moved to the left.= the -ing clause indicates
"cause"
We can often use "by + -ing" or "in + -ing" with a similar meaning, although "by + -ing" is
preferred in informal contexts:
 In / By writing about Spanish culture, I came to understand the country better. (‘In
writing …’ = the consequence of writing was to understand …; ‘By writing …’ = the
method I used to understand the country better was to write…)
But compare:
 By telephoning every hour, she managed to speak to the doctor. (not In telephoning
…; the method is the focus here, not the consequence)
with -ing; without -ing
With + -ing:
 With Louise living in Spain, we don’t see her often.
This use introduces a reason for something in the main clause. It's fairly informal. "With
Louise living in Spain" is equivalent to "Because Louise lives in Spain."
 With my bad back, I won’t be able to lift a heavy suitcase.
Here, "with my bad back" provides a reason for not being able to lift a heavy suitcase.
 What with the traffic and the heavy rain, it’s no wonder you were late.
This is a similar usage, but "what with" emphasizes multiple factors contributing to a
situation.
Without + -ing:
 I went to work without eating breakfast.
This expresses that a second action (eating breakfast) doesn't happen.

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  They left without paying.
Similar to the previous example, this expresses the absence of a second action.
Without + -ing as 'although ... not' or 'unless':
 Without meaning to, I seem to have offended her.
This can be understood as "Although I didn't mean to, I seem to have offended her."
 Without using the app, I can’t judge how good it is.
Here, "without using the app" implies "Unless I use the app, I can't judge how good it is."
because of, due to, owing to
The prepositions because of, due to, and owing to can also be used before a noun or noun
phrase togive a reason for something:
 We were delayed because of an accident.
 She was unable to run owing to / due to a leg injury. (= because of a leg injury.)
 We have less money to spend owing to / due to budget cuts. (= because of budget
cuts.)
Note that we don’t use because alone before a noun or noun phrase:
 We were delayed because there was an accident. (not … because an accident.)
In current English we usually avoid owing to directly after a form of be:
 The company’s success is due to the new director. (However, "owing to" is not
incorrect, but it might sound slightly less common.)
However, owing to is used after be + a degree adverb such as entirely, largely, mainly, partly:
 The low election turnout was partly due to / owing to the bad weather.
We can often use either it was due to … that or it was owing to … that:
 It was owing to his encouragement that she applied for the job. (or It was due to …
that)
A play with prepositional phrase and noun phrase
 What are the political consequences for cities of migrants’ unemployment.
 The effect on class struggle of price differentials between different worker
neighborhoods is also worth considering.
 The impact on local businesses of new zoning regulations cannot be ignored.
 The implications for public health of air pollution in urban areas are significant.
 The consequences for wildlife of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest are
devastating.

Gerund Phrase
A phrase starting with a gerund and serves as a noun. The structure of a gerund phrase
typically involves the gerund as the main verb, followed by an object or modifier. GP also can
act as subject, object of a verb, object of a preposition and a subject complement.
 Swimming in the pool (S) is my favorite activity.
 I love teaching English (O1) and talking to my best friend (O2).
 She is dedicated to the idea of teaching English (O of P).
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  Her dream is teaching English (O of V).
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase typically consists of the word to followed by a verb (usually in its base
form) and may include an object of the verb or modifiers. It can serve as subject, object of a
verb and a subject complement.
 To travel the world (S) is my dream
 She wants to learn a new language (O)
 Her ambition is to become a successful writer(Subject Complement).
Participial Phrases
A participial phrase is a phrase that begins with a present or past participle (verb forms
ending in -ing or -ed) and functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or noun phrase.
Participial phrases are often considered reduced forms of relative or adverb clauses, and they
can represent active or passive constructions.
 "The car that is parked in the driveway belongs to my neighbor."
 "The car parked in the driveway belongs to my neighbor."
 "The book that was written by Hemingway is a classic."
 "The book written by Hemingway is a classic."
 "After he finished his homework, he went to bed."
 "After finishing his homework, he went to bed."
 "The man who is wearing a red hat is my uncle."
 "The man wearing a red hat is my uncle."
 "The book that has been read by millions of people is on the bestseller list."
 "The book read by millions of people is on the bestseller list."
 "The movie that was directed by Steven Spielberg won several awards."
 "The movie directed by Steven Spielberg won several awards."
 "After she had finished her dinner, she went for a walk."
 "After finishing her dinner, she went for a walk."
 "Since they had completed the project, they celebrated their success."
 "Since completing the project, they celebrated their success."
 "The cake that has been baked by my mom smells delicious."
 "The cake baked by my mom smells delicious."
 "Once she had arrived at the airport, she called her friend."
 "Once arriving at the airport, she called her friend."
The most commonly used participle forms:
Description Ing forms Ed forms
The general forms do not V + ING V + ed, en, t, d
indicate time. Time is e.g.: opening Opened
determined by the verb in the Taken
independent clause. Bought
Sold
The perfect forms emphasize Having+ P.P
that the action happened Having opened
before the time of the
independent clause verb.

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Present participle phrases
Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present participles
have a similar meaning to active verbs.
To give the result of an action
 The bomb exploded, destroying the building.
To give the reason for an action
 Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.
To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action
 Standing in the queue, I realised I didn't have any money.
To add information about the subject of the main clause
 Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city centre.
Past participle phrases
Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past participles
normally have a passive meaning.
With a similar meaning to an if condition
 Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use
participles in this way, … )
To give the reason for an action
 Worried by the news, she called the hospital.
To add information about the subject of the main clause
 Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.
Perfect participle phrases
Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in
the main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.
 Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.
 Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
 Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.
Note. it is also common for participle clauses, especially with -ing, to follow conjunctions and
prepositions such as before, after, instead of, on, since, when, while and in spite of.
 Before cooking, you should wash your hands.
 Instead of complaining about it, they should try doing something positive.
 On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed.
 While packing her things, she thought about the last two years.
 In spite of having read the instructions twice, I still couldn’t understand how to use it.
More examples:
 The boy, excited about the upcoming trip, packed his bags.
 The artist, painting a vibrant sunset on the canvas, lost track of time in the studio.
 Dressed in his class-A uniform, the marine looked liked a recruitment poster.
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  Standing near the window, Jane could see the entire village.
 Given the choice, most people would probably choose good health over good
fortune.
 Realizing that the police were on to him, Peter moved his millions offshore.
 Opening her eyes, the baby began to cry. (= When she opened her eyes …)
 Faced with a bill for £10,000, Ivan has taken an extra job. (= Because he is faced …)
 Looked after carefully, the plant can live through the winter. (= If it is looked after …)
 Having finished the book, I had a holiday. (perfect; = When / Because I had finished …)
 The fruit was expensive, being imported. (simple passive; = … because it was
imported)
 Having been hunted close to extinction, the rhino is once again common in this area.
(perfect passive; = Although it had been hunted close to extinction …)
Verb tense Possible participle phrase
Simple present Present participial
Past participial
Present continuous Present participial

Present perfect Perfect participial

Present perfect continuous Perfect participial

Simple past Present participial

Past participial
Past continuous Present participial

Past perfect Perfect participial

Past perfect continuous Perfect participial
Simple future Present participial

Future continuous Present participial

Future perfect Perfect participial

Examples:
Past participial:
 Original: The books that were written by Stephen King are quite popular.
 Reduced form: The books written by Stephen King are quite popular.
 Original: The cakes that were baked by the chef were delicious.
 Reduced form: The cakes baked by the chef were delicious.
 Original: The paintings that were created by Picasso are highly valued.
 Reduced form: The paintings created by Picasso are highly valued.
 Original: The songs that were sung by Adele are hits worldwide.
 Reduced form: The songs sung by Adele are hits worldwide.
 Original: The cars that were manufactured by Tesla are known for their electric
power.
 Reduced form: The cars manufactured by Tesla are known for their electric power.
 Original: The movies that were directed by Christopher Nolan are often critically
acclaimed.

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  Reduced form: The movies directed by Christopher Nolan are often critically
acclaimed.
 The cup which is placed on the shelf is fragile.
 Reduced: The cup placed on the shelf is fragile.
 Homework assignments that are not completed by Monday will receive a penalty.
 Reduced: Homework assignments not completed by Monday will receive a penalty.
 Projects that are not submitted by the deadline will be marked as late.
 Reduced: Projects not submitted by the deadline will be marked as late.
 Forms that are not filled out correctly will be returned for revision.
 Reduced: Forms not filled out correctly will be returned for revision.
 Applications that are not accompanied by a resume will be considered incomplete.
 Reduced: Applications not accompanied by a resume will be considered incomplete.
 Essays that are not double-spaced will be deducted points.
 Reduced: Essays not double-spaced will be deducted points.
 The new policy, which was criticized by the employees, was ultimately revoked.
 Reduced: The new policy, criticized by the employees, was ultimately revoked.
 The renovation plan, which was rejected by the neighborhood association, was
abandoned.
 Reduced: The renovation plan, rejected by the neighborhood association, was
abandoned.
 The candidate, who was endorsed by several prominent figures, won the election.
 Reduced: The candidate, endorsed by several prominent figures, won the election.
 The proposal, which was supported by the board of directors, was implemented
without delay.
 Reduced: The proposal, supported by the board of directors, was implemented
without delay.
 The initiative, which was backed by a grassroots movement, gained widespread
support.
 Reduced: The initiative, backed by a grassroots movement, gained widespread
support.
 The concert, which was attended by thousands of fans, lasted for three hours.
 Reduced: the concert, attended by thousands of fans, lasted for three hours.
 The research project, which was funded by a government grant, yielded
groundbreaking results.
 The research project, funded by a government grant, yielded groundbreaking results.
 The event, which was organized by the local community, raised thousands of dollars
for charity.
 The event, organized by the local community, raised thousands of dollars for charity.
 The speech, which was delivered by the president, addressed pressing issues facing
the nation.
 The speech, delivered by the president, addressed pressing issues facing the nation.
 The movie, which was directed by an award-winning filmmaker, received critical
acclaim at film festivals.
 The movie, directed by an award-winning filmmaker, received critical acclaim at film
festivals.
Exercise: guess the original sentences:
 The books read by the students were borrowed from the library.
 The houses built by the architect are modern in design.
 The paintings displayed in the museum are worth millions.
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  The dishes prepared by the chef were delicious.
 The songs played by the band were hits from the 80s.
Answer:
 The books that were read by the students were borrowed from the library.
 The houses that were built by the architect are modern in design.
 The paintings that are displayed in the museum are worth millions.
 The dishes that were prepared by the chef were delicious.
 The songs that were played by the band were hits from the 80s.
Present participial:
 Original: The students who study in this school perform well in exams.
 Reduced: The students studying in this school perform well in exams.
 Original: The workers who are painting the walls are wearing protective gear.
 Reduced: The workers painting the walls are wearing protective gear.
 Original: The guests who visited our house enjoyed the dinner party.
 Reduced: The guests visiting our house enjoyed the dinner party.
 Original: The athletes who were training for the marathon ran in the rain.
 Reduced: The athletes training for the marathon ran in the rain.
 Original: The employees who will attend the conference must register in advance.
 Reduced: The employees attending the conference must register in advance.
 Original: The students who excel in mathematics often pursue careers in engineering.
Reduced: The students excelling in mathematics often pursue careers in engineering.
 Original: The construction workers who are building the new bridge are using
advanced equipment.
 Reduced: The construction workers building the new bridge are using advanced
equipment.
 Original: The tourists who visited the museum admired the ancient artifacts.
 Reduced: The tourists visiting the museum admired the ancient artifacts.
 Original: The chefs who were cooking in the kitchen accidentally spilled some sauce.
Reduced: The chefs cooking in the kitchen accidentally spilled some sauce.
 Original: The employees who will join the company next month need to attend
orientation.
 Reduced: The employees joining the company next month need to attend orientation.
Perfect participial:
 Original: The students who have completed their assignments on time will receive
extra credit.
 Reduced: The students having completed their assignments on time will receive extra
credit.
 Original: The guests who had arrived early were given priority seating.
 Reduced: The guests having arrived early were given priority seating.
 Original: The workers who have been renovating the building are taking a well-
deserved break.
 Reduced: The workers having been renovating the building are taking a well-deserved
break. (or better: The workers, having been involved in renovating the building, are
taking a well-deserved break.)
 Original: The travelers who had been waiting at the airport for hours were relieved
when their flight finally arrived.

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  Reduced: The travelers having been waiting at the airport for hours were relieved
when their flight finally arrived. (or better: The travelers having waited at the airport
for hours were relieved when their flight finally arrived)
Note. The construction "having + been + verb + ing" is not as common in spoken English
compared to written English. It tends to be more formal and is often found in written texts,
such as academic papers, formal reports, or literature. In spoken English, simpler
constructions are typically preferred for clarity and ease of understanding. That said, while it
may not be as prevalent in everyday conversation, it is still grammatically correct and can be
used effectively in formal writing or when a more complex structure is needed to convey
precise meaning. Consider sentences below:
 Having been working late into the night, she felt exhausted.
 Having worked late into the night, she felt exhausted.
In the first sentence, "having been working" emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action
leading up to the feeling of exhaustion. It suggests that the feeling of exhaustion resulted
from the continuous action of working late into the night. In the second sentence, "having
worked" focuses more on the completion of the action before the feeling of exhaustion. It
implies that the feeling of exhaustion followed directly after the completion of the work late
into the night.
Consider examples:
 Having been notified of the changes, the employees adjusted their schedules
accordingly.
 Having been stuck in traffic for hours, they arrived at the party much later than
expected.
 Having been studying for weeks, he was well-prepared for the exam.
 Having been waiting at the bus stop for over half an hour, they decided to call a taxi
instead.
 Having been practicing for months, the band delivered an outstanding performance
at the concert.
 Having been saving money for years, they were finally able to afford their dream
vacation.
 Having been hiking in the mountains all day, they were delighted to see the
breathtaking sunset.
 Having been working on the project tirelessly, they were relieved when it was finally
completed.
 Having been searching for a job for months, she was thrilled when she received an
offer.
 Having been living abroad for years, he had picked up several foreign languages.
 Having been exercising regularly, she noticed a significant improvement in her health.
Note. We can use the passive structure ‘having + been + pp’ which is not commonly used
and instead people tend to use general ed-form. For example:
 The president, having been elected by a large majority, promised to lower taxes.
 The president, elected by a large majority, promised to lower taxes.
But be thoughtful that ‘the president, having elected by a large majority, promised to lower
taxes’ is grammatically wrong. We cannot use active perfect participial instead of past
participial or passive perfect participial.
Exercise: Reduce the following sentences.
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  The party, which was hosted by my friend, was a great success.
 The novel, which was written by a renowned author, became a bestseller.
 The experiment, which was conducted by scientists, produced unexpected results.
 The building, which was designed by an architect, won an award for its innovative
structure.
 The concert, which was performed by a famous band, sold out within minutes.
 The meal, which was prepared by a chef, received rave reviews from diners.
 The invention, which was patented by an engineer, revolutionized the industry.
 The play, which was directed by a renowned theater director, received standing
ovations every night.
 The sculpture, which was created by an artist, was displayed in a prominent museum.
 The recipe, which was shared by a celebrity chef, went viral on social media.
 The discovery, which was made by researchers, could lead to significant
advancements in medicine.
 Reports that are not submitted by the deadline will not be considered for evaluation.
 Projects that are not approved by the committee will be postponed until further
notice.
 Papers that are not formatted according to the guidelines will be returned without
review.
 Applications that are not accompanied by the required documents will be rejected.
 Assignments that are not uploaded to the online platform by midnight will be
considered late.
 The proposal, which was presented by a politician, received bipartisan support.
 The tournament, which was organized by a sports federation, attracted athletes from
around the world.
 The campaign, which was launched by an advocacy group, aimed to raise awareness
about climate change.
 The exhibition, which was curated by an art historian, showcased works from the
Renaissance period.
 The program, which was developed by software engineers, simplifies complex tasks.
 The performance, which was choreographed by a dancer, received praise for its
creativity.
 The policy, which was implemented by the government, aims to reduce poverty rates.
 The concert, which was attended by music enthusiasts, featured a variety of genres.
 The game, which was designed by a game developer, became a cultural phenomenon.
Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences using reduced forms with perfect participial
phrases where appropriate. Make sure to maintain the original meaning of each sentence.
 The students who have completed their projects on time will be awarded certificates.
 The guests who had finished their meals were ready to leave the restaurant.
 The workers who have been repairing the road are now taking a lunch break.
 The team who had been practicing for months finally won the championship.
 The scientists who have been conducting experiments in the lab are publishing their
findings next month.
Answer:
 Once having completed their projects on time, students will be awarded certificates.
 The guests having finished their meals were ready to leave the restaurant.
 Having been repairing the road, the workersare now taking a lunch break.
 The team having been practicing for months finally won the championship.
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  Having been involved in conducting experiments in the lab, the scientists are
publishing their findings next month.
Participial phrase with being
Consider examples below:
 Original: Since I am a pedantic editor as well as a grammar purist, I cannot read the
texts generation Z produce in social media.
 Transformed: Being a pedantic editor as well as a grammar purist, I cannot read the
texts generation Z produce in social media.
 Original: As a dedicated environmentalist, I cannot support companies that engage in
harmful practices.
 Transformed: Being a dedicated environmentalist, I cannot support companies that
engage in harmful practices.
 Original: Since I am a compassionate caregiver, I spend my weekends volunteering at
the local nursing home.
 Transformed: Being a compassionate caregiver, I spend my weekends volunteering at
the local nursing home.
 Original: Since she is an avid reader, she spends most of her free time immersed in
books.
 Transformed: Being an avid reader, she spends most of her free time immersed in
books.
 Original: As a dedicated athlete, he follows a strict training regimen to improve his
performance.
 Transformed: Being a dedicated athlete, he follows a strict training regimen to
improve his performance.
 Original: Since he is a passionate artist, he spends hours each day painting and
sketching.
 Transformed: Being a passionate artist, he spends hours each day painting and
sketching.
 Original: As an enthusiastic gardener, she enjoys cultivating various flowers and
plants in her backyard.
 Transformed: Being an enthusiastic gardener, she enjoys cultivating various flowers
and plants in her backyard.
 Original: Since they are committed activists, they organize protests and rallies to
advocate for social justice.
 Transformed: Being committed activists, they organize protests and rallies to
advocate for social justice.
Absolute Phrase
An absolute phrase is a group of words consisting of a noun or pronoun followed by a
participle, along with any accompanying modifiers or objects. An absolute phrase is typically
not grammatically connected to the rest of the sentence and provides additional information
about the main clause. It often expresses a sense of time, condition, concession, or manner.
 The storm having passed, the travelers resumed their journey
 His hands shaking, he opened the letter.
 Her eyes filled with tears, the young girl ran out of the room, her heart heavy with
sorrow.

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Infinitive Clause
Technically, there is no such thing as an infinitive clause, because there is no conjunction
associated with the clause. However, when an infinitive is followed by a noun clause, it is
sometimes referred to as an infinitive clause. This structure can be very helpful in improving
writing.
 The principal was happy to learn (Infinitive V) that his budget would increase next
year (NC)
 The manager gave his staff an extended vacation to test whether they would actually
take it, not because he was generous.
Comparative phrases and clauses
Consider this pattern: as+ adjective+ a/an+ countable noun+ as
 Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a life as possible. (not … as normal life
as …)
 Despite her fear of heights, she climbed as high a mountain as she could.
 Despite the stormy weather, they managed to have as enjoyable a picnic as possible.
 Despite his limited resources, he built as large a collection of books as he could.
 Despite her busy schedule, she maintained as active a social life as possible.
 Despite their financial struggles, they provided as stable a home as they could for
their children.
 She's as good a cook as her grandmother.
 He's not as talented a musician as his brother.
 This is as big a problem as we've ever faced.
 She's as intelligent a student as anyone in the class.
 He's not as skilled a carpenter as he claims to be.
 It's as small a detail as you can imagine.
 She's as kind a person as you'll ever meet.
 He's not as experienced a traveler as his friend.
 It's as clear an explanation as you'll find.
 She's not as fast a runner as her sister.
The negative form of sentences like this can use either 'not as' or sometimes 'not such'.
Patterns are:
Not as + adjective+ a/an+ countable noun+ as
Not such+ a+ adjective+ countable noun+ as
 It’s not as quiet a place (or ... not such a quiet place …) as it used to be.
 She's not as good a cook as her grandmother.
 He's not such a talented musician as his brother.
 This is not as big a problem as we've ever faced.
 She's not such an intelligent student as anyone in the class.
 He's not as skilled a carpenter as he claims to be.
 It's not as small a detail as you can imagine.
 She's not such a kind person as you'll ever meet.
 He's not as experienced a traveler as his friend.
 It's not as clear an explanation as you'll find.
 She's not such a fast runner as her sister.
We can use 'so,' 'too,' and 'how' followed by an adjective in a similar way:
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  It’s not quite so straightforward a problem as it might at first seem.
 ‘Conspiracy’ is perhaps too strong a word.
 How big a piece do you want?
More examples:
 It's not quite so difficult a task as they anticipated.
 The movie wasn't quite so entertaining a spectacle as we had hoped.
 The meal wasn't too extravagant a feast for the occasion.
 How small a portion should I serve?
 It's not quite so urgent a matter as they made it out to be.
 The journey wasn't too arduous a trek for experienced hikers.
 How significant a role will she play in the project?
 It's not quite so expensive a purchase as it appears.
 The problem wasn't too complex a puzzle for him to solve.
 How long a break are you planning to take?
 The dress wasn't quite so elegant a gown as she had hoped for.
 It's not too difficult a decision to make under the circumstances.
 How serious a mistake did he make?
 The issue wasn't quite so pressing a concern as we initially thought.
 It's not too big a deal to handle on your own.
 How simple a solution are you looking for?
 The book wasn't quite so gripping a read as the reviews suggested.
 It's not too far a distance to walk from here.
 How severe a punishment do you think is appropriate?
 The exam wasn't quite so challenging a test as I had anticipated.
In rather formal English we can use too + adjective + a / an + noun:
 I hope you haven’t had too tiring a day. (not … a too tiring day.)
 I'm afraid it's too long a journey to make by foot.
 She had too busy a schedule to attend the meeting.
 It was too difficult a decision for him to make on his own.
 The project required too large a budget to be feasible.
 It's too expensive a restaurant for us to dine at regularly.
 He faced too tough a challenge to overcome on his own.
 It's too delicate a situation for us to handle lightly.
 The task proved to be too complicated a problem to solve quickly.
 The assignment was too important a task to entrust to just anyone.
 It's too risky a venture to invest in without thorough consideration.
In a less formal style we might say ‘I hope your day hasn’t been too tiring.’
We also use as much / many as or as little / few as to say that a quantity or amount is larger
or smaller than expected. Many and few are preferred before numbers; much and little are
preferred with amounts (e.g. $5, 20%) and distances (e.g. 3 metres):
 There are a small number of people involved, possibly as few as twenty.
 Prices have increased by as much as 300%.
 There are as many as fifty students participating in the competition.
 The cost has risen by as much as $1000.
 There could be as few as three candidates for the position.
 The project completion time may require as much as six months.
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  We might need as little as one hour to finish this task.
 The event attendance could be as many as 500 people.
 The temperature may drop by as much as ten degrees tonight.
 We could need as few as two additional staff members to complete the team.
 The journey might take as little as 30 minutes by car.
 There are as many as ten items on the agenda for the meeting.
We can use not + adjective / adverb + enough + to-infinitive to mean that there isn’t as much
as is necessary to do something:
 I’m not tall enough to reach.
 He didn’t speak loudly enough to be heard.
We can use sufficiently before adjectives to express a similar meaning to enough. Sufficiently
is often preferred in more formal contexts:
 She didn’t play sufficiently well to qualify. (or … well enough to qualify.)
We can use so + adjective / adverb + that-clause to say that something existed or happened
to such a degree that a specified result occurred:
 It’s so simple that even I can do it. He came in so quietly that I didn’t hear him.
Less often we use so + adjective / adverb + as + to-infinitive with a similar meaning.
Compare:
 The difference was so small that it wasn’t worth arguing about. and
 The difference was so small as to not be worth arguing about. (= Because the
difference was so small, it wasn’t worth arguing about)
 The problem was so complex as to require professional assistance.
 The noise was so loud as to cause permanent hearing damage.
 The news was so shocking as to leave everyone speechless.
 Her actions were so reckless as to endanger the lives of others.
 The situation was so dire as to necessitate immediate action.
 The error was so egregious as to result in severe consequences.
 His behavior was so inappropriate as to warrant dismissal.
 The weather was so inclement as to force the event indoors.
 Her performance was so impressive as to earn a standing ovation.
 The situation was so urgent as to demand immediate attention.
We can use go so / as far as + to-infinitive to talk about actions that are surprising or
extreme:
 One furious woman went so / as far as to throw tomatoes at the minister.
as if
In comparison clauses we can use as if followed by a noun phrase, -ing clause, past participle
(-ed) clause, or to-infinitive to introduce a comparison with a situation described in the main
clause. We do this to give an explanation or to say that something appears to be the case but
is not:
 Magnus walked in as if nothing had happened.
 His hands made a circular motion, as if steering a bus through a sharp bend.
 When he caught the ball, Lee fell to the floor as if hit by a bullet.
 As if to convince herself that Luis was really there, she gently touched his cheek.

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Note that we can use as though instead of as if, and in informal speech some people use like
with the same meaning:
 The crowd reacted as though they were watching a boxing match. (or … as if …)
 He walked into the room like nothing had happened. (or … as if …)

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Lesson 9. Subjunctive Mode (C1)
The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses that do the following: 1) express a wish;
2) begin with if and express a condition that does not exist (is contrary to fact); 3) begin with
as if and as though when such clauses describe a speculation or condition contrary to fact;
and 4) begin with that and express a demand, requirement, request, or suggestion. The
present subjunctive has the same form as the bare infinitive:
 Long live the Queen!
We also use present subjunctive in certain exclamations and phrases:
 God bless you!
 God save the queen!
 If need be we can lend you more money
When making suggestions, recommendations, and demands, the subjunctive mood is
commonly employed. This involves two clauses. The first one begins with verbs such as
advise, ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, or suggest. The second one starts
with 'that' and includes a short infinitive, without specifying any particular tense. Consider
the examples:
 I suggest that computer simulation be used.
 I recommend that he apply for a scholarship.
 I request that experiments continue.
 I demand that he stop immediately.
 The college requires that each student complete two years of foreign language.
Note that after certain adjectives such as advisable, desirable, essential, important,
mandatory, necessary, urgent, vital, critical, and imperative, we also employ the subjunctive
mood of the verb
 It is necessary that each salesperson work longer hours.
 It is important that they be told the truth.
 It was essential that all students attend the class before 7 o’clock.
 It should be imperative that Maria start her work by 2th April.
The sentence "It should be imperative that Maria start her work by 2nd April" is not in the
traditional subjunctive form. However, it conveys a similar sense of necessity or importance.
And when using modal verbs like "should," "could," "might," or others in similar expressions,
the second verb (in the subordinate clause) typically does not have a specific time indicated.
This lack of specificity contributes to the sense of possibility, suggestion, or recommendation.
In negative forms with the subjunctive mood, we generally use "not" before the base form of
the verb.
 It is recommended that the clever student not waste their time.
 She proposes that we not eat too much before the training get started.
 Peter asked that we not stay at his home.
Certain verbs, including "ask" and "advise," can indeed be used with both direct objects and
that-clauses, depending on the structure and context of the sentence. When these verbs are
used with just a direct object (e.g., She told a story), the sentence is typically in the indicative
mood. When these verbs are used with a that-clause (e.g., She told that a story should be
told), the sentence is often in the subjunctive mood.
 She advised that Peter study intensively.

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  She advised Peter to study intensively.
In British English they try and avoid the Subjunctive by using should + infinitive:
 She insists / proposes (that) he should pay for the meal
 He asks that we should be ready to leave at eight.
 She requests that we should not make too much noise.
 He recommends (that) the tablets should be taken after meals.
verbs used with the present subjunctive: advise, ask, beg, command, demand, insist, instruct,
intend, order, prefer, recommend, request, require, stipulate, suggest, urge, warn.
 She recommended that he be present at the meeting.
 The teacher insisted that the students submit their assignments on time.
 The manager requested that everyone attend the training session.
 The captain commanded that the crew follow safety protocols.
 It is advisable that she speak with the HR department about the issue.
 The boss demanded that the report be finalized by the end of the day.
 He urged that a solution be found before the deadline.
 I suggest that he reconsider his decision.
 The parents prefer that their children be home before dark.
 The committee requires that all members attend the upcoming event.
 The manager requested that employees not use personal devices during working
hours.
 It is important that the team not disclose confidential information to external parties.
 The teacher insisted that the students not talk during the exam.
 The committee recommended that the project not proceed without proper funding.
 The policy stipulates that customers not leave their belongings unattended.
 I suggest that she not make any decisions without consulting the team.
 The director urged that the staff not reveal the details of the upcoming surprise.
 The parents demand that their children not engage in risky behavior.
 It is advisable that travelers not venture into unknown areas after dark.
 The mayor requires that citizens not litter in public spaces.
Past Subjunctive with Second Conditional
Traditionally we used past subjunctive in second conditionals and related structures like if
only and i wish. But, with one exception, past subjunctive is identical to past simple. So we
now tend to talk about forming second conditionals with past simple (rather than past
subjunctive).
 If I won the lottery tomorrow, I'd give up my job.
 I would be very surprised if he didn't come to the party.
The only usual exception being were instead of was.
 If I were in your shoes, I'd take job.
 I would be very surprised if he were married.
 If only she were younger.
 I wish I were in Egypt.
 If your mother were here, I’m sure she wouldn’t let you eat all those chocolates.
 My job would not exist if it were not for government funding.

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In British English this use is declining somewhat, and people are increasingly using Past
Simple (Indicative) across the board. But some people still consider that were is the only
correct usage.
 If I was in your shoes, I'd take job.
 I would be very surprised if he was married.
 If only she was younger.
 I wish I was in Egypt (Egypt Tourist Authority Advertisement).
Be structure
Let's delve into "be-structures" in imperative and subjunctive moods:
Imperative Mood:
1. Affirmative Imperative:
 Be quiet.
 Be patient.
 Be yourself.
2. Negative Imperative:
 Don't be late.
 Don't be afraid.
 Don't be too hard on yourself.
3. Interrogative Imperative:
 Be careful, will you?
 Be ready, won't you?
 Be here on time, okay?
In imperative sentences, the verb "be" is used directly without the infinitive "to."
Subjunctive Mood:
1. Wishes/Requests:
 I asked that he be present.
 She wishes that it be true.
 We request that you be honest.
2. Recommendations:
 It is recommended that he be on time.
 I suggest that it be done soon.
 We propose that they be considered.
3. Requirements/Insistence:
 It is required that she be properly dressed.
 I insist that it be resolved immediately.
 We demand that he be treated fairly.
4. Expressions of Necessity or Urgency:
 It is necessary that you be informed.
 I urgently request that they be contacted.

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  It's vital that the issue be addressed.
 Make sure that your essay be well-organized.
 It's important that the instructions be followed.
 I recommend that she be informed.
 It is important that he be present at the meeting.
 I suggest that she be on time for the appointment.
 It is crucial that the instructions be followed carefully.
 We recommend that you be aware of the potential risks.
 The manager insisted that the report be submitted by Friday.
Now consider this construction: In order that + be + past participle/adjective:
For + noun phrase + to be + past participle/adjective
In order for + noun phrase + to be + past participle/adjective
 In order that my book be complete, I want to discuss this topic as well.
 In order that the goals be achieved, a comprehensive strategy must be devised and
followed.
 For the solution to be viable, it is important that it address the root cause of the
problem.
 For his proposal to be successful, it is crucial that he address all potential concerns.
 In order for the experiment to yield accurate results, it is essential that every variable
be carefully controlled.
 In order that the document be approved, all necessary signatures must be obtained.
 The manager scheduled a meeting in order that the team be informed about the new
project.
 In order that the solution be effective, thorough testing is required.
 The guidelines were established in order that all employees be treated fairly.
 In order that the event be memorable, careful planning and coordination are
essential.
 The professor gave additional resources to the students in order that they be well-
prepared for the exam.
 In order that the decision be unbiased, an impartial committee was formed.
 The instructions were provided in order that the experiment be replicated accurately.
 In order that the system be secure, regular updates and maintenance are necessary.
 The rules were implemented in order that all competitors be subject to the same
conditions.
 In order for the product to be competitive, continuous market research is required.
 The manager provided additional support in order for the team to be motivated and
productive.
 In order for the experiment to be conclusive, a sufficient sample size must be
selected.
 Regular maintenance is necessary in order for the equipment to be reliable and
efficient.
 In order for the event to be successful, sponsorship from local businesses is crucial.

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Lesson 10: reported speech (B2)
When we tell people what another person said or thought, we often use reported speech or
indirect speech. To do that, we need to change verb tenses (present, past, etc.) and
pronouns (I, you, my, your, etc.) if the time and speaker are different. The table below
indicates the changes we need to make for changing a direct tense to an indirect one:
Direct tense Indirect tense Direct tense Indirect tense
Simple present Past simple will Would

Present continuous Past continuous Can Could

Present perfect Past perfect May (possibility) Might

Present perfect Past perfect May (permission) Could

continuous continuous
Simple past Past perfect Must (obligation) Had to

past continuous past perfect Must (speculation) Must

continuous
past perfect past perfect Could Could

past perfect past perfect Should Should

continuous continuous
Simple Future Simple Future in past Would Would

Future continuous Future in past Might Might

continuous
Future perfect Future in past perfect

Future perfect Future in past perfect

continuous continuous

Simple Present to Past Simple:

 Direct: She says, "I like ice cream."
 Indirect: She said that she liked ice cream.
Present Continuous to Past Continuous:
 Direct: "We are studying for the exam," he says.
 Indirect: He said that they were studying for the exam.
Present Perfect to Past Perfect:
 Direct: "I have already finished my homework," she says.
 Indirect: She said that she had already finished her homework.
Present Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous:
 Direct: "He has been working on this project," they say.
 Indirect: They said that he had been working on that project.
Simple Past to Past Perfect:
 Direct: "I visited the museum yesterday," he says.
 Indirect: He said that he had visited the museum the day before.
Past Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous:

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  Direct: "We were watching a movie when it started raining," she says.
 Indirect: She said that they had been watching a movie when it had started raining.
Past Perfect to Past Perfect:
 Direct: "They had already left when we arrived," he says.
 Indirect: He said that they had already left when they arrived.
Past Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous:
 Direct: "She had been practicing piano for two hours," he says.
 Indirect: He said that she had been practicing piano for two hours.
Simple Future to Simple Future in Past:
 Direct: "I will help you with your project," she says.
 Indirect: She said that she would help with the project.
Future Continuous to Future in Past Continuous:
 Direct: "They will be traveling to Paris next week," he says.
 Indirect: He said that they would be traveling to Paris the following week.
Future Perfect to Future in Past Perfect:
 Direct: "I will have completed the report by tomorrow," she says.
 Indirect: She said that she would have completed the report by the next day.
Future Perfect Continuous to Future in Past Perfect Continuous:
 Direct: "We will have been living here for five years by then," they say.
 Indirect: They said that they would have been living there for five years by then.
And for modals:
 He said, "I will finish the project by tomorrow." | He said that he would finish the
project by the next day.
 She asked, "Can you please pass me the salt?" | She asked if I could pass her the salt.
 The teacher stated, "May I attend the event tomorrow?" | The teacher inquired
whether she might be able to attend the event the next day.
 The student requested, "May I leave the room?" | The student asked if he could leave
the room.
 The boss commanded, "You must complete the assignment by the deadline." | The
boss emphasized that the assignment had to be completed by the deadline.
 I remarked, "I must be misunderstanding the situation." | I remarked that I must have
been misunderstanding the situation.
 She inquired, "Could you help me with my homework?" | She inquired if I could help
her with her homework.
 The doctor advised, "You should exercise regularly for good health." | The doctor
advised that one should exercise regularly for good health.
 He asked, "Would you like to join us for dinner?" | He asked if I would like to join
them for dinner.
 The customer wondered, "There might be a delay in the delivery." | The customer
wondered if there might have been a delay in the delivery.

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Sometimes it’s necessary to change the time expressions when you report speech, especially
when you are speaking about the past and the time reference no longer applies. For
example:
 Direct speech: “I’m seeing my brother tomorrow.”
 Indirect speech: She said she was seeing her brother the following day.
Here are some other examples:
 Direct speech: “I had a headache yesterday.”
 Indirect speech: You said you’d had a headache the day before yesterday.
 Direct speech: “It’s been raining since this afternoon.”
 Indirect speech: He said it’d been raining since that afternoon.
 Direct speech: “I haven’t seen them since last week.”
 Indirect speech: She said she hadn’t seen them since the previous week.
 Direct Speech: "We are leaving for the airport at 8 AM tomorrow."
 Indirect Speech: They said they were leaving for the airport at 8 AM the next day.
 Direct Speech: "She's coming to the party tonight."
 Indirect Speech: He mentioned that she was coming to the party that night.
When you report a question you need to change the interrogative form into an affirmative
sentence, putting the verb tense one step back, as with normal reported speech.There are
two types of questions that we can report – questions that have a yes/no response, and
questions that begin with a question word like ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘who’ etc.
When we report a yes/no question, we use ‘if’. For example:
 Direct speech: “Do they live here?”
 Indirect speech: You asked me if they lived here.
 Direct Speech: "Is she coming to the party?"
 Indirect Speech: She asked if she was coming to the party.
 Direct Speech: "Did you finish the project on time?"
 Indirect Speech: He asked if I had finished the project on time.
 Direct Speech: "Are they working on a new project?"
 Indirect Speech: We asked if they were working on a new project.
 Direct Speech: "Have you met her before?"
 Indirect Speech: She asked if I had met her before.
 Direct Speech: "Will they attend the conference?"
 Indirect Speech: He asked if they would attend the conference.
As you can see, in the reported version of the question, ‘do’ is eliminated because it is no
longer a question, and the verb ‘live’ becomes ‘lived’.
For questions starting with question words like ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘who’, etc., we report
the question using the question word but change the interrogative form to the affirmative
form. For example:
 Direct speech: “Where do they live?”
 Indirect speech: You asked me where they lived.
 Direct speech: “When are you leaving?”
 Indirect speech: He asked us when we were leaving.
 Direct speech: “How will they get here?”
 Indirect speech: She asked me how they would get here.
 Direct Speech: "Who is organizing the event?"

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  Indirect Speech: She asked who was organizing the event.
 Direct Speech: "What did you eat for breakfast?"
 Indirect Speech: He asked me what I had eaten for breakfast.
 Direct Speech: "Why is she crying?"
 Indirect Speech: I asked why she was crying.
 Direct Speech: "How can I reach you?"
 Indirect Speech: He asked how he could reach me.
 Direct Speech: "Which book are you reading?"
 Indirect Speech: She inquired which book I was reading.
However, if we are reporting a negative question, we can use a negative form of do:
 He asked (me) why I didn’t want anything to eat.
When we report a question we normally use the verb ‘ask’. As with the verb ‘to tell’, the verb
‘to ask’ is normally followed by an object pronoun, though it is possible to omit it.
When you give someone an order, you use the imperative form, which means using just the
verb without a subject. For example:
 “Call me back later.”
 “Have a seat.”
 “Don’t do that!”
To report an order we use ‘tell’ and the infinitive of the verb. For example:
 You told me to call you back later.
 He told me to have a seat.
 She told us not to do that.
When you make a request, you normally use words like ‘can’, ‘could’, or ‘will’. For example:
 “Could you call me back later?”
 “Will you have a seat?”
 “Can you not do that please?”
To report a request, we use the verb ‘to ask’ and the infinitive form of the verb. For example:
 You asked me to call you back later.
 He asked me to have a seat.
 She asked us not to do that.
More examples:
Orders (Imperatives):
 "Open the door."
 You told me to open the door.
 "Turn off the lights."
 He told me to turn off the lights.
 "Don't be late."
 She told us not to be late.
 Stay quiet during the movie."
 She told us to stay quiet during the movie.
 "Finish the report by Friday."
 He told me to finish the report by Friday.

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  "Don't forget to lock the door."
 I was told not to forget to lock the door.
 "Don't eat all the cookies."
 She told me not to eat all the cookies.
 "Don't forget to water the plants."
 He reminded me not to forget to water the plants.
 "Don't talk loudly in the library."
 The librarian told us not to talk loudly in the library.
 "Don't open the package until Christmas."
 Mom instructed me not to open the package until Christmas.
 "Don't give out your password."
 The IT specialist warned us not to give out our passwords.
 "Don't. "
 He/She/They told me not to.
Requests:
 "Could you pass the salt, please?"
 You asked me to pass the salt, please.
 "Will you lend me your pen?"
 He asked if I would lend him my pen.
 "Can you help me with this task?"
 She asked if I could help her with that task.
Note. Some reporting verbs which are followed by a that-clause have an alternative with an
object + to-infinitive (often to be), although the alternatives are often rather formal.
Compare:
 I felt that the results were satisfactory. and
 I felt the results to be satisfactory.
More examples:
Acknowledge:
 That-clause: She acknowledged that the project had encountered some challenges.
 Alternative: She acknowledged the project to have encountered some challenges.
Assume:
 That-clause: The manager assumed that the new policy would be implemented soon.
 Alternative: The manager assumed the new policy to be implemented soon.
Believe:
 That-clause: I believe that they will arrive on time for the meeting.
 Alternative: I believe them to arrive on time for the meeting.
Consider:
 That-clause: We considered that the proposal needed further review.
 Alternative: We considered the proposal to need further review.
Declare:
 That-clause: The president declared that a state of emergency was in effect.
 Alternative: The president declared a state of emergency to be in effect.
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Expect:
 That-clause: The team expected that the budget would be approved.
 Alternative: The team expected the budget to be approved.
Find:
 That-clause: The researchers found that the experiment yielded consistent results.
 Alternative: The researchers found the experiment to yield consistent results.
Presume:
 That-clause: He presumed that she had already received the memo.
 Alternative: He presumed her to have already received the memo.
Report:
 That-clause: The journalist reported that the company's profits had increased.
 Alternative: The journalist reported the company's profits to have increased.
Think:
 That-clause: I think that the decision was well-reasoned.
 Alternative: I think the decision to be well-reasoned.
Understand:
 That-clause: They understood that the changes were necessary for improvement.
 Alternative: They understood the changes to be necessary for improvement.
These examples illustrate how you can use both structures interchangeably, with the "that-
clause" being more common and the alternative structure providing a more formal option.

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Lesson 11: Inversion and Fronting (C1)
Inversion involves reversing the position of the subject and an auxiliary, or sometimes the
subject and the whole verb. Fronting means putting a word or expression which normally
comes later to the front of the sentence, before the subject. This could be, for example, an
adverbial or adjectival expression, a noun phrase or clause, or even a verb. English is quite
strict about word order, the standard in positive (declarative) sentences being: Subject - Verb
- Object (SVO).
When this is changed, we know something special is happening. Sometimes, as in forming
questions, inversion is obligatory. But at other times it's optional, and like fronting, which is
always optional, we usually use it (1) to give extra emphasis to something, either by bringing
it to the front, or in some cases by putting at the end of a clause; (2) as a cohesive device to
link a clause or sentence to what has just gone before; (3) to give a more dramatic effect,
especially in writing. Inversion is often used in connection with fronting. Sometimes fronting
involves inversion, often it doesn't. Sometimes that inversion is obligatory, sometimes it isn't.
Fronting of a negative adverb, with obligatory inversion.
 He had never seen such a wonderful sunset. (standard word order)
 Never had he seen such a wonderful sunset. (fronted with inversion)
Fronting of a prepositional phrase, with optional inversion
 A large dog lay in front of the fireplace. (standard word order)
 In front of the fireplace, lay a large dog. (fronted with inversion)
 In front of the fireplace, a large dog was chewing a bone. (fronted, no inversion)
Fronting of wh-clause - here inversion is not possible
 I've no idea why she's late. (standard word order)
 Why she's late, I've no idea. (fronted, no inversion)
Types of Inversion and Fronting
1. Subject-auxiliary inversion - obligatory, no emphasis involved
Obviously with simple tenses (apart from with the verb be) we have to add do, does or did in
questions and negatives.
 We went to the cinema last night.
 Oh. What did you see?
We don't invert when the question refers to the subject:
 Who gave you those flowers?
 Mark (gave me the flowers).
 What is making so much noise?
 The washing machine (is making so much noise).
 Which of you has been here before?
 Jenny has (been here before).
We don't invert in indirect (aka embedded) questions:
 He asked me where I was staying.
 They asked us if we knew where the station was.
 She wanted to know what he was doing at the weekend.
 Do you know if you'll be seeing Peter later?
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Echo questions - Inversion is used:
 A: That's Miss Spence. She's our daughter's new history teacher.
 B: Is she really? She looks so young.
 A: He's just won a place at Oxford.
 B: Has he indeed? You must be really proud of him.
 A: We saw Peter yesterday.
 B: Oh, did you? And how is he? I haven't seen him for ages.
 A: Come on children, it's time for bed.
 B: Oh must we? We want to watch the film.
The most common way to give a same-way answer is to use so or neither and subject-
auxiliary inversion, but there are also a couple of other ways.
 A: I really like his latest film.
 B: So do I. I do too. Me too. (informal)
 A: But I haven't seen all his films.
 B: Neither have I. I haven't either. Me neither.
 A: I often go hiking on weekends.
 B: I do too.
 A: I don't enjoy spicy food.
 B: Nor do I.
 A: She can speak three languages fluently.
 B: I can as well.
 A: I've never been to Asia.
 B: Neither have I.
 A: We'll attend the conference next month.
 B: So will we.
We can use both so and neither / nor + auxiliary + noun phrase
 She can swim really well, and so can her sister.
 or - She can swim really well, and her sister can too.
 She can't sing for peanuts, and neither can her brother.
 or - She can't sing for peanuts, and her brother can't either.
 He really likes jazz. And so do his children.
 or - He really likes jazz. And his children do, too.
 He doesn't like rap, nor does his wife.
 or - He doesn't like rap and his wife doesn't either.
Exercise. Rewrite using "so" and "neither/nor".
 She can play the piano, and her brother can play the piano too.
 He enjoys reading science fiction novels, and his friends enjoy them as well.
 They have visited Australia, and their neighbors have visited Australia as well.
 She is allergic to peanuts, and her son is also allergic to peanuts.
 He didn't like the movie, and his sister didn't like the movie either.
Answer:
 She can play the piano, and so can her brother.
 He enjoys reading science fiction novels, and so do his friends.
 They have visited Australia, and so have their neighbors.
 She is allergic to peanuts, and so is her son.
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  He didn't like the movie, and nor did his sister.
Note - Remember that neither and nor are always used with a positive verb, and either with
a negative verb (or in questions).
After a first clause or sentence containing a negative, we can introduce a second clause or
sentence with nor + auxiliary + clause, as a rather more formal alternative to and + negative
clause or nor + positive clause. Note the use of 'to do so' to avoid repeating a verb from the
previous clause.
 They don't have a car, nor have they shown any signs of wanting one.
 or They don't have a car, and they haven't shown any signs of wanting one.
 He doesn't want to retire until next year. Nor is there any good reason why he should.
 or He doesn't want to retire until next year. And there isn't any good reason why he
should.
 She hasn't applied for the job yet, nor do we expect her to do so.
 or She hasn't applied for the job yet, and we don't expect her to.
Some more examples:
 Original: "He didn't complete the assignment, and he didn't attend the class."
 Formal alternative: "He didn't complete the assignment, nor did he attend the class."
 Original: "They don't have any experience, and they don't have the required skills."
 Formal alternative: "They don't have any experience, nor do they have the required
skills."
 Original: "She didn't buy the dress, and she didn't try on any shoes."
 Formal alternative: "She didn't buy the dress, nor did she try on any shoes."
 Original: "We don't have the information, and we don't know when the meeting will
be."
 Formal alternative: "We don't have the information, nor do we know when the
meeting will be."
 Original: "He didn't bring his umbrella, and he didn't check the weather forecast."
 Formal alternative: "He didn't bring his umbrella, nor did he check the weather
forecast."
Exercise: change sentences provided into formal using nor.
 She didn't attend the morning lecture, and she didn't submit the assignment on time.
 We don't have a reservation, and we don't know if there are any available tables.
 He didn't inform us about the change in schedule, and he didn't provide any reasons
for it.
 They didn't bring their passports, and they didn't have any other forms of
identification.
 I didn't understand the instructions, and I didn't ask for clarification.
 She didn't like the first movie, and she didn't enjoy the second one either.
 We didn't receive an invitation, and we didn't know about the event.
 He didn't complete the project, and he didn't communicate the delay.
Answer:
 She didn’t attend the morning lecture, nor did she submit the assignment on time.
 We don’t have a reservation, nor do we know if there are any available tables.
 He didn’t inform us about the change in schedule, nor did he provide any reasons for
it.

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  They didn't bring their passports, nor did they have any other forms of identification.
 I didn't understand the instructions, nor did I ask for clarification.
 She didn't like the first movie, nor did she enjoy the second one either.
 We didn't receive an invitation, nor did we know about the event.
 He didn't complete the project, nor did he communicate the delay.
When both clauses have the same subject, nor + inversion is used for greater emphasis.
More commonly we'd use or and not repeat the subject.
 He doesn't go to the theatre, nor does he visit museums.
 or more commonly - He doesn't go to the theatre or visit museums.
 She could not play the piano, nor could she sing very well.
 or more commonly - She could not play the piano or sing very well
We can also use nor + inversion after a first clause containing a word with a negative
meaning, like hardly, rarely etc:
 He rarely goes there nowadays. Nor does he miss the place particularly.
 I hardly know him. Nor do I know his brother very well.
 She seldom eats out. Nor does she enjoy cooking at home.
 We hardly ever watch TV. Nor do we have a subscription to any streaming services.
 He rarely takes a day off. Nor does he like to go on long vacations.
 I scarcely remember her name. Nor do I recall meeting her before.
 They barely passed the exam. Nor did they put much effort into studying.
In a rather formal and old-fashioned style, the expression 'to do so' is itself occasionally used
with so fronted - 'so to do', but not often in nor clauses. Nowadays this seems mainly
confined to legal texts.
 I can live alone, if self-respect, and circumstances require me so to do.
 The legal defence was that a civil servant can pass on information if it is in the
interests of the state so to do.
We can use "to do so" instead of "so to do" in many cases. Both expressions convey a similar
meaning, but "to do so" is more commonly used in modern English.
 She decided to resign from her position, as her principles required her so to do.
 The company, having faced financial challenges, found it necessary so to do a
thorough restructuring.
 In the pursuit of justice, the detective believed it was his duty so to do everything in
his power to uncover the truth.
 The diplomat, recognizing the sensitivity of the matter, deemed it appropriate so to
do a careful diplomatic dance.
Exercise: Complete the sentences using "to do so" or "so to do"
 She values her privacy and prefers ______________.
 The committee decided on a course of action and resolved ______________.
 The professor explained the complex concept, allowing the students
______________.
 In challenging situations, it is essential ______________ with integrity.
 The new policy requires employees ______________ according to the guidelines.
Answer:
 She values her privacy and prefers to do so as her nature dictates.
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  The committee decided on a course of action and resolved the problem as the
circumstances they were in compelled them so to do.
 The professor explained the complex concept, allowing the students ask their
questions since his duty required him so to do.
 In challenging situations, it is essential to keep your composure, and so to do, you
have to act with integrity.
 The new policy requires employees to act according to the guidelines, and to do so
willingly.

When we use the correlative neither ... nor ... construction with a full clause in the second
part, we need to invert the second negative.
 I neither know him, nor have I ever seen him before.
 She neither likes coffee, nor does she enjoy tea.
 They neither agreed with the proposal, nor would they support it.
 I neither understood the question, nor could I come up with an answer.
 He neither spoke French, nor did he comprehend it well.
 We neither expected the outcome, nor were we prepared for it.
 The car neither started, nor did it show any signs of life.
 She neither attended the meeting, nor did she provide an explanation.
 I neither heard the announcement, nor was it conveyed to me.
We can also invert the first clause, a type of negative inversion used for special effect, in
which case we need a parallel full clause in the second part, also inverted:
 Neither do I believe a word he says, nor do I trust him an inch.
 Neither do I believe a word he says, nor trust him an inch.
But notice these other neither ... nor ... constructions (without inversion):
One subject, two verbs
 He neither smokes nor drinks.
Two subjects, one verb
 Neither he nor his sister smokes. (standard - singular verb)
 Neither he nor his sister smoke. (informal - plural verb)
2. Subject-auxiliary inversion - optional, usually for emphasis
Negative inversion
This involves fronting a negative or restrictive adverb or adverbial phrase and inverting the
subject and auxuliary. This is usually done for emphatic effect. For example:
standard word order
 He had seldom heard such wonderful music.
inverted word order
 Seldom had he heard such wonderful music.
Note - Sometimes the adverbial expression in the standard word order is split into two parts.
You need to put these together in the inverted version. Remember that you also need to add
do/does/did in simple tenses:
standard word order
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  She had never been treated so badly before.
 He only realised he had forgotten his wallet when he was asked for his ID.
inverted version
 Never before had she been treated so badly.
 Only when he was asked for his ID did he realise he had forgotten his wallet.
Note - We can't just invert every time we have a negative adverbial: there are a few set
patterns. But if we do front the negative adverbial, then inversion is obligatory. Notice
especially the verb forms used in each pattern. Examples:
Standard Word Order: They had rarely witnessed such a spectacular performance.
Inverted Word Order: Rarely had they witnessed such a spectacular performance.
Standard Word Order: She had never imagined such an incredible journey.
Inverted Word Order: Never had she imagined such an incredible journey.
Standard Word Order: We only discovered the hidden treasure after years of searching.
Inverted Word Order: Only after years of searching did we discover the hidden treasure.
Standard Word Order: He seldom spoke about his past experiences.
Inverted Word Order: Seldom did he speak about his past experiences.
Standard Word Order: I had hardly begun when the storm interrupted the outdoor event.
Inverted Word Order: Hardly had I begun when the storm interrupted the outdoor event.
Standard Word Order: She only realized her mistake after submitting the application.
Inverted Word Order: Only after submitting the application did she realize her mistake.
Standard Word Order: They had never encountered such a challenging puzzle before.
Inverted Word Order: Never had they encountered such a challenging puzzle.
Standard Word Order: We seldom hear such beautiful melodies in this part of town.
Inverted Word Order: Seldom do we hear such beautiful melodies in this part of town.
Standard Word Order: He only comprehended the complexity of the problem during the
meeting.
Inverted Word Order: Only during the meeting did he comprehend the complexity of the
problem.
Standard Word Order: She had never faced such harsh criticism in her career.
Inverted Word Order: Never had she faced such harsh criticism in her career.
Standard Word Order: We only realized the consequences after implementing the changes.
Inverted Word Order: Only after implementing the changes did we realize the consequences.
Standard Word Order: He seldom indulges in desserts, preferring healthier options.
Inverted Word Order: Seldom does he indulge in desserts, preferring healthier options.
Standard Word Order: I had never witnessed such a breathtaking sunset before.

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Inverted Word Order: Never had I witnessed such a breathtaking sunset.
Standard Word Order: They only recognized the significance of the discovery later.
Inverted Word Order: Only later did they recognize the significance of the discovery.
Standard Word Order: He seldom found himself in such awkward situations.
Inverted Word Order: Seldom did he find himself in such awkward situations.
never
This is most often used with present perfect or past perfect, and typically with so or such (or
a similar expression) to express the uniqueness or near uniqueness of an experience, or to
make a comment about it.
 Never before have I been treated so badly.
 And never again will I put up with that sort of treatment.
 Never did he make the slightest fuss, even though he was in some discomfort.
 Never for one moment did she imagine that she would become so successful.
 Never before has he encountered such a challenging task in his professional career.
 And never again will they invest in such risky ventures.
 Never did she show any signs of regret, even though the decision was tough.
 Never have we faced such unprecedented challenges in the industry.
 Never before had they witnessed such a spectacular performance.
Note the saying:
 Never was a truer thing said in jest.
Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences using negative inversion with the present perfect
or past perfect, and include expressions like "so" or "such" for emphasis.
 I have never experienced such a profound sense of accomplishment.
 She has never faced such difficult decisions in her personal life.
 They have never seen such dedication in their team members.
 I have never come across such innovative solutions in my career.
 We have never encountered such a challenging project before.
Answer:
 Never have I experienced such a profound sense of accomplishment.
 Never has she faced such difficult decisions in her personal life.
 Never have they seen such dedication in their team members.
 Never have I come across such innovative solutions in my career.
 Never have we encountered such a challenging project before.
rarely / seldom, hardly ever
When used with present perfect or past perfect, these also often appear with so or such (or a
similar expression):
 Rarely had she seen such beautiful countryside.
 Very rarely do we hear music of this quality.
 She's quite an excitable dog, but rarely is this a problem.
 Seldom had he seen anything quite like it.
 Only seldom does someone become a criminal by chance.
 Seldom was she heard to say a word against him.
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  Hardly ever had she experienced feelings like these.
 Hardly ever did they get to do anything in the slightest bit interesting.
 We always go with high expectations, and hardly ever are we disappointed.
scarcely / barely / hardly + past perfect, when + past simple: This structure is used to
emphasize the almost immediate occurrence of the second action after the first.
 Barely had he sat down, when there was a knock at the door.
 Scarcely had she finished her presentation, when the power went out.
 Barely had they started the meeting, when the fire alarm went off.
 Hardly had he closed his eyes, when the phone rang.
 Barely had they entered the restaurant, when it started pouring rain.
 Scarcely had she submitted the report, when her supervisor requested revisions.
 Hardly had I left the house, when I realized I forgot my keys.
 Barely had they started the car, when it sputtered and stalled.
 Scarcely had she begun reading the book, when she received an urgent call.
 Barely had the chef prepared the dish, when the restaurant ran out of that particular
ingredient.
 Hardly had he switched off the lights, when a loud noise startled him.
Exercise: Transform each of sentences below into the above structure.
 She finished her coffee. Then, the phone rang.
 We started the barbecue. Suddenly, it began to rain.
 They left the house. The neighbors' party got louder.
Answer:
 Hardly had she finished her coffee, when the phone rang.
 Barely had we started the barbecue, when it began to rain.
 Scarcely had they left the house, when the neighbors’ party got louder.
no sooner + past perfect, than + past simple: commonly used to express that one action or
event happened immediately after another, with a focus on the short time interval between
them.
 No sooner had she left the house, than it started to pour with rain.
 No sooner had I finished my work, than my boss called me into his office.
 No sooner had the students left the classroom, than the teacher began to clean up
the mess.
 No sooner had she started her car, than it broke down.
 No sooner had the rain stopped, than people started coming out of their houses.
Exercise: Your task is to combine each pair into a single sentence using the "no sooner + past
perfect, than + past simple" structure.
 She finished her homework. The phone rang.
 They completed the project. The deadline approached.
 He sent the email. The reply arrived.
 The sun set. The stars appeared.
 We reached the station. The train departed.
 The bell rang. The students entered the classroom.
 I closed my eyes. The dream began.
 They planted the seeds. The flowers bloomed.

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  He pressed the button. The elevator arrived.
 She solved the puzzle. The hidden door opened.
Answer:
 No sooner had she finished her homework than the phone rang.
 No sooner had they completed the project than the deadline approached.
 No sooner had he sent the email than the reply arrived.
 No sooner had the sun set than the stars appeared.
 No sooner had we reached the station than the train departed.
 No sooner had the bell rang than the students entered the classroom.
 No sooner had I closed my eyes than the dream began.
 No sooner had they planted the seeds than the flowers bloomed.
 No sooner had the he pressed the button than the elevator arrived.
 No sooner had she solved the puzzle than the hidden door opened.
on no account / under no circumstances / at no time / nowhere / no way: These
constructions are used to emphasize the negation or refusal. We can invert after no in a few
set expressions, but only these:
 On no account should you tell anyone else about this.
 Under no circumstances must this information be disclosed to our competitors
 At no time was I informed of their decision.
 But Officer! Nowhere does it say that I cannot park here.
 No way am I going to pay that much for an ice cream! It's daylight robbery!
More examples:
 On no account can she call my father.
 Under no circumstances should you reveal your password to anyone.
 At no time did he consider quitting his job.
 Nowhere in the contract does it state that overtime is mandatory.
 No way will I lend you my car after what happened last time.
 On no account are you allowed to access that confidential file.
 Under no circumstances can the experiment be altered without proper authorization.
 At no time did she suspect that her friends were planning a surprise party for her.
 Nowhere on the map did they mark the location of the hidden treasure.
 No way am I going to attend that boring seminar.
 On no account should you forget to lock the door before leaving.
not until / not since + expression of time:these structures are used to emphasize the delay or
rarity of an event.

 Not until much later did he find out the truth.

 Not since she lived in Tuscany had she tasted such delicious food.
 Not since she experienced intimacy had she yearned for men.
 Not until recently did she discover her true passion for painting.
 Not since his college years has he been so dedicated to fitness.
 Not until last week did they finish renovating the entire house.
 Not since childhood have I felt such pure joy.
 Not until after the exam did she realize the importance of studying regularly.
 Not since the accident has he been able to ride a bicycle.
 Not until this morning did they receive the news about the project approval.

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  Not since the summer of 2019 have we taken a family vacation.
 Not until the movie ended did she notice her phone was on silent.
 Not since their wedding day has he seen her so happy.
not even if + clause; not for + noun phrase / not for nothing + clause
 Not even if they paid him double would he work this weekend.
 Not for all the tea in China was I going to miss this match!
 Not for all the money in the world would she reveal that secret.
 Not for all the riches on earth will he give up on his dream.
 Not for any treasure on the planet are they going to sell their family heirloom.
 Not for all the diamonds in existence would I betray my best friend.
 Not for any reward imaginable should he break his promise.
(idiom meaning 'not for anything', also 'not for all the money in the world')
 Not for nothing was he called Lightning Smith!
 Not for nothing is she known as the problem solver in the office.
 Not for nothing did they call him the "Voice of Reason" in the group.
 Not for nothing did she earn the title of the fastest sprinter in school.
 Not for nothing is he recognized as the expert in quantum physics.
 Not for nothing do they refer to her as the "Queen of Negotiation" in business circles.
(idiom meaning 'for a very good reason')
not only ..., (but)(also) / (not even) ...
 Not only was the food below expectations, (but) they (also) overcharged us.
 Not only did they refuse to give us a refund, (but) they didn't (even) apologise.
 Not only did she finish the project ahead of schedule, but she also exceeded all
expectations.
 Not only did they win the championship, but they also set a new record in the
process.
 Not only did the storm cause damage to the roof, but it also flooded the entire
basement.
 Not only is he an excellent musician, but he also has a talent for composing beautiful
melodies.
 Not even a heavy rainstorm could dampen their spirits during the outdoor concert.
 Not even the offer of a promotion could convince her to stay with the company.
 Not only did the movie receive critical acclaim, but it also became a box office
success.
 Not only did they solve the complex puzzle, but they also did it in record time.
 Not even the late-night traffic could keep him from attending the important meeting.
 Not only did she paint stunning landscapes, but she also mastered the art of portrait
painting.
not + object followed by inversion: This can happen with a standard verb form or passive
infinitive:
 Not a single word did he say.
 Not a penny have they received in compensation.
 Not a moment was to be lost.(= We weren't to lose a moment)
 Not a sound did she hear as she entered the deserted house.
 Not a single complaint did they receive about the new policy.

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  Not a minute has passed since I last saw her.
 Not a book did he find interesting on the library shelf.
 Not a drop of rain fell during the entire summer festival.
 Not a clue did they have about the surprise party waiting for them.
 Not a note of music did he recognize in the unfamiliar melody.
 Not a hint of hesitation did she show when making the difficult decision.
 Not a dollar did he spend on unnecessary expenses during the trip.
 Not a single error has been found in the newly published manuscript.
only + time expression
 Only then did the truth dawn on me.
 Only once you've read the book will you see what I'm talking about.
 Only after she showed them her picture in a newspaper were they convinced that she
was who she said she was.
 Only rarely / seldom do we get the chance to see a performance as good as this.
only if + clause / only by + -ing form
 Only if you increase the discount can we possibly accept this deal.
 Only by bribing the porter did we manage to get a meal sent up to our room.
Note - With only in particular, the negative adverbial expression can be quite long, and may
be in two parts in the uninverted version. You may also have to change the order of the
sentence. Compare these uninverted sentences with their inverted versions above:
 They were only convinced that she was who she said she was after she showed them
her picture in a newspaper.
 We only managed to get a meal sent up to our room by bribing the porter.
Notice that we can also use an 'it' cleft with these expressions, in which case inversion is not
used:
 It was only after she showed them her picture in a newspaper that they were
convinced that she was who she said she was.
 It was only by bribing the porter that we managed to get a meal sent up to our room.
Note - We don't invert after only if it is not followed by a time expression or an if/by clause.
little + do / does / did: This construction is used for emphasis and to express surprise or
irony. It's often employed with verbs like imagine, know, realize, suspect, and understand.
 Little does he realise what's in store for him.
 Little did we suspect how much trouble he would cause us.
 Little does she care what I think.
 Little does she know that her friends are planning a surprise party for her birthday.
 Little did they realize the impact of their decision on the community.
 Little does he understand the consequences of his actions.
 Little do we appreciate the beauty of nature until we spend time in the wilderness.
 Little did they suspect the truth behind the mysterious disappearance.
 Little do I imagine the challenges that await me in the coming months.
 Little does she recognize the effort he puts into making her happy.
 Little did they comprehend the complexity of the scientific experiment.
 Little do we acknowledge the significance of small gestures in building relationships.
 Little did he realize the importance of time until he faced a tight deadline.

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as + auxiliary (or be) in a follow-on clause or sentence
In a fairly literary style, we can start a second clause or a new sentence with as instead of and
so, to say somebody or something is or does something similar in some way to the people or
things mentioned in the previous clause or sentence. As with and so, we need to invert.
 Peter is a doctor, as is his wife Mary. (or informally - and so is his wife Mary.)
 She comes from Sweden, as do several other members of the class.
 The upper floors were burning, as was one of the rooms on the ground floor.
 He has already passed his driving test, as has his twin sister, Sally.
 The brothers can sing rather well. As indeed can the rest of the family.
This construction sounds strange with pronouns, and seems to sound best with quite long
subjects.
Note - We don't invert when the subject of both clauses is the same:
 My sister is taking the bus to school, as she does every day.
 We're spending Christmas at my parents' home, as we've always done.
Comparatives with 'than'
This is sometimes used when directly comparing two people, things or situations (one of
which is the subject). It is rather literary and not common in spoken language (where we
often drop the second verb altogether).
 The Prado has more Goyas than has any other gallery.
 The Prado has more Goyas than any other gallery (has). (more natural)
 She sings a lot better than do the rest of her family.
 She sings a lot better than the rest of her family (do). (more natural)
Like inversion after as, this sounds least natural with pronouns, and best with longer and
more complicated subjects. But even then, it is more natural just to omit the verb.
 Their house is rather grander than are others in the neighbourhood.
 Their house is rather grander than others in the neighbourhood (are).
Hopes and wishes with may
These are typically found in greetings and sympathy cards, and in toasts etc.:
 May all your wishes come true
 May she rest in peace.
 May you have a long and fruitful marriage.
3. Fronted so and such
So + adjective + linking verb + that clause
When we use an adjective with be we can invert the whole verb, not just the auxiliary:
 So strong had been the wind that several trees had been blown down.
 So powerful would be the attraction of the sea that before long he would join the
navy.
But when we use other (linking) verbs, we seem to be limited to subject-auxiliary inversion:
 So tired had he become, that he immediately went to bed.
 So good did his steak look that we ordered one each for ourselves.

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So + adverb + verb + that clause
Here we seem only to be able to invert subject and auxiliary:
 So often had he played his opponent that they knew each other's every move.
 So well were the team playing, that he began to wonder if they might not win.
 So badly did he feel about what he had said that he couldn't sleep at all.
So much / little did ... that ...
These constructions were quite popular in 19th century books, but seem to be dying out.
 So much did his manner annoy her that she tried to avoid him at all costs.
 So much did he rely on her advice that when she left he didn't know what to do.
 So little did he know about the business, that I'm surprised the company survived at
all.
 So little did they care about their employees that strikes were quite frequent.
Such + be + noun phrase + that clause
We sometimes use noun phrases followed by be + such that ...to emphasize the degree or
quality of something, understandable from context:
 His commitment to the job is such that he often works at weekends. (He is very
committed - perhaps he should 'get a life')
 The weather was such that they spent most of the time indoors.(The weather was
very bad)
 The outcry had been such that the council had to change their decision.(There had
been a huge outcry)
In a more emphatic version, we can front such, and invert the subject and verb:
 Such is his commitment to the job, that he often works at weekends.
 Such was the weather that they spent most of the time indoors.
 Such had been the outcry that the council had to change their decision.>
These clauses can also be reversed, leaving out that (and adding a comma):
 He often works at weekends, such is his commitment to the job.
 The council had to change their decision, such had been the outcry.
4. Fronted adverbs and adverbial expressions
Fronted prepositional phrases of place + verbs of position
 In the driveway was an old Bentley.
 Between the French windows stood an antique grandfather clock.
 Above the fireplace hung a large portrait of a woman dressed in black.
 On the hearthrug lay an enormous wolfhound.
 At the bar sat a group of young women.
We can do the same with can / could be + third forms of see, hear, make out etc
 In the background of the painting can be seen the old mill house.
 Outside in the street could be heard the sound of children playing.
 In the distance could just be made out the figure of a lone rider.
Fronted prepositional phrases of direction + verbs of movement

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Something similar can occur with verbs of movement like come, go, climb, fly, roll after
prepositional phrases of direction, especially in narratives and literary or more formal styles.
When these adverbial expressions are fronted, inversion is possible with noun phrases but is
not used with pronouns:
 An old traction engine came round the corner, steam pouring from its chimney.
 Round the corner came an old traction engine, steam pouring from its chimney.
 Round the corner it came, steam pouring from its chimney.
Prepositional phrases:
 Up the hill trudged the weary tramp, knowing that at the top he would find food and
shelter.
 Over their heads flew a large flock of starlings, reeling and darting like a shoal of fish
 Off to school went the children, having eaten a hearty breakfast.
 Down the hill rolled an enormous snowball, getting even bigger as it went.
Other adverbial expressions:
As well as prepositional phrases and here and there, we can front other adverbial
expressions. With simple noun phrases, inversion is common, if optional:
 First were the Household Cavalry, and then came the Artillery. After them marched
the Brigade of Guards and finally came the royal coach itself.
 Now comes the weather and next will be the news.
Fronted adverbials of place and direction with verbs of position and movement - without
inversion
With pronouns
 Up the hill they came, more and more of them.
 On the horizon he could make out some hills.
With transitive verbs
 On the table the old woman had placed an old tablecloth.
 Up the hill a man was pushing a wheelbarrow.
When an intransitive verb is followed by an adverb of manner
 At the back of the hall, a young girl stood silently holding a candle
 Along the road the old man trudged wearily.
With continuous tenses
 In the corridor, some boys were standing talking.
5. Fronted adjectives and participles + inverted be
Fronted plain adjectives + be
 Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.
 Happy is the man who finds himself so greatly beloved.
 Lucky is the Queen that has such ministers; and lucky is the country that is governed
by them.
 Fortunate indeed are those who can afford a holiday like that.
 Sad indeed will be the day when we can't express ourselves freely.
 Quick and painless will be your medical procedure.
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Fronted comparatives and superlatives and other adjective forms + be
These are quite natural, and usually follow on from something already said, linking two
sentences or clauses. They seem to work best with intensifiers such as still, even, far etc for
comparatives, and by far, of all etc for superlatives. The subject can be a noun phrase or a
noun clause (for example, wh-clauses and that clauses).
Comparatives + be
 The starter was excellent, but better still was the main course.
 For me, more important than the price is whether it's good value for money.
 Her first round victory was somewhat unexpected. No less surprising was how easily
she beat her second opponent.
 Debbie had quite a good day at the races. Even luckier was her friend Nina, who won
on every horse she bet on.
 Less successful than Debbie or Nina though, was their other friend, Paula, who lost all
her bets.
Superlatives + be
 Happiest of all was Amanda, who had at last met the man of her dreams.
 Fastest round the track was Fangio, in the Ferrari.
 Most impressive of all was that she managed to do it all in record time.
 All his films were pretty good, but by far the best was 'Rio Bravo'.
 Least excited at the prospect was Mike, who didn't want to go at all.
Expressing equality with equally / just as
Here, we express similarity of quality with something else mentioned (often before):
 Equally as disappointing as the starter was the main course, rather tough roast beef
with a soggy Yorkshire pudding.
 The boat trip was really great. And just as good was the party in the evening
afterwards.
Expressing inequality with not so.
Here, we express a contrast with something mentioned before.
 I just managed to get served before the cashier went off for her lunch. Not so lucky
was the woman standing behind me in the queue.
 We rather enjoyed the street artist's performance. Not so amusing, however, was
discovering that I had been pick pocketed.
Standing out from the rest - particularly and especially
In a similar way, inversion is quite often used when these two intensifiers are used with such
adjectives as good, enjoyable, important, noteworthy, significant, striking, notable,
interesting, impressive, popular .Again the adjective phrase usually refers back to someone
or something that has already been mentioned. This sort of inversion can be found in
academic texts and criticism, for example.
 Especially important was the fact that George Washington liked it, and he had the
ultimate say in selecting the winner.
 Particularly significant was his encouragement of the youthful Erasmus, whose first
two publications appeared in works by Gaguin.
 Especially striking was his indifference to truth.
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  Particularly impressive was the number of bicycles, reportedly over 6 million in a city
of 12 million.
 Especially noteworthy was the superb diction by the chorus and most of the
principals.
 Particularly noticeable was the skillful manner in which he arranged the plot.
Not so + adjective + be + inverted subject
This usually follows on from something already said. It is used mainly with adjectives
suggesting something positive, like lucky / fortunate/ happy / good / great. The verb be can
be followed by a noun phrase or an -ing clause. Very occasionally it is followed by a that
clause, or even more rarely, by a to-infinitive clause (in which case it is usually used with a
what cleft).
Noun phrases
 Peterson scored a lucky goal early on in the match. Not so fortunate was his
teammate Johnson, who missed two easy goals in the second half.
 Patricia was over the moon at winning first prize. Not quite so delighted, however,
was her rival Amelia, who had assumed that the prize would be hers.
 The new employee received a warm welcome on her first day. Not so fortunate was
her colleague, who had to deal with a difficult client immediately.
 Alex aced the interview and landed the dream job. Not quite so thrilled, however,
was his friend Jake, who was hoping for the same position.
-ing clauses, wh- clauses and that clauses
 Not so amusing was arriving just in time to see our train leave.
 Not so funny was what happened next.
 Not so great was that I lost my wallet.
 Enjoying a peaceful day at the beach, we were suddenly caught in a surprise
rainstorm. Not so amusing was getting drenched just as we were about to leave.
 They planned an elaborate surprise party for Sarah's birthday. Not so funny was her
reaction when she walked in and saw everyone hiding.
What clefts
Not so comparisons are quite often further emphasized by using what clefts.
 The way staff treated us wasn't so great. = normal Subject Verb order
 Not so great was the way staff treated us. = fronting + Subject Verb inversion
 What wasn't so great was the way staff treated us. = what-cleft + Subject Verb
inversion.
 The movie had an intriguing plot, but what wasn't so engaging was the pacing in some
scenes.
 The decision to renovate the office was well-received. What was not so great was the
delay in the construction process.
 The hotel lobby seemed welcoming enough, but what was not so encouraging was
the state of our room.
 What wasn't so funny was losing my wallet.
 What was not so great was to realize we'd have to spend another three days there.
Fronted phrase - worth a look / visit etc. + be: (be + worth + noun phrase; be + worth +
gerund)

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As an adjective, worth is highly unusual in that it is usually followed by a noun phrase or -ing
form, rather than simply a noun, like most other adjectives:
 If you're in Paris, the Louvre is well worth a visit.
 The concert tickets are worth the price.
 This book is worth your time.
 The new smartphone is expensive, but it's definitely worth the investment.
 The vintage car may seem costly, but it's worth the price for collectors.
 The documentary is thought-provoking and(is) worth watching for anyone interested
in environmental issues.
 Learning a new language is challenging, but it's worth pursuing for the cognitive
benefits.
 The Rodin Museum is also really worth seeing.
 The movie is worth watching.
 It can be worth exploring different cuisines when traveling.
 Joining the photography club is worth considering for anyone interested in improving
their skills.
Common noun phrases used after worth include a try, a visit, a look, a trip, a detour, the
wait, the effort, the cost, the price etc.
An inverted structure with fronted worth has become increasingly popular. It is often
preceded by also or well (but NOT very):
 Also worth a look is the 'Custard Factory' - once owned by Birds Custard.
 Well worth a visit is the 12th century Notre-Dame-la-Grande.
 Worth a try are traditional thick potato soup and cream of pumpkin.
 Well worth the wait is the Trois Petits Pots de Crème. (a dessert - I think)
 Worth a detour is Mineral King, a late-19th-century mining and logging camp.
 Also worth a trip is the flourishing Jardin Majorelle.
As well as being used as a simple adjective phrase, it is also sometimes used to modify a
fronted noun phrase, rather like a reduced relative clause:
 Other properties worth a look are the historic Goodwood Park and the Shangri-La
(hotels).
 Another attraction potentially worth a detour is the Cowtown Rodeo.
 Two more villages well worth a visit are Lynton and Lynmouth.
 One variety worth a try is Green Sausage.
Double comparatives - The bigger, the better etc
Optionally, we can invert the second clause of a double comparative. This is not very
common:
 The nearer a house is to the city centre, the higher is the rent.
or more commonly:
 The nearer a house is to the city centre, the higher the rent (is).
More examples:
 The more challenging a task is, the greater the sense of accomplishment one feels
upon completion.
 The earlier you arrive at the airport, the quicker can you get through security.

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  The hotter the weather is, the more people tend to visit the beach.
 The earlier you wake up, the fresher you feel throughout the day.
 The earlier you wake up, the fresher feel you throughout the day.
 The more complex a problem becomes, the harder it is to find a quick solution.
 The more complex a problem becomes, the harder is it to find a quick solution.
 The more dedicated an employee is, the faster they climb the corporate ladder.
 The more dedicated an employee is, the faster climb they up the corporate ladder.
Fronted present and past participle clauses + be
This construction is one of the principal structures adept writers tend to use. Therefore,
trying to master it can significantly improve your writing.
Present participles (-ing forms) describe an action:
 Coming over the hill was a whole troop of cavalry.
 And bringing up the rear is Diamond Boy, being ridden today by Pat Walker.
 Not wasting any time were Steve and his friends, who went straight to the bar.
 Coming down the staircase was a mysterious figure, cloaked in shadows.
 Rushing through the door was a gust of wind, scattering papers across the room.
 Emerging from the fog was a ship, its silhouette gradually becoming clearer.
 Pacing back and forth was the professor, deep in thought about the upcoming
lecture.
 Sitting on the porch was an elderly man, quietly enjoying the evening sunset.
 Circling above us was a flock of birds, their wings creating intricate patterns in the sky.
 Sliding down the snowy slope was a group of children, their laughter echoing in the
winter air.
 Hovering in the air was a drone, capturing breathtaking aerial views of the landscape.
 Running along the shoreline was a playful dog, chasing after seagulls.
 Dancing in the moonlight was a couple, lost in the enchantment of the music.
Do not mix the above structure with sentences below:
 Running late for the meeting is not advisable, especially on the first day.
 Being honest with yourself is crucial for personal growth.
 Swimming in the ocean is one of my favorite summer activities.
 Having a positive attitude is key to overcoming challenges.
 Singing in the choir is a passion of hers.
 Being considerate of others' feelings is an important aspect of social interaction.
 Writing a daily journal is a habit that can improve your reflective skills.
 Being surrounded by nature is known to have positive effects on mental well-being.
 Playing video games excessively is not recommended for a healthy lifestyle.
 Being a team player is valued in many professional environments.
In the first set of examples, the present participle clause is placed at the beginning of the
sentence, and the structure is commonly used for dramatic effect or to emphasize the action.
In the second set, the present participle (-ing form) is followed by the verb "be" and is used
to describe a state, action, or characteristic. Both structures involve present participles but
are employed in different ways.
Past participle (and passive infinitive) clauses describe a state:
 Left to fend for itself was a small puppy, no bigger than a rat.(= A small puppy, no
bigger than a rat, had been left to fend for itself.)

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  Abandoned by its owner was a once-beloved teddy bear, now worn and missing an
eye.
 Forgotten in the corner of the room was an old, dusty bookshelf, filled with classic
novels.
 Abandoned on the doorstep was a tattered suitcase, containing a collection of old
letters.
 Lost in the hustle and bustle of the city was a small café, offering a quiet retreat for
locals.
 Left in the playground was a forgotten backpack, its contents scattered in the wind.
 Hidden in the depths of the forest was a secluded cabin, surrounded by towering
trees.
 Discarded on the beach was a weathered seashell, washed ashore by the tide.

 To be found in almost every village are delightful little restaurants, serving delicious
local food.
 To be discovered in the attic are antique family photographs, capturing moments
from a bygone era.
 In the garden, to be admired by visitors, are vibrant flowers of various colors and
shapes.
 To be explored in the historic district are charming cobblestone streets and centuries-
old architecture.
 In the library, to be enjoyed by readers, are a vast collection of literary works
spanning different genres.
 To be found in the marketplace are vibrant stalls, showcasing handmade crafts and
local produce.
 In the museum, to be appreciated by art enthusiasts, are sculptures crafted by skilled
artisans.
Note - gone is quite commonly used this way, often with words like days, time, and often
followed by a clause starting with when:
 Gone was the quiet old pub we had once known, and in its place was an ugly motel.
 Gone was the chance to say what he really felt.
 Long gone are the days when such language was acceptable.
 Gone was the time when he could just turn up for work when he felt like it.
Past participle / participial adjective phrases used to describe position:
 Situated close to the village green is a beautiful old pub.
 Almost totally hidden among the bushes was a marble statue of Eros.
 Carefully positioned either side of the fireplace were two enormous Chinese porcelain
dogs.
 Perched atop the hill was a cozy cottage, its chimney emitting a plume of smoke.
 Hidden behind the waterfall was a secret cave, its entrance obscured by cascading
water.
 Suspended from the ceiling was a dazzling chandelier, its crystals catching the light.
 Resting against the garden fence was an antique bicycle, its paint chipped but still
charming.
 Adorning the entrance hall were intricate tapestries, their vibrant colors telling tales
of ancient times.

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Non inverted versions of these last examples would probably begin there is/are etc
 There's a beautiful old pub situated close to the village green.
Note - when fronted as participles, active verb forms take an -ing form (present participle);
passive verbs take an -ed form (past participle):
 A large bookcase took up most of one wall.
 Taking up most of one wall was a large bookcase.
 A large bookcase had been placed along one wall.
 Placed along one wall was a large bookcase.
 A vibrant mural brightened the entire room.
 Brightening the entire room was a vibrant mural.
 The bustling city energized the tired travelers.
 Energizing the tired travelers was the bustling city.
 A delicious aroma wafted from the kitchen.
 Wafted from the kitchen was a delicious aroma.
6. Other forms of subject-verb inversion
Fronted expressions after also
 The awards ceremony was attended by the President. Also in the audience were
many well-known faces from stage and screen.
 G8 leaders met yesterday in Bonn. Also at the meeting were representatives of
developing countries.
 Also in the car at the time of the accident was the minister's private secretary.
 Also chosen to represent Britain is Peter Dickinson, the sprinter from Doncaster.
 Also competing in the bob sleigh race was a team from Jamaica.
Exclamations with how and what
how + adjective phrase + be + subject/ what + noun phrase + be + subject
 How green was my valley.
 How beautiful is the rain!
 What a piece of work is a man!
 What a wonderful thing is the mail, capable of conveying across continents a warm
human hand-clasp.
7. Other forms of fronting where inversion doesn't take place
Sometimes we front the object when it has just been mentioned or refers to something
we're already talking about:
 She got two presents for her birthday, a bicycle and a games console. The bicycle she
got from her mother, and the games console from her father.
 Of her three sisters, she got on well with the two older ones, but the youngest she
hardly ever spoke to.
 For most of the time we stayed on the coast. Our last week we spent in the
mountains.
 She baked two cakes for the party, a chocolate one and a vanilla one. The chocolate
cake she made from scratch, and the vanilla one she bought from the bakery.
 In the garden, there are various flowers, roses and daisies. The roses need more
sunlight, and the daisies require frequent watering.

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  He has a collection of antique coins from different countries. The Indian coins he
inherited from his grandfather, and the Roman coins he acquired during a trip to Italy.
 During the school play, each student had a role to play, a main character and a
supporting character. The main characters they chose themselves, and the supporting
characters were assigned by the director.
 They adopted two pets, a dog and a cat. The dog they found at the local shelter, and
the cat they got from a friend.
We can also front a few dependent preposition phrases:
 To this list of nations can be added France and Germany.
 From this category we've excluded all those who left school at sixteen.
Fronting adjective complements with pronoun + be + but ...
Fronting here usually echoes or refers back to an adjective already mentioned, and is used
for emphasis or effect:
 They said it was elegant and rather expensive. Expensive it certainly was, but I think
calling it elegant was going a bit far.
 Rich they may be, but generous they certainly aren't.
 The painting was intriguing and exceptionally detailed. Detailed it certainly was, but I
found it lacking in emotional depth.
 The proposal seems logical and well-organized. Well-organized it may be, but its
feasibility remains questionable.
 His argument was persuasive and logically constructed. Logically constructed it might
be, but it fails to address some critical counterpoints.
 The novel is captivating and beautifully written. Beautifully written it is, but the plot
seems a bit predictable.
 The performance was energetic and skillfully choreographed. Skillfully choreographed
it certainly was, but I wished for a more engaging storyline.
Fronting with as or though
We can use fronting with concession clauses (clauses starting although, though, even though,
while), but only with though or as.
With adjectives and adverbs
 Although the exam was difficult, he passed it easily.
 Difficult though the examwas, he passed it easily.

 While he tried very hard, he just couldn't do it.

 Hard as he tried, he couldn't do it.
 Although the weather was chilly, they decided to have a picnic.
 Chilly though the weather was, they decided to have a picnic.
 While the movie had a captivating plot, the pacing was a bit slow.
 Captivating though the plot was, the pacing was a bit slow.
 Although she was tired, she continued working on her project.
 Tired though she was, she continued working on her project.
 While the team played well, they couldn't secure a victory.
 Well as the team played, they couldn't secure a victory.

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In the second of each pair of those sentences, the adjective or adverb has been fronted and
followed by though or as. Fronting like this is sometimes used with linking verbs such as be,
seem, appear, become, look, sound etc. This is done for effect or emphasis.
 Talented though/as she is, she didn't get the first prize.(even though she's talented.)
 Smart though/as she appears, she was unable to answer the question.(even though
she appears smart)
 Surprising though/as it sounds, I've never been to London.(even though it sounds
amazing)
 Busy though he always seems, he finds time for his hobbies.(Even though he always
seems busy,)
 Delightful as the garden looks, it requires a lot of maintenance.(Even though the
garden looks delightful,)
 Unique though the concept sounds, it has been successful in the market.(Even though
the concept sounds unique,)
 Strange as it may seem, she enjoys watching horror movies.(Even though it may seem
strange,)
With verbs
Note that with simple tenses of verbs other than be, we need to add do/does/did (although
use with verbs other than be is less common than constructions like the one in the first
example).
 Try as he might, he just couldn't get the car to start.(even though he tried very hard)
 Fail though she did this time, she didn't give up hope of passing eventually.(although
she failed this time).
 Work as he may, he can't seem to finish the project on time.(Even though he works
hard,)
 Study as hard as she did, she couldn't grasp the concept.(Even though she studied
hard,)
 Sing as he might, his voice couldn't match the lead vocalist's.(Even though he sang
with all his might)
 Run as fast as he did, he couldn't catch up with the sprinters.(Even though he ran as
fast as he could)
 Speak as eloquently as she did, she couldn't convince the audience.(Even though she
spoke eloquently)
 Dance as gracefully as she does, she couldn't impress the judges.(Even though she
danced as gracefully as she could)
 Write as diligently as they did, they failed to meet the deadline.(Even though they
wrote diligently)
Nouns
 Idiot though I may be, I'm not that stupid. (although I may be an idiot)
 Genius though he is, he struggles with social interactions.(although he is a genius)
 Scholar though she may be, she still has room to learn.(although she is a scholar)
 Expert though he was, he faced challenges in the new field.(although he was an
expert)
 Gentleman though he seemed, his actions revealed a different side.(although he
seemed like a gentleman)
 Philanthropist though she is, she keeps her charitable deeds private.(although she is a
philanthropist)

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Fronting with that + be
We can do something similar with that and the verb be in a feww exclamations, but this is
not very common. In American English only Noun phrases can be treated this way, but in
British English we can theoretically do it with adjectives as well (but this is even less
common).
 Fool that I am, I nevertheless managed to get everything right. (even though I'm a
fool)
 Rich that they are, buying the castle was beyond even their means. (even though they
are rich)
 Genius that he is, he struggled with the crossword puzzle.(even though he is a genius)
 Skeptic that she is, she found it hard to believe in paranormal phenomena.(even
though she is a skeptic)
 Idealist that he is, he dreams of a world without conflict.(even though he is an
idealist)
 Realist that she is, she acknowledges the challenges ahead.(even though she is a
realist)
 Optimist that he is, he always sees the bright side of things.(even though he is an
optimist)
Causal meanings
Note that fronted expressions with as and that (but not though) can also be used with the
opposite sense, with a causal meaning rather than a concessive one.
 Late as I was, I decided to take a taxi. (because I was late)
 Smart as she is, she passed the exam with flying colours. (because she is smart)
 Idiot that I am, I forgot to bring any money. (because I'm an idiot)
 Hungry as I was, I devoured the entire pizza.(because I was hungry)
 Determined as she is, she finished the marathon despite the injury.(because she is
determined)
 Excited as they were, the children couldn't sit still in the car.(because they were
excited)
 Tired as he was, he stayed up late to finish the project.(because he was tired)
 Curious as I am, I couldn't resist opening the mysterious package.(because I am
curious)
Fronting and echoing a previously mentioned verb
Note how only the main part of the verb (and any object) is fronted. In simple tenses we
need to add do/does/did:
 Things need to change, and change they undoubtedly will.
 She said she would finish the report on time, and finish it she has.
 He needed to sit and think, and sit and think he did.
 He wanted to apologize, and apologize he did. (emphasizing that he did indeed
apologize)
 They planned to renovate the house, and renovate it they did. (emphasizing that they
carried out the renovation)
 She promised to call, and call she finally did. (emphasizing that she fulfilled her
promise to call)
 They decided to confront the issue, and confront it they shall. (emphasizing their
determination to address the issue)

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  The team aimed to win, and win they certainly did. (emphasizing their successful
achievement of victory)
Introductory phrases The thing / point / question is etc
We sometimes preface a comment with phrases like this with nouns like thing, point,
question, truth, problem, trouble etc, often to soften something rather negative or to signal
that what we are going to say is important. They are usually used with the and be, but other
combinations are sometimes possible:
 I wonder if you could pay. The thing is, I've left my wallet in the office.
 My point being, they haven't accepted our proposal yet.
 The trouble is, we don't know what the final result will be.
 The question remains, can we afford not to accept their offer?
 The truth is, I haven't been completely honest with you.
 The problem is, we're running out of time to meet the deadline.
 The difficulty we face is, the budget has been significantly reduced.
 The fact remains, we need more resources to complete the project.
 The issue at hand is, we haven't received approval from the authorities.

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Lesson 12: Periodic and Loose structure (C1)
Periodic sentences, also referred to as interruptive, and loose sentences, alternatively known
as cumulative, both fall under the category of complex sentences. Despite their shared
complexity, the key distinction lies in the arrangement of independent and dependent
clauses.
In periodic sentences, the main point (independent clause) emerges at the sentence's
conclusion, following a sequence of one or more side points (dependent clauses) that
progressively build up to the central idea. Periodic sentences are a form of anastrophe, which
is the deliberate changing of normal word order, usually to create emphasis or another
rhetorical effect. The subsequent periodic sentences exemplify this structure, featuring
multiple dependent clauses that culminate in the independent clause at the end:
 In the almost incredibly brief time which it took the small but sturdy porter to roll a
milk-can across the platform and bump it, with a clang, against other milk-cans
similarly treated a moment before, Ashe fell in love.
 To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart
is true for all men, that is genius.
 And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all
knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have
not charity, I am nothing.
 The winner of best city, with a mile-long modern shopping mall, cycle paths hugging
every road, and a network of canals, is Milton Keynes.
 With two raw blisters and now unable to carry my pack due to two broken ribs and
broken collar bone, I stared at my dead phone pleadingly.
 Because she knows the filing system, has more experience than the rest of the team,
and can get into work at a moment's notice, Sarah will be charge next week.
 Doubt thou the stars are fire, Doubt that the sun doth move, Doubt truth to be a liar,
But never doubt I love (Shakespeare).
 Amidst the cacophony of urban life, with its relentless honking, ceaseless chatter, and
neon lights flickering in the night, she found solace, a rare and precious commodity
that had long eluded her.
 Through the dense foliage of the ancient forest, where sunlight filtered in sporadic
bursts, dappling the forest floor in a mesmerizing dance of shadows and light, the
intrepid explorer forged ahead, guided only by the ethereal whispers of the wind.
 In the quiet sanctity of the library, surrounded by towering shelves laden with the
collective wisdom of centuries, a studious hush enveloped the room, broken only by
the occasional rustle of pages and the rhythmic tap of keys as scholars delved into the
labyrinth of knowledge.
 As the crimson hues of twilight painted the sky, casting long, elongated shadows on
the cobblestone streets, the old storyteller began to weave his tales, each word a
thread in the intricate tapestry of a bygone era.
 Beneath the sprawling branches of the ancient oak tree, where dappled sunlight
filtered through the verdant canopy, a sense of timelessness pervaded the air, as if
the very essence of the forest whispered tales of centuries past.
 Against the backdrop of the bustling metropolis, where skyscrapers touched the
heavens and a river of humanity flowed through concrete canyons, he stood alone, a
solitary figure contemplating the ebb and flow of urban existence.
 In the dim glow of candlelight, where shadows danced on the walls like silent
specters, the pianist's fingers moved with exquisite precision, weaving a haunting
melody that resonated with the melancholy of unspoken emotions.

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Loose sentences have a structure that is the opposite of periodic sentences. In loose
sentences, the independent clause is at the beginning, followed by one or more dependent
clauses.
 I found a large hall, obviously a former garage, dimly lit, and packed with cots.
 I knew I had found a friend in the woman, who herself was a lonely soul, never having
known the love of man or child.
 We must be wary of conclusions drawn from the ways of the social insects, since their
evolutionary track lies so far from ours.

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Lesson 13: Ellipsis and Substitution
Ellipsis happens when we leave out (in other words, when we don’t use) items which we
would normally expect to use in a sentence if we followed the grammatical rules. The
following examples show ellipsis. The items left out are in brackets [ ]:
 I am absolutely sure [that] I have met her somewhere before.
 A: [Have you] Seen my gloves anywhere?
 B: They’re in the kitchen.
 She sang and [she] played the violin at the same time.
 A: [Are] You ready yet?
 B: Yes. [I’m] Ready now. [I’m] Sorry to keep you waiting.
In fact, when we use ellipsis appropriately, no one thinks we have ‘left out’ anything, and
ellipsis is normal and very common, especially in informal conversation.
Textual ellipsis
When we can easily understand everything in the sentence because of the surrounding text,
we use textual ellipsis. For example, we know that certain verbs and adjectives can be
followed by a that-clause, so if we see a clause without that after such verbs and adjectives,
we assume that the writer or speaker wants us to understand the same meaning as a that-
clause:
 I knew [that] something terrible had happened.
 Maureen was glad [that] we had called in to see her.
 Are you afraid [that] you won’t get a job when you leave college?
The same happens when we do not repeat words in clauses connected with and, but and or
(coordinated clauses). We understand what the ‘missing’ items are:
 We went for a walk and [we] took some lovely photographs.
 He wrote to [everyone he could think of who might help] and [he] phoned everyone
he could think of who might help.
 I can remember his face but [I] can’t remember his name.
 Do you want to stay in or [do you want to] go out tonight?
We can also leave out the complement of a verb when it is obvious what the complement is:
 A: Why don’t they move to a bigger place?
 B: They don’t want to [move to a bigger place]. They’re happy where they are.
 A: Have more coffee.
 B: I’d better not [have more coffee]. I won’t be able to sleep later.
Situational ellipsis
Subject pronoun
When we do not need to mention someone or something because it is obvious from the
immediate situation, we use situational ellipsis. Situational ellipsis often means we do not
need to use the subject pronoun I, especially at the beginning of a clause. This is quite
informal:
 [I] Wonder where Joe Healey is these days?
 Bye! [I] Hope you have a nice holiday.

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We can also omit a third person pronoun (he, she, it, they) at the beginning of a clause in
informal conversation when it is obvious who or what we are referring to:
 A:I saw Janice in town. [She] Said she’s getting married next year.
 B:Really?
 A:Yeah. [She] Met some guy and got engaged to him after only a couple of weeks,
apparently.
 There’s something wrong with the car. [It] Started making a funny noise on the way
home.
Subjects and auxiliary verbs
In informal conversation, we can leave out both a subject pronoun such as I or you and an
accompanying auxiliary verb at the beginning of a clause when the meaning is obvious. This is
most common in questions:
 [Have you] Finished with the newspaper?
 [I’ve] Lost my car keys again. Have you seen them?
 A:[Do you] Want some coffee?
 B:Is there any?
 A:Yeah. [I’ve] Just made some.
Auxiliary verbs
To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence, we use an auxiliary verb (be,
have, can, will, would, etc.) instead of a whole verb group or instead of a verb and what
follows it:
 She says she’s finished, but I don’t think she has. (instead of … has finished.)
 ‘Would any of you like to go to Paris?’ ‘I would.’ (instead of I would like to go to Paris.)
If there is more than one auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, we leave out all
the auxiliary verbs except the first instead of repeating the main verb. Alternatively, we can
use two (or more) auxiliary verbs:
 ‘They could have been delayed by the snow.’ ‘Yes, they could.’ (or … could have
(been).)
If there is no auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, or if the auxiliary is a form of
do, we can use a form of do instead of repeating the main verb. We use do when the main
verb is a present simple form and did when it is a past simple form:
 Mona plays golf on Saturdays, and I do too. (instead of … and I play golf on Saturdays
too.; ‘… and so do I’ is also possible)
 ‘I didn’t steal the money.’ ‘No one thinks that you did.’ (instead of … thinks that you
stole it.; ‘No one thinks so’ is also possible.)
If be is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence, we repeat a form of the verb be:
 ‘The children are noisy again.’ ‘They always are.’
If have or have got is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence, we can usually use a
form of either do or have:
 ‘Do you think I have a chance of winning?’ ‘Yes, I think you have.’ (or … you do.; ‘Yes, I
think so’ is also possible.)
 Even if he hasn’t got a map himself, he may know someone who has. (or … who
does.)
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However, if we use have + noun in the previous clause or sentence to talk about actions
(have a shower, have a shave, have a good time, etc.) we prefer do:
 I wasn’t expecting to have a good time at the party, but I did.
If we use have as an auxiliary verb, we can often follow it with done instead of repeating the
main verb. This happens particularly in spoken English:
 ‘She’s never made a mistake before.’ ‘Well, she has (done) this time.’
However, this is usually not possible when the verb being substituted is intransitive:
 ‘They’ve already gone.’ ‘I don’t think Daniel has.’ (not … Daniel has done.)
Similarly, after a modal auxiliary verb (can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should,
will, would) we can use do, particularly in spoken English:
 ‘Will you be seeing David today?’ ‘I might (do).’
Sometimes we can use be instead of do with a similar meaning:
 ‘Will you be seeing Felix today?’ ‘I might (do / be).’ (‘do’ replaces ‘see Felix today’;
‘be’ replaces ‘be seeing Felix today’.)
If we use be as an auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, we can use be after a
modal:
 ‘Is Ella staying for lunch?’ ‘Yes, I think she will (be).’ (or … she will do.)
However, if be is used as a main verb in the previous clause or sentence, or as an auxiliary
verb within a passive, we can usually leave out be after a modal in informal contexts only.
Compare:
 ‘Lina’s late again.’ ‘I thought she might (be).’ and
 It has been found that the comet is made entirely of gas, as it was predicted it would
be.
Leaving out to-infinitives
We can sometimes use "to" instead of a clause beginning with a to-infinitive when it is clear
from the context what we are talking about:
 I wanted to come with you, but I won’t be able to. (instead of … to come with you.)
 It might have been better if Rosa had asked for my help, but she chose not to.
(instead of … chose not to ask for my help.)
However, when we use the verb "be" in the previous sentence or clause, the to-infinitive
form of "be" is repeated in the next clause or sentence:
 Leon was frightened – or maybe he just pretended to be. (not … just pretended to.)
After most nouns and adjectives that can be followed by a to-infinitive clause, we can leave
out the to-infinitive clause or use "to":
 I’m not going to write another book – at least I don’t have any plans (to). (or … plans
to write another book.)
 ‘Could you and Tom help me move house?’ ‘Well, I’m willing (to), and I’ll ask Tom.’
Also: chance, idea, opportunity, promise, suggestion; afraid, delighted, determined
We can also leave out a to-infinitive or use "to" with some verbs:
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  Alex will collect us by 10 o’clock. He promised (to).
 ‘You were supposed to buy some sugar.’ ‘Sorry, I forgot (to).’
Also: agree, ask, begin, refuse, start, try
After verbs which must have a complement (i.e., a phrase that completes the meaning of the
verb), we can’t leave out "to":
 I admit that I took her watch, but I didn’t mean to.
 Have you thought about getting vaccinated against cholera before going there? I’d
certainly advise you to.
Also: afford, be able, choose, deserve, expect, fail, hate, hope, intend, love, need, prefer
After "want" and "would like" in if-clauses and wh-clauses, we can often leave out a to-
infinitive or use "to":
 You’re welcome to dance if you’d like (to).
 You can do whatever you would like (to).
 Call me Ben if you want (to).
 Come and see us when you want (to).
In other clauses (not if- and wh-clauses), we include "to":
 I was planning to see you tomorrow, and I would still like to.
 I offered to clean your car because I really want to, not because I hope to be paid.
In if-clauses and wh-clauses, we usually leave out "to" after "like." Compare:
 You can have one if you like. and You can have one if you’d like (to).
 Leave whenever you like. and Leave whenever you’d like (to).
However, we include "to" with negative forms of "want," "would like," and "like," including in
if-clauses and wh-clauses:
 ‘Shall we go and visit Laura?’ ‘I don’t really want to.’
 I should have phoned Jo last night, but it was so late when I got home I didn’t like to.
 ‘He won’t mind you asking him for a loan.’ ‘Oh, no, I wouldn’t like to.’
Questions with question tags
In questions in informal conversation, we can leave out a subject pronoun, or a subject
pronoun and an accompanying auxiliary verb, when we use a question tag:
 [He] Gave up his job, did he? I thought he would.
 [You] Wrote to the local newspaper, did you? Good idea.
 A:He was asked to leave the room.
 B:Yes. [He] Didn’t like it, did he?
 A:No. He wasn’t at all happy.
 A:Pat and Cathy certainly had a long break from work.
 B:Yeah. [They] Went away for a month, didn’t they?
Articles
In informal conversation, we can sometimes omit articles (a/an, the) when they are obvious
from the context and when we use them at the beginning of a sentence:
 [The] Dog wants to go out. Can you open the door for him?
 A:What are you looking for?
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  B:[A] Pen. Can you see one anywhere?
 [The] Postman’s just been. There’s a letter for you.
Fixed expressions
We often leave out the first word of a fixed expression in informal conversation because we
know the listener will understand the expression:
 I’d love to go with you. [The] Trouble is, I’ve got to work on Saturday this week.
 I can’t read that. I’m [as] blind as a bat without my glasses.
Substitution
Substitution is similar to ellipsis in many ways, because both enable the speaker to reduce
what they are saying. Ellipsis is simply leaving something out that is usually obvious.
Substitution involves using words such as do and so and not instead of a clause.
Substitution: purpose
In speaking and in writing, we try to avoid repeating words, phrases or clauses. We use
substitute forms to do this:
 A:Pam always brings us back chocolates when she travels.B:Oh, nice.
 A:She brought some Belgian ones from her last trip, which were delicious.B:Lucky
you!
(A uses ones to avoid repeating chocolates.)
 A:Do you think I should phone Barry and ask him to come and look at it.B:Yes, do. (B
uses do to avoid repeating phone Barry and ask him to come and look at it.)
We can use substitution to refer backwards or forwards. Forward substitution is far less
common than backward substitution (The noun being referred to is underlined in the
examples.):
 If you need them, there are nails in the toolbox (forward substitution).
 A large saucepan is what we need for making jam, but I don’t have one (backward
substitution).
Substitution: what forms can we use?
We can use many different words and phrases in substitution, including words such as both,
either, some (indefinite quantifying pronouns), do and so, and expressions such as the same
and thus.
Indefinite quantifying pronouns
The following words and phrases are commonly used as substitutes: Little, Each, Less, one(s),
another, either, many, other(s), all, enough, much, several, any, few, neither, some, bot, half,
none.
Examples:
 A:There’s this card with a clown on it and this one with a monkey. Which do you think
Mark would prefer? B:I think he’d like either.
 A:Does she have a lot of friends at work? B:No, not one.
 A: How many apples did you buy at the store? B: I didn't buy any.
 "A: Do you have any plans for the weekend? B: Yes, I have some.
 "A: Have you read any good books lately? B: Yes, I've read several.
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  "A: Do you need more time to complete the project? B: No, I have enough.
 "A: Are there any cookies left in the jar? B: No, there are none.
Substituting with do
We use do, do so, do it, do the same to substitute for a verb and whatever accompanies it
(complement):
 A:We always have toast and coffee in the morning. B:We do too. I can’t function
without breakfast. (Do substitutes for have toast and coffee in the morning.)
Substituting with so
We can use so as a substitute in a number of ways: for an adjective (it remains so), an object
clause (I think so), with reporting verbs (so I heard) and in exclamations (so he is!).We often
use so instead of a clause after verbs concerned with thinking and speaking (also: be afraid
(expressing regret), appear /seem (after ‘it’), assume, believe, expect, guess, hope, presume,
suppose, suspect, think).
 So am I.
 So do I.
 Neither do I.
 Is Lewis going back to Scotland to see his parents this summer?’ ‘I’ve no idea, but I’d
imagine so. He goes most years.’
 I found it ridiculous, and said so.
 I found it ridiculous, and told them so. (indicating that I found it ridiculous)
We don’t use 'so' after certain other verbs:
 ‘Will Stefan know how to mend it?’
 ‘I doubt it. / I doubt (that) he will.’(not 'I doubt so.')
Note that in informal English, particularly in an argument, we can use ‘I know so’.
(Also: accept, admit, agree, be certain, hear, know, promise, suggest, be sure).
In negative sentences, we use not or not … so:
 Is the Socialist Party offering anything new in its statement? It would appear not.
 They want to buy the house, although they didn’t say so directly.
We can use either not or not … so with appear, seem, suppose:
 ‘I don’t suppose there’ll be any seats left.’ ‘No, I don’t suppose so.’ (or ... I suppose
not.)
We prefer not … so with believe, expect, imagine, think. With these verbs, not is rather
formal:
 ‘Will we need to show our passports?’ ‘I don’t think so.’ (rather than I think not.)
We use not with be afraid (expressing regret), assume, guess (in the phrase ‘I guess …’, = ‘I
think …’), hope, presume, suspect:
 ‘You’d better do it yourself. Eva won’t help.’ ‘No, I guess not.’ (not No, I don’t guess
so.)
Compare the use of not (to) and not … so with say:

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  ‘Do we have to do all ten questions?’ ‘The teacher said not.’ (= the teacher said that
we didn’t have to) or ‘The teacher said not to.’ (= the teacher said that we shouldn’t)
 ‘Do we have to do all ten questions?’ ‘The teacher didn’t say so.’ (= the teacher didn’t
say that we should do all ten, but perhaps we should)
We can use so in a short answer, instead of a short answer with ‘Yes, …’, when we want to
say that we can see that something is true now that we have been told, particularly if we are
surprised. In answers like this we use so + pronoun + auxiliary verb (be, can, etc.):
 ‘Lisa and Sara are here.’ ‘So they are.’ (or Yes, they are.) (= I can now see that, too)
However, if we already know something we use ‘Yes, …’, not ‘So ...’. Compare:
 ‘Your bike’s been moved.’ ‘So it has. / Yes, it has. I wonder who did it.’ (= I didn’t know
before you told me) and
 ‘Your bike’s been moved.’ ‘Yes, it has. Philip borrowed it this morning.’ (= I knew
before you told me; not So it has.)
We can use so in a similar way in short answers with verbs such as appear (after ‘it’), believe,
gather, hear, say, seem, tell (e.g. So she tells me.), understand. However, with these verbs,
the pattern implies ‘I knew before you told me’:
 ‘I found that lecture really boring.’ ‘So I gather (= I knew that). I saw you sleeping.
Do So
We use "do so" (or "does so," "did so," "doing so," etc.) instead of repeating a verb phrase (a
verb and what follows it to complete its meaning) when the context makes clear what we are
talking about:
 She won in 2012 and seems likely to do so (= win) again this year.
 Dr. Lawson said, ‘Sit down.’ Katia did so (= sat down), and explained her problem.
 The climbers will try again today to reach the summit of the mountain. Their chances
of doing so (= reaching the summit of the mountain) are better than they were last
week. (In very formal English we can also use "so doing.")
 When he was asked to check the figures, he claimed that he had already done so. (=
checked the figures)
"Do so" is most often used in formal spoken and written English. In informal English we can
use "do it" or "do that" instead:
 Mrs. Chen waved as she walked past. She does so / it / that every morning.
 Ricardo told me to put in a new battery. I did so / it / that, but the radio still doesn’t
work.
As mentioned before, we can also use "do" alone rather than "do so" in less formal English,
especially after modals or perfect tenses:
 ‘Will this program work on your computer?’ ‘It should do.’
 I told you that I’d finish the work by today, and I have done. (‘have’ is stressed here)
We can use "do so" instead of verbs that describe actions, but we avoid "do so" with verbs
that describe states and habitual actions. Compare:
 65% of the members voted for Katie Brown this time, whereas 84% did so last year.
 Kenyon confessed to the murder, although he only did so after a number of witnesses
had identified him as the killer.
 I gave her the medicine, and I take full responsibility for doing so.
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  Lars doesn’t like Facebook but Emma does.
 He earned a lot more than I did.
 I don’t have time to go swimming every day, but I usually do.
Such
We can use "such + (a / an) + noun" to refer back to something mentioned before, with the
meaning ‘of this / that kind’. We use "such + noun" when the noun is uncountable or plural,
and "such + a / an + noun" when the noun is countable and singular. "Such" is used in this
way mainly in formal speech and writing:
 The students refer to teachers by their first names and will often criticize them for
badly prepared lessons. Such behavior is unacceptable in most schools. (more
informally Behavior like this …)
 When asked about rumors that the company is preparing to lose more than 200 jobs,
a spokeswoman said: ‘I know of no such plans.’ (more informally … no plans of this
kind.)
 They needed someone who was both an excellent administrator and manager. Such a
person was not easy to find. (more informally A person like this …)
 We allow both men and women to have time off work to look after children. We were
the first department to introduce such a scheme. (more informally … a scheme like
this.)
Substitution for nouns
One, some, ones
We mostly use one and some/ones to substitute for countable nouns:
 She tried to get a ticket but she couldn’t get one. (She couldn’t get a ticket.)
 A:Is there a bookshop around here?
 B:There are two second-hand ones at the end of the street on the right.
Where there is nothing before or after ones, some or any are used as a plural substitute:
 A: Have either of you got any one pound coins for this machine?
 B: Let me see, I’ve definitely got some.
 C: I’m afraid I don’t have any.
Not: Let me see, I’ve definitely got ones.
Not: I’m afraid I don’t have ones.
Indefinite quantifying pronouns (little, all, both, neither)
We can use indefinite quantifying pronouns such as (a) little, all, both, many, much, neither,
few to substitute for noun phrases:
 Hundreds of people went to the village festival and all seemed to enjoy themselves
very much.
Determiners used as pronouns
That, those
We can use that and those as substitutes meaning ‘the one(s)’ in more formal contexts:
 The water for the factory was that from the local reservoir.
 The books he read were those which he found in the old library.
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  In formal contexts, especially in academic style, we use that of/those of:
 The head has a similar shape and size to that of a mammal.

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Lesson 14: Figures of Speech (C2)
The choice of words in a text is called diction. High diction suggests a sophisticated or
educated speaker, often using abstract nouns or complex figures of speech, and demanding
greater intellectual effort from the audience. This often includes:
 Formal Language: Using formal and proper language rather than colloquial or
informal expressions.
 Abstract Nouns: Referring to concepts, ideas, or qualities rather than concrete
objects.
 Complex Figures of Speech: Incorporating intricate literary devices, such as
metaphors, similes, personification, or hyperbole.
 Specialized Vocabulary: Employing words from a particular field or subject, especially
technical or academic terms.
 Elevated Tone: Creating an overall tone that is serious, intellectual, or refined.
Here's an example to illustrate high diction:
 Low Diction (Casual): She was really happy about the news.
 High Diction: She exulted jubilantly in the revelation.
In the high diction example, the words "exulted" and "jubilantly" convey a more
sophisticated and nuanced expression compared to the simpler and more direct language in
the low diction example. Our task in this part is to find out how can we produce high diction
sentences.
For this task, we need to review three definitions: denotation, connotation and figurative
meaning.
Denotation:
Denotation refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word. It is the specific, objective
meaning that a word has, independent of any emotional or cultural associations. The
denotation of the word "rose" is a woody perennial flowering plant with typically red, pink,
or white fragrant flowers.
Connotation:
Connotation refers to all other associations, sometimes even unconscious ones that are
conveyed by a word. Connotation refers to the emotional, cultural, or subjective associations
and nuances that are conveyed by a word beyond its literal or denotative meaning. These
associations may include feelings, values, and experiences that go beyond the explicit
definition found in dictionaries. Connotations can be both conscious and unconscious, and
they often reflect the speaker's or writer's attitudes, emotions, or biases. Understanding
connotation is crucial in interpreting language in context and grasping the full range of
meanings that words can carry. It plays a significant role in the richness and depth of
communication, as words can evoke varied emotional responses and cultural connotations
based on individual and societal experiences.
Figurative Meaning:
Figurative meaning involves the use of figures of speech, metaphors, similes, or other
linguistic devices to convey meanings beyond the literal interpretation of the words. It often
involves symbolic or metaphorical expressions. In the figurative sense, "time is a thief"
implies that time can take away moments or opportunities, suggesting a metaphorical
connection between time and a thief.

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In the following we will focus on some common types of figurative meaning: Metaphor,
Simile, Personification, Synecdoche, Metonymy, Onomatopoeia, Allusion, Hyperbole, Irony,
Oxymoron, Euphemism,
Metaphor and Simile
A simile is figurative language that compares two things using the words “like” or “as.” It is
also known as an indirect comparison. Like:
 as thin as a rail.
 as American as apple pie.
 like an open book.
A metaphor is a direct comparison between two things. Metaphors don’t suggest one thing is
like another; they declare that one thing is another:
 Love is a battlefield.
 He is the black sheep of the family.
 You are my lucky star.
Some famous metaphors and similes in literature:
From The Great Gatsby:
 Instead of being the warm center of the world, the Middle West now seemed like the
ragged edge of the universe.
 If personality is an unbroken series of successful gestures, then there was something
gorgeous about him.
 Gatsby turned out all right at the end; it is what preyed on Gatsby, what foul dust
floated in the wake of his dreams that temporarily closed out my interest in the
abortive sorrows and short-winded elations of men. (The "foul dust" metaphorically
represents the negative consequences, disillusionment, or corruption that followed
Gatsby's pursuit of his dreams. It suggests that there were undesirable outcomes or
consequences associated with Gatsby's ambitions.)
 Most of the confidences were unsought — frequently I have feigned sleep,
preoccupation, or a hostile levity when I realized by some unmistakable sign that an
intimate revelation was quivering on the horizon; for the intimate revelations of
young men, or at least the terms in which they express them, are usually plagiaristic
and marred by obvious suppressions.
 If personality is an unbroken series of successful gestures, then there was something
gorgeous about him, some heightened sensitivity to the promises of life, as if he were
related to one of those intricate machines that register earthquakes ten thousand
miles away.
 He had changed since his New Haven years. Now he was a sturdy straw-haired man of
thirty with a rather hard mouth and a supercilious manner. Two shining arrogant eyes
had established dominance over his face and gave him the appearance of always
leaning aggressively forward. Not even the effeminate swank of his riding clothes
could hide the enormous power of that body — he seemed to fill those glistening
boots until he strained the top lacing, and you could see a great pack of muscle
shifting when his shoulder moved under his thin coat.
 I looked back at my cousin, who began to ask me questions in her low, thrilling voice.
It was the kind of voice that the ear follows up and down, as if each speech is an
arrangement of notes that will never be played again.

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  There was music from my neighbor’s house through the summer nights. In his blue
gardens men and girls came and went like moths among the whisperings and the
champagne and the stars.
 The lights grow brighter as the earth lurches away from the sun, and now the
orchestra is playing yellow cocktail music, and the opera of voices pitches a key
higher. Laughter is easier minute by minute, spilled with prodigality, tipped out at a
cheerful word.
 Twenty miles from the city a pair of enormous eggs, identical in contour and
separated only by a courtesy bay, jut out into the most domesticated body of salt
water in the Western hemisphere, the great wet barnyard of Long Island Sound.
 One of the men was talking with curious intensity to a young actress, and his wife,
after attempting to laugh at the situation in a dignified and indifferent way, broke
down entirely and resorted to flank attacks — at intervals she appeared suddenly at
his side like an angry diamond, and hissed: 'You promised!' into his ear.
 She was extended full length at her end of the divan, completely motionless, and with
her chin raised a little, as if she were balancing something on it which was quite likely
to fall. … Miss Baker’s lips fluttered, she nodded at me almost imperceptibly, and then
quickly tipped her head back again—the object she was balancing had obviously
tottered a little and given her something of a fright.
 wedging his tense arm imperatively under mine, Tom Buchanan compelled me from
the room as though he were moving a checker to another square.
 As for Tom, the fact that he “had some woman in New York” was really less surprising
than that he had been depressed by a book. Something was making him nibble at the
edge of stale ideas, as if his sturdy physical egotism no longer nourished his
peremptory heart. (The phrase "his sturdy physical egotism no longer nourished his
peremptory heart" involves a combination of metaphor and personification).
 At 158th Street the cab stopped at one slice in a long white cake of apartment
houses.
 My incredulity was submerged in fascination now; it was likeskimming hastily through
a dozen magazines.
 "Perhaps you know that lady." Gatsby indicated a gorgeous, scarcely human orchid of
a woman who sat in state under a white-plum tree.
 The prolonged and tumultuous argument that ended by herding us into that room
eludes me, though I have a sharp physical memory that, in the course of it, my
underwear kept climbing likea damp snake around my legs and intermittent beads of
sweat raced cool across my back.
 So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past. (The
comparison of people to "boats against the current" suggests a struggle against the
forces of life or the passage of time. The phrase "borne back ceaselessly into the past"
further emphasizes the difficulty of moving forward, highlighting the perpetual nature
of this struggle. The metaphor encapsulates a profound and reflective sentiment
about the human experience.)
Common everyday metaphors
Metaphors Meaning Example
I could eat a horse Very hungry. After skipping breakfast and lunch, I
could eat a horse right now.
It all went pear shaped Went wrong. Everything was going smoothly until it
all went pear shaped.
It’s no skin off my nose It doesn’t affect me negatively If he wants to quit, it's no skin off my
(but it might affect others). nose.
She is an open book Has nothing to hide. You can always tell what she's thinking;

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 she's like an open book.
He wears his heart on his Shows his feelings readily. Unlike most people, he wears his heart
sleeve on his sleeve and isn't afraid to show his
emotions.
It’s showtime Time to start (something The curtains drew back, revealing the
important). stage, and the director shouted, "It's
showtime!"
These are the dog days of Too hot but do anything but be Despite the heat, we have to keep
summer lazy and stay cool. working; these are the dog days of
summer, after all.
You’re building castles in the Making unrealistic plans. I admire your ambition, but don't you
air think you're building castles in the air?
I was a million miles away My mind was wandering. During the lecture, I was a million miles
away, lost in my own thoughts.
He marches to his own Has his own way of doing things. He's a bit eccentric; he marches to his
drummer own drummer.
Splitting hairs Paying too much attention to Stop splitting hairs and let's focus on the
insignificant details. main issue.
Nitpicking Bringing attention to tiny faults. She's always nitpicking about the
smallest details.
The whole enchilada The whole, huge thing. She didn't just want a slice; she wanted
the whole enchilada.
A nine-to-five job A job worked during the week, He finally landed a nine-to-five job after
during business hours. months of searching.
Hit the books To study very intensively. With final exams approaching, it's time
to hit the books.
Cover your bases To make sure to consider all Before launching the new product, we
possible outcomes. need to cover our bases and anticipate
any potential issues.
This place is a zoo A chaotic place, implying that Trying to navigate through the crowded
the people inside are behaving marketplace felt like being in a zoo.
like animals.
To carry a torch for someone To have unrequited romantic Even after all these years, he still carries
feelings toward someone. a torch for his high school sweetheart.
Blood from a turnip Working on a task with no hope Trying to persuade him to change his
of success. mind is like trying to get blood from a
turnip.
Step up to the plate To take action when needed. The team captain needs to step up to
the plate and lead the team to victory.
Parade-maker A person who drives too slowly Move over! Don't be a parade-maker in
in the passing lane, forming a the passing lane.
parade of sorts behind them.
More than you can shake a More than you can easily The workload is more than you can
stick at handle. shake a stick at; we need more hands on
deck.
Heart of gold Very kind and generous. Despite facing hardships, she always
maintains a heart of gold.
My dogs are barking My feet hurt. After walking around the city all day, my
dogs are barking.
Go back to the drawing board To start something back at the The project didn't yield the expected
very beginning. results, so it's back to the drawing
board.
Cut me some slack! Be more forgiving of my errors I made a mistake, but could you cut me
and faults. some slack this time?
To get out of hand To become out of control. The situation at the party quickly got out
of hand.
To hit the sack To go to bed. It's getting late; I think it's time to hit the
sack.
To be on the ball To be alert and reactive to a During the meeting, Sarah was on the
given situation. ball and addressed all the important
points.
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To feel under the weather To feel sick. I'm feeling under the weather today, so
I'll be staying home.
Speak of the devil What someone says when a Speak of the devil! We were just talking
person who was the subject of about you.
conversation joins the
conversation circle.
To bite the bullet To do something unpleasant I know surgery is unpleasant, but
quickly and with force, so as to sometimes you just have to bite the
have it be over quickly. bullet and get it done.
A dime a dozen A way to describe something Those cheap trinkets are a dime a dozen
plentiful. at the souvenir shop.
To cut corners To do something poorly so as to We don't have time to cut corners on
save time or money. this project; we need to do it properly.
To miss the boat To come too late for something; If you don't hurry, you'll miss the boat
to let an opportunity go because on this fantastic opportunity.
of inattention or lack of time.
To pull someone’s leg To lie to someone as a way to Don't believe him; he's just pulling your
teasing them. leg.
Mark my words What someone says before Mark my words, they'll regret not
making a prediction they are listening to our advice.
certain will come true.
To have kittens To worry excessively or She's going to have kittens when she
unnecessarily about something. finds out we lost her favorite mug.
To wrap your head around To take time to understand a It took me a while to wrap my head
something difficult or hard-to-believe around the concept of quantum
concept. mechanics.
Mama bear An overly protective mother. She turned into a real mama bear when
her children were threatened.
A day late and a dollar short A way of describing something His excuses were always a day late and a
that is inadequate for solving a dollar short.
given problem.
Bent out of shape An angry person. Don't get bent out of shape; it's not
worth getting angry over.
By the skin of your teeth Just barely. He passed the exam by the skin of his
teeth.
Salad days Times of plenty and happiness. During our college years, we enjoyed
our salad days of freedom and fun.
A hangdog expression Used to describe someone who Despite his efforts to hide it, his
looks sad or depressed. hangdog expression gave away his
disappointment.
To get caught red-handed To get caught in the middle of The thief was caught red-handed
doing something illegal or stealing from the store.
forbidden.
A wild-goose chase A pointless or hopeless Trying to find his lost keys in the park
endeavor. was like going on a wild-goose chase.
Herding cats A way of describing a situation Managing this project feels like herding
that is difficult or frustrating. cats; everyone's going in different
directions.
The elephant in the room A topic that everybody is Everyone knows we need to address the
thinking about but nobody is elephant in the room, but nobody wants
talking about. to talk about it.
Hit the nail on the head To get something exactly right. You hit the nail on the head with that
analysis; it's exactly what we needed to
hear.
Heart of stone Cruel or stern nature She rejected his plea with a heart of
stone.
Time is money The value of time is as Remember, time is money, so use it
important as money itself. wisely.
Tall tree Taller in height like a giant Among his peers, he stood tall like a
tree, commanding respect.
Couch potato fat and bulgy like a potato If you want to stay healthy, go for a walk
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 or you'll become a couch potato.
monsters in the world The denotation of the bad, Her mom's cautionary tales about the
wicked people is made by monsters in the world kept her vigilant.
monsters.
a diamond among the sea of to be unique like a diamond In a sea of ordinary candidates, he
glass among others shone like a diamond.
a winning lottery The term winning lottery is used Taking this job opportunity is like sitting
to emphasize on a golden on a winning lottery; it could change
opportunity. your life.
leaving one in the dust being left far behind You’ll be left in the dust.
The curtains of life fell. The phrase ‘curtains of life’ is When she lost her job and her partner
compared to that of a show left her, the curtains of life fell, and she
which has fallen denoting that felt utterly lost.
the person’s life is over.
Life is a maze. Life is being said to have its own Navigating through the challenges of life
navigation as you move ahead is like navigating through a maze; you
with surprises at every turn. never know what's around the next
corner.
There’s a rat among us. Rats are said to be sneaky Just like in a group of friends, there's
animals and are associated with always a rat among us, lurking and ready
betrayal. to betray.
Her heart sank on hearing the The sinking of the heart is Her heart sank on hearing the terrible
terrible news. termed to emphasize deep news that her childhood home had
sorrow. burned down.
Laughter is the best medicine. Laughter is compared with After a stressful day, nothing lifts my
medicine so as to help you heal spirits like a good laugh; truly, laughter
or recover from an event. is the best medicine.
a salad bowl. Salad bowl is a common cultural India's culture is like a salad bowl, with
idea to reflect a country’s diverse ingredients that retain their
multiple cultures, yet having individual flavors while coming together
their own individual identities. to create something unique.
His heart was made of gold. Gold is used to indicate Despite facing financial difficulties, he
abundance and generosity. was always willing to help others; truly,
his heart was made of gold.
drown in grief. Drowning is used to emphasize Losing her loved one felt like drowning
the amount of sorrow or in grief, with waves of sadness
problems in a person’s life. overwhelming her.
The mind is an ocean. The mind is attributed to its Exploring the depths of one's mind can
endless capacity and also to feel like navigating an ocean, with vast
characterize calmness. and sometimes turbulent waters.
When one’s heart melts The melting of the heart means Whenever she sees a stray kitten, her
to be sympathetic and heart melts, and she can't resist taking it
compassionate. home.
when words cut deeper than The phrase is used to emphasize His words were so hurtful that they cut
a knife. the intensity of a certain hurtful deeper than a knife, leaving scars that
speech. may never fully heal.
To be a shark. a shark implies vicious or Beware of his lawyer; he's a shark in the
ruthless behavior. courtroom, ruthless and cunning.
To think that world revolves Being described as thinking the He always expects everyone to cater to
around oneself world revolves around oneself his needs; he thinks that the world
indicates a self-centered person revolves around him.
or behavior.
Love is a rose. Rose is used to characterize Love is like a rose, beautiful yet
both beauty and hardships accompanied by thorns; it brings both
(Petals and thorns). joy and pain.

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Common everyday similes
Similes and their meanings
As black as coal: Very dark or black in color.
As blind as a bat: Unable to see well; completely blind.
As cool as a cucumber: Very calm and composed, especially under pressure or stress.
As brave as a lion: Very courageous; not afraid of danger.
Cunning like a fox: Clever and deceitful; adept at using sly or tricky methods.
As cold as ice: Extremely cold, both in temperature and demeanor.
As busy as a bee: Very industrious and hardworking; always active and occupied.
As clean as a whistle: Completely clean and spotless; without any dirt or blemish.
As soft as velvet: Very soft and smooth to the touch.
As sharp as a razor: Very keen or sharp, often used to describe intelligence or wit.
As white as snow: Completely white in color, like freshly fallen snow.
As fresh as a daisy: Very fresh and lively, often used to describe someone who appears well-rested and
energetic.
As stiff as a board: Very rigid or inflexible; lacking flexibility.
As proud as a peacock: Very proud or conceited, often to an excessive degree.
As gentle as a lamb: Very gentle and mild-mannered.
As bright as a button: Very intelligent or alert; shining brightly.
As strong as an ox: Extremely strong and powerful.
As hot as hell: Extremely hot or intense.
As tough as leather: Very tough or resilient.
As bright as the moon: Very bright, like the light of the moon.
As thin as a rake: Very thin or skinny.
As wise as an owl: Very wise or knowledgeable.
As clear as crystal: Completely clear and understandable; lacking ambiguity.
As smooth as silk: Very smooth and frictionless.
As stubborn as a mule: Extremely stubborn or obstinate.
As silent as the grave: Completely silent.
As light as a feather: Very light in weight.
As old as the hills: Very old or ancient.
As straight as an arrow: Completely straight; without deviation.
As innocent as a lamb: Completely innocent or naive.
As tough as nails: Very tough or durable.
As shiny as a new pin: Very shiny or polished.
As sweet as sugar: Very sweet in flavor or disposition.
As common as dirt: Extremely common or ordinary.
As tall as a giraffe: Very tall in height.
As cute as a kitten: Very cute or adorable.
As bold as brass: Very bold or daring.
As happy as a clam: Very happy or content.
As American as apple pie: Very characteristic of American culture or tradition.
As big as an elephant: Very large in size.
As boring as watching paint dry: Extremely boring or uninteresting.
As dead as a doornail: Completely dead or lifeless.
As deaf as a post: Completely deaf; unable to hear at all.
As difficult as nailing jelly to a tree: Extremely difficult or impossible.
As dry as a bone: Very dry, lacking moisture.
As dull as dishwater: Extremely dull or boring.
As easy as ABC: Very easy or simple.
As pale as death: Very pale or lacking color.
As fit as a fiddle: Very healthy and physically fit.
As flat as a pancake: Completely flat.
As free as a bird: Completely free; without any restrictions.
As good as gold: Very good or virtuous.
As heavy as lead: Very heavy in weight.
As helpless as a baby: Completely helpless; unable to take care of oneself.
As honest as the day is long: Completely honest and trustworthy.

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As hot as blue blazes: Extremely hot.
As hungry as a bear: Very hungry.
As cheap as dirt: Very cheap or inexpensive.
As clear as mud: Very unclear or confusing.
As slippery as an eel: Very slippery or difficult to grasp.
As slow as molasses: Extremely slow.
As snug as a bug in a rug: Very snug or comfortable.
As solid as the ground we stand on: Very solid or stable.
As sour as vinegar: Very sour in taste or disposition.
As the day is long: Very much so; to a great extent.
As hot as blazes: Extremely hot.
As light as a penny: Very light in weight.
As silent as the grave: Completely silent.
As smooth as a baby's bottom: Very smooth.
As stiff as a board: Very stiff or inflexible.
As straight as an arrow: Completely straight; without deviation.
As gentle as a butterfly: Very gentle and delicate.
As graceful as a ballerina: Very graceful and elegant.
As fluttering as a butterfly: Very light and fluttery.
As pale as a white sheet: Very pale in complexion.
As cold as the Arctic: Extremely cold.
As knowledgeable as an encyclopedia: Very knowledgeable.
As light as a penny: Very light in weight.
As soaring as an eagle: Very high and majestic.
As damp as morning dew: Slightly damp, like the dew in the morning.
As lost as a sheep: Very lost or confused.
As hardworking as an ant: Very hardworking and industrious.
As prickly as a cactus: Very prickly or irritable.
As wagging as a toddler: Very excited or happy.
As happy as a hog in mud: Very happy and content.
As sketchy as jelly with green fuzz on top: Very suspicious or dubious.
As American as apple pie: Very characteristic of American culture or tradition.
As black as coal: Very dark or black in color.
As white as pearls: Very white, like pearls.
As graceful as a ballerina: Very graceful and elegant.
As scattered as leaves on a blustery day: Very scattered or disorganized.

Personification
Personification is a literary device where human qualities or characteristics are attributed to
non-human entities, such as objects, animals, or abstract concepts. Essentially, it involves
giving human-like traits to things that are not human. This technique is often used to add
vivid imagery, depth, and emotion to writing, allowing readers to better relate to or
understand the subject matter.
For example:
 "The trees danced in the wind." (Trees are given the human quality of dancing.)
 "The sun smiled down on the earth." (The sun is given the human quality of smiling.)
 "The flowers whispered secrets to each other." (Flowers are given the human quality
of whispering and having secrets.)
Personification can be found in various forms of literature, including poetry, prose, and
storytelling, and it helps create a more engaging and vivid portrayal of the subject being
described.
Some more examples:

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  The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky.
 The sun greeted me this morning.
 The ocean waves kissed the sandy shore.
 The old tree moaned in the gusty wind.
 Time flies when you’re having fun.
 Opportunity knocked on his door.
 The flowers waltzed in the gentle breeze.
 The fire swallowed the entire forest.
 The snowflakes whispered to the ground.
 The thunder roared with fury.
 The shadows of the trees danced with the wind.
 The moon played hide and seek with the clouds.
 The cake called out to me from the refrigerator.
 The vines snaked their way up the wall.
 The mountains stood tall and proud.
 The angry clouds marched across the sky.
 The wind sang her mournful song through the falling leaves.
 The river’s water beckoned invitingly.
 The rain tapped on my windowpane, asking for entrance.
 The car complained when the key was forcefully turned.
 The daffodils nodded their yellow heads.
 The palm trees swayed to the rhythm of the island tunes.
 The sunflowers turned their faces to the sun’s embrace.
 The mailbox waved a hello with its flag.
 The hurricane’s eyes were watching our every move.
 The wind howled in the night.
 The moon guided me through the night.
 The echo of the forest called out mysteriously.
 The chocolate bar was calling my name.
 The tulips bowed their heads to the morning sun.
 The radio’s song brought tears to her eyes.
 The ruins told a story of age-old battles.
 The melon quenched my summer thirst.
 The autumn leaves were a blanket on the ground.
 The willow whispered her secrets to the wind.
 The camera loved her every angle.
 The pot called the kettle black.
 The fireworks screamed through the night sky.
 The house stared at me with looming eyes.
 The world does not wait for anyone.
 The light of the stars stabbed the night.
 The morning sun stretched its golden arms across the land.
 The fog wrapped the city in a tight embrace.
 The old guitar sang a lullaby to the audience.
 The first rays of the morning tiptoed through the meadow.
 The avalanche devoured everything in its path.
 The candle flame danced in the dark room.
 The thunder grumbled like an old man.
 The night sky draped itself over the city.

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  The blizzard swallowed the town overnight.
 The train whistle screamed in the dead of night.
 The laptop hummed to life after being pressed.
 The ice cream was a temptation too hard to resist.
 The water gushed from the fountain.
 The weary heart rests in the silence of night.
 The rain played a soft melody on the roof.
 The flames of the campfire reached for the stars.
 The chocolate fondue was a dream come true.
 The stars blinked in the inky night.
 The ocean’s heart beats upon the shore.
 The streetlights bowed to the car’s headlights.
 The plot of the novel thickened with suspense.
 The flowers reached for the morning light.
 The sun peeped out from behind the clouds.
 The walls have ears.
 The pages of the diary held secrets.
 The coffee is strong enough to wake the dead.
 The clouds blanketed the city, blocking out the sun.
 The storm’s anger unleashed havoc on the town.
 The cactus stood with its armed defense.
 The church bell sang its evening hymn.
 The forest of the night was full of mystery.
 The honeybee whispered to the blooming flowers.
 The ice cubes clinked together, singing their tune.
 The bread begged to be buttered.
 The cathedral of trees was nature’s sanctuary.
 The winter’s fury crippled the city.
 The pastries winked at me from the display.
 The wind’s song was filled with sorrow.
 The ocean roared with all its might.
 The memories jumped out from the photographs.
 The universe conspired in her favor.
 The bubbles laughed as they soared into the sky.
 The bouquet of roses was an explosion of color.
 The whispering willows were nature’s storytellers.
 The night wore her starry cloak.
 The voice of the sea speaks to the soul.
 The setting sun set the clouds on fire.
 The aroma of the stew teased my senses.
 The boulevard of dreams was paved with gold.
 The frost painted the pines in white.
 The cliffs stood as sentinels watching over the bay.
 The curtains danced to the rhythm of the breeze.
 The streets whispered tales of yesteryears.
 The ice sang under the weight of the skaters.
 The books in the library held worlds within them.
 The old clock groaned as it struck midnight.
 The first blooms of spring were nature’s gift

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  The city never sleeps; it’s always alive.
 The tree limbs swayed like dancers in the wind.
Metonymy
Metonymy refers to a figure of speech in which the word for one thing is used to refer to
something related to that thing, such as crown for “king” or “queen,” or White House or Oval
Office for “President.” The phrase “a bunch of suits” for a group of businesspeople is an
example of metonymy; it uses the common wardrobe of businesspeople as shorthand for the
people themselves.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole,
or vice versa. It involves substituting a part for the whole or the whole for a part. This literary
device is often used to create emphasis, add depth to descriptions, or make language more
concise.
There are two main types of synecdoche:
Part for the whole (pars pro toto): In this type, a specific part of something is used to
represent the whole thing.
Example:
 "All hands on deck." (Hands represent the entire crew of people.)
Using a part of something to represent the whole is a form of microcosmic synecdoche and is
also the most common form of synecdoche:
 “Hands” to refer to all manual labor workers. “We need some more hands.”
 “Wheels” to refer to a car. “He has a nice set of wheels!”
 “Suits” to refer to business people. “This room is full of suits.”
 “Threads” to refer to clothes. “She’s wearing some nice threads.”
 “Head” to refer to a person in charge. “Check it over with your department head.”
 “Teeth” to refer to someone’s personality or confidence. “Show some teeth!”
 “Feet” to refer to a person’s movement. “Move your feet.”
 “Boots” to refer to a soldier. “We need more boots on the ground.”
 “Brains” to refer to intelligence. “He’s got more brains than anyone else.”
 “Eyes” to refer to a person looking at something. “I need a second pair of eyes on
this.”
Whole for the part (totum pro parte): In this type, the entire thing is used to represent a
specific part of it.
Example:
 “The White House” as a reference for the President, staff, or advisors. “The White
House is holding a press conference.”
 “Hollywood” to refer to the actors or filmmakers in it. “Hollywood doesn’t make good
films anymore.”
 “Wall Street” to refer to the financial sector or bankers. “The market crashed on Wall
Street.”
 “The Bench” as a reference to the players or coaches. “The bench needs some new
players.”
 “The team” to refer to just the players on a sports team. “The team is off to a great
start this season.”
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  “Society” to refer to a particular segment of people within it. “Society is changing in
many ways.”
 “The police” when referring to individual officers. “The police are doing their best to
keep the streets safe.”
 “The media” when referring to individual reporters and journalists. “The media is
reporting on the latest news.”
 “Congress” to refer to the members of Congress or a government body. “Congress is
voting on the bill tomorrow.”
 “Washington” to refer to the politicians in Washington or the government in general.
“Washington is out of touch with reality.”
Synecdoche is a common literary device used in poetry, rhetoric, and everyday language to
create vivid imagery or convey complex ideas in a concise manner.
Using Containers to Represent Contents
Another way that synecdoche can be used is by referring to the container rather than the
contents.
 “Bottle” to refer to the beer inside. For example, “How much for a bottle?”
 “Box” to refer to what’s inside of it. “She ate an entire box.”
 “Sack” for potatoes or other items that are stored in a bag. “I need to buy a sack of
potatoes.”
 “Crate” for the items inside the box, such as apples or oranges. “That costs $9.95 per
crate.”
 “Glass” for wine or whatever is inside of it. “I’ll have another glass.”
Using Materials to Represent Objects Made from Them
Examples of synecdoche are also commonly found when referring to materials and the
objects made from them.
For example:
 “Paper” or “plastic” referring to grocery bags. “Do you want paper or plastic?”
 “Paper” to refer to the newspaper. “I read it in the paper.”
 “Glass” to refer to a mirror. “…through the looking glass…”
 “Silverware” to refer to all types of cutlery, even though most are not made of silver.
“Put the silverware on the table.”
 “Irons” to refer to golf clubs. “I have a new set of irons.”
Using a Specific Brand to Represent a Whole
You might also see synecdoche used to refer to a specific brand that is so popular it has come
to represent the entire category. This type of synecdoche can be seen in everyday language:
 “Kleenex” for all facial tissues
 “Band-Aid” for all adhesive bandages
 “Coke” for any type of soda
 “Xerox” for any copier machine
 “Styrofoam” to refer to any type of polystyrene material, even though Styrofoam is
actually a brand.
Using a Category to Represent Items Within That Category

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One final way to use synecdoche is by using a category to represent the items within that
category.
 “Jewelry” for rings. “I’m looking for my jewelry.”
 “San Francisco” or “New Orleans” or other city names used to represent sports
teams. “New Orleans won 4-0.”
 “The sword” referring to death. “They were all put to the sword.”
 “Hardware” to refer to a specific type of hardware like a motherboard. “The
computer needs new hardware.”
 “Software” to refer to a specific type of software like word processing or Excel. “I
need to buy new software.”
Synecdoche Examples in Everyday Language
Synecdoche is also seen in everyday language, often without us realizing it. Here are a few
examples:
 “Gimme some skin” meaning a handshake or a high-five.
 “The car is running” meaning the car engine specifically.
 “We’re going to the woods” meaning a specific forest or area of land with trees.
 “Shoulder” to mean burden or responsibility. “I can’t take this on my shoulder
anymore.”
 “Fender” when referring to the entire car body, not just its fenders. “It was a fender-
bender.”
 “Handle” when referring to a situation. “Do you have a handle on things?”
 “Steel” when talking about weapons like guns or knives. “Make sure you have steel
on you just in case.”
 “Greens” when talking about vegetables. “I’m making some greens for dinner.”
 “Brass” when referring to higher-ups in the military. “The brass is coming to inspect
the troops.”
 “Firm” or “office” referring to the specific people inside the office. “The firm decided
to go in another direction.”
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature
Synecdoche has been around for centuries and can be found throughout literature. The
following examples of synecdoche are in a variety of the forms we have already discussed.
 In Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Mercutio says “A plague o’ both your
houses!” He is referring to the families rather than their actual dwellings.
 In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Daisy refers to her daughter as “the best of
me” rather than using the word daughter or infant.
 In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, Napoleon uses the phrase “Four legs good, two legs
bad” to refer to animals and humans respectively.
 In the Bible, John 6:53, “Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God.” uses
“flesh and blood” to refer to people.
 In Salvador Dali’s autobiography, he states “Give me a museum and I’ll fill it.” He uses
museum to represent the specific walls that he would use to fill with art.
 In Macbeth by William Shakespeare, “Eyes, look your last!” is an example of using
eyes to represent an entire person.
 In Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland, he uses “off with their heads” as a way to refer
to execution.

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  In Herman Melville’s Moby Dick, “I’ll chase him round Good Hope and round the
Horn, and round the Norway Maelstrom.” is an example of using part (Norway
Maelstrom) to represent the whole (world).
 In Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, he states “Blanket me!” which is an example of
using a material (blanket) to represent an object (bed).
 In The Three Musketeers, Alexandre Dumas writes ‘“He shall think differently,” the
musketeer threatened, “When he feels the point of my steel.”’ Steel is used to refer
to a sword.
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that mimics a sound and using it to describe
that sound. (The word “onomatopoeia” is also used to describe the words themselves, rather
than just the process.) Some common onomatopoeias:
English Onomatopoeia: Human Sounds
achoo sneeze
ahem sound of clearing throat
argh expression of annoyance or frustration
babble to utter meaningless sounds
barf the sound of puking
bawl loud cry
brrr sound of shivering
burp expel gas from the stomach through the mouth
cackle a loud, unpleasant laugh
chomp sound of bite or chew
clap the sound you make when you strike both palms together
growl low rumbling sound
gulp sound of swallowing
harumph expression of disdain or protest
haha sound of laughter
hee-hee high-pitched laughter
gargle the act of bubbling liquid in the mouth
grrr sound of anger
hum sing with closed lips
hush sound of being quiet or still
munch chew noisily
slam to close violently
screech sharp piercing cry
shush the sound of silencing someone
shh sound of silencing
smack the sound when you hit something or someone
tsk a sound of disapproval
zzz sleeping

English Onomatopoeia: Sounds Made by Objects

ba dum tss Imitating a drum roll and cymbal crash played to underscore a joke
bang the sound of an explosion or a gunshot
boom the sound of an explosion
beep a high-pitched signal
beep-beep car horn sound
clink sound of glass on glass

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ding-dong ringing bell
flutter sound of rapid motion
fizz the sound of gas escaping from a drink or any liquid
honk sound of car horn
ring-ring sound of a phone ringing
smash sound of a collision
splash sound of object falling on water
Tick tick tick sound of a timer
tick tock sound of a clock
thud a dull, heavy sound like a big object falling
vroom sound of an engine revving
zap sound of electric discharge

English Onomatopoeia: Animal Sounds

baa goat / sheep
buzz insects like bees, mosquitoes, or flies
chirp bird
chirp crickets
cluck chicken
cock-a-doodle-doo rooster
gobble turkey
hiss snake
hoot owl
meow cat
moo cow
neigh horse's sound
oink pig
quack duck
ribbit frog
roar lion
woof / bow-wow a sound of a dog's bark

Allusion
Allusion is a reference to a well-known person, character, place, or event that a writer makes
to deepen the reader’s understanding of their work. Allusions aren’t reserved for writing,
though—we frequently use them in our speech.
For example:
 To my dog, our neighborhood park is the Garden of Eden. (alludes to the Christian
Bible)
 I’m Juliet to your Romeo. (alludes to William Shakespeare)
 Sad rom-coms are my kryptonite. (alludes to Superman comics and media).
Most common Allusions:
Greek
 Achilles’ heel – a weakness a person may have. Achilles was invulnerable, except for
his heel (achilles tendon).
 Adonis – a handsome younger man; Aphrodite loved him.
 Apollo – a physically perfect male; the God of music and light, Apollo was known for
his physical beauty.
 Cassandra – a person who continually predicts misfortune, but often is not believed.
 Erotic – of or having to do with sexual passion or love. Eros was the Greek god of love.
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  Harpy – a predatory person or nagging woman. Comes from “harpy,” a foul creature
that was part woman, part bird.
 Helen – symbol of a beautiful woman; from Helen of Troy.
 Morphine – an alkaloid used to relieve pain and induce sleep. Morpheus was a god
that could easily change shape.
 Muse – a creature of inspiration. The daughters of Mnemosyne and Zeus, and divine
singers that presided over thought in all its forms.
 Narcissism – being in love with one’s own self-image. Named for Narcissus, a
handsome young man who despised love, but fell in love with himself instead.
 Odyssey – a long journey. Named for Odysseus, a character in The Odyssey, by
Homer. Odysseus makes his long journey back from the Trojan War.
 Pandora’s Box – Something that opens the door for bad occurrences, opened by
someone known for curiosity. Named for Pandora, who opened a box of human ills.
 Phoenix – a symbol of immortality or rebirth. Named after a long bird that consumed
itself in fire, then rose renewed from the flame to start another long life.
 Psyche – the human soul, self, the mind. Named after Psyche, a maiden who, after
undergoing many hardships, reunited with her love.
 Pygmalion – someone who tries to fashion someone into the person he desires.
Comes from a myth adapted into a play by George Bernard Shaw.
 Sibyl – a witch or sorceress; a priestess who had the gift of prophecy.
 Tantalize – from King Tantalus, who reigned on Mt. Sipylus, and who was condemned
to a river but couldn’t eat the beautiful food around him.
 Titanic – grand and enormous. Named after Tityus, the son of Zeus and Elara, whose
body covered nearly two acres.
 Volcanoes – originated from Vulcan, the Roman god of fire.
Literature
 Babbitt – a self-satisfied person concerned chiefly with business and middle-class
ideals, like material success. Comes from Babbitt by Sinclair Lewis.
 Cinderella – one who gains affluence or recognition after being treated poorly.
 Don Juan – a libertine, profligate, a man obsessed with women.
 Don Quixote – someone overly idealistic to the point of being unrealistic. From the
Cervantes character in The Man of La Mancha, by Dale Wasserman and Mitch Leigh.
 Frankenstein – anything that threatens or destroys its creator. From Mary Shelley’s
novel Frankenstein.
 Jekyll and Hyde – a capricious person with two sides to his personality. From the
novel of the same name.
 Lothario – used to describe a man who seduces women. From The Fair Penitent, by
Nicholas Rowe.
 Scrooge – a bitter and/or greedy person. From Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol.
 Svengali – a person with an irresistible hypnotic power; from 1984, by George
Mauriers.
Biblical Allusions
 Absolom – a son who brings heartache to his father.
 Alpha and Omega – the beginning and the end, from a quote in Revelations.
 Daniel – one known for wisdom and accurate judgment.
 David and Bathsheba – represents a big sin. From King David’s affair with Bathsheba,
the wife of Uriah.

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  Eye of the Needle – a very difficult task. From the historic narrow gateways into cities,
called “the needle.”
 Goliath – a large person. From the giant from the Philistine city of Gath, slain by
David.
 Ishmael – one who is cast out as being unworthy.
 Job – one who suffers a great deal, but remains faithful.
 Jonah – one who brings bad luck.
 Judas – a traitor.
 Original Sin – the idea that all men are innately sinful as a result of Adam and Eve’s
fall.
 Prodigal Son – a wasteful son who disappoints his father.
 Samson and Delilah – a treacherous love story.
 Scapegoat – one that is made an object of blame for others.
 Solomon – an extremely wise person.
Historical Allusions
 Attila – barbarian, rough leader; King of the Huns from 433-453 A.D..
 Berserk – destructively or frenetically violent, from mental upset.
 Boycott – to act together in abstaining from using a specific item. From Charles C.
Boycott, who refused to charge lower rents, and his staff boycotted.
 Canopy – an overhanging protection or shelter, to cover.
 Casanova – a man who is amorous to women; based on the Italian adventurer.
 Chauvinist – one who has a militant devotion to and glorification to country or
gender; Nicolas Chauvin.
 El Dorado – a place of reputed wealth; from the legendary city in South America.
 Machiavellian – characterized by expedience, deceit and cunning; after Niccolo
Machiavelli.
 McCarthyism – modern witch hunt, the practice of publicizing accusations without
evidence; after Joseph McCarthy.
 Nostradamus – fortune teller; (1503-66) French physician and astrologer who wrote a
book of rhymed prophecies.
 Stonewall – hinder or obstruct by evasive, delaying tactics from Stonewall Jackson.
 Thespian – having to do with the theater or acting; from Thespis, an attic poet and
father of Greek tragedy.
 Uncle Sam – government of people of the United States; derived from Uncle Sam, a
business man in the 1900s.
Hyperbole
The word hyperbole is a literary device where exaggeration is used to create strong feelings
or emphasize a point. Hyperbole often uses exaggerated words and phrases to make a point
but aren’t literally true. For example, when someone says “I’m starving!” after skipping
breakfast, they don’t actually mean that they are about to die from hunger. A hyperbole can
be playful, humorous, or even heartfelt but always has the intent to bring attention to
whatever the writer wants to emphasize. Here are some common hyperbole examples found
in everyday speech and conversation:
 “I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse!”
 “He is as strong as an ox!”
 “That was so expensive it nearly broke the bank!”
 “She was shouting louder than thunder!”

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  “I’m so full I could burst.”
Literature is full of hyperbole – from novels to poetry to historical texts. Here are some great
examples from famous works used to create emotion in stories and characters:
 “My love for you is deeper than the ocean” — Romeo and Juliet by William
Shakespeare
 “I gasped an entire ocean of air” — The Catcher in the Rye by J.D Salinger
 Her heart was beating a thousand miles a minute” — Pride and Prejudice by Jane
Austen
 “He was as tall as a mountain” — The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
 “My love for you burns brighter than the sun” — Romeo and Juliet by William
Shakespeare
 “The waves were roaring like a lion” – Moby Dick by Herman Melville
 “I felt a chill that stood my hairs on end” — Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
 “It was so cold I nearly froze to death” – A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens
 “My heart was pounding like a hammer” – Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte
 “His eyes were like two stars burning bright” — The Odyssey by Homer
 “She was so beautiful, she could have stopped the sun from setting” — The Princess
Bride by William Goldman
 “Their laughter was like a thousand bells ringing” — Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland by Lewis Carroll
 “I am so tired, I could sleep for a hundred years” — Sleeping Beauty by Grimm
Brothers
 “He was running like the wind” — The Iliad by Homer
 “Her heart was as heavy as a mountain” — The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-
Exupéry
Hyperbole examples can also be found all around us, in everyday speech and casual
conversations. The following examples are some that you’ve probably heard before:
 “I had to walk a million miles to get home”
 “I was so hungry I could eat a cow!”
 “My brain is fried from all this studying”
 “That cost me an arm and a leg!”
 “I’m so tired I can’t keep my eyes open”
 “It’s so hot, I’m melting!”
 “My stomach is in knots”
 “He’s talking a mile a minute!”
 “I’ve told you a million times!”
 ”This is taking forever!”
 “That was so easy, a baby could do it!”
 “I worked my fingers to the bone”
 “It’s raining cats and dogs out there!”
 “I have a million things to do today!”
 “I’m so mad my blood is boiling!”
Hyperbole can often be found in film and television, used to make dialogue more interesting
and engaging. Here are a few examples:
 “I’m so angry, I could explode!” – Monsters Inc.
 “If my heart was a prison, you would be the prisoner” – The Notebook
 “My heart is breaking into a million pieces” – Love Actually
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  “It was so loud it could wake the dead!” – The Simpsons
 “That’s enough to make your head spin!” – The Office (US)
 “I’m so scared I could die” – The Goonies
 “My heart is pounding a mile a minute!” – Grey’s Anatomy
 “I’m so nervous I could throw up!” – Mean Girls
 “My eyes are burning a hole through you” – Breaking Bad
 “I’m so angry, I could spit fire!” – Despicable Me
 “That was the longest day of my life” – How I Met Your Mother
 “We were running faster than the speed of light” – The Matrix
 “My heart was beating faster than a drum” – Avatar
 “It was so funny I almost died laughing!” – The Big Bang Theory
 “It was so cold, I saw polar bears wearing jackets” – The Simpsons
Hyperbole is so often found in popular music, as it can help convey intense emotion and
deepen the impact of lyrics. Here’s a list of hyperbole examples used in songs:
 “Burning brighter than the sun” — Rihanna
 “My love is like a river” — Alanis Morissette
 “Take me higher than I’ve ever been before” — Alicia Keys
 “I can’t live without you by my side” — Mariah Carey
 “It feels like a million miles away” — Coldplay
 “You turn my world around” — Michael Jackson
 “I’m so high I can hear heaven” — Katy Perry
 “My heart is beating like a drum” — Justin Bieber
 “I could travel the world and never find another you” — Ed Sheeran
 “My love is like a flower” — Miley Cyrus
 “My love for you is like a river running wild” – River by Leon Bridges
 “This love is so deep, it goes beyond the sea” — Bruno Mars
 “Why don’t you take me for a ride? Go faster than the speed of light” – Uptown Funk
by Mark Ronson feat. Bruno Mars
 “It felt like a million butterflies were flying around my heart” – When I Was Your Man
by Bruno Mars
 “We were walking on the moon” — The Script
Irony
Irony occurs when a moment of dialogue or plot contradicts what the audience expects from
a character or story. In other words, irony in literature happens when the opposite of what
you’d expect actually occurs. To put it another way: irony is a contrast between “what seems
to be” and “what is.”As a literary technique, this device primarily accomplishes two goals.
First, it allows you to juxtapose contradictory ideas in your writing. By diverging from what
the reader or character expects, an ironic plot or dialogue exchange allows opposing ideas to
sit side-by-side, creating a fertile space for interpretation and creative inquiry. Second, irony
in literature emulates real life. We’ve all had days like the one described above, where
everything seems awful and suddenly the best news reaches us (or vice versa). The real
world follows no logical trajectory, and we find ourselves surrounded by competing ideas and
realities. Irony makes talking about these contradictions possible.
Irony vs. Sarcasm
Because both irony and sarcasm come across as wry statements about certain situations,
people often confuse the two terms. However, sarcasm has a much narrower use.

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Sarcasm only occurs in dialogue: you can speak something with sarcasm, but an event cannot
be sarcastic. Additionally, sarcasm is usually intended to be mean or point at the folly of a
certain person. By speaking wryly or ironically about another person’s faults, an individual’s
use of sarcasm will often be insulting or derogatory, even if both parties understand that the
sarcasm is simple banter. (Sarcasm comes from the Greek for “cutting flesh.”)
For example, let’s say someone you know just came to a very obvious or delayed realization.
You might say to them “nice thinking, Einstein,” obviously implying that their intelligence is
on the other side of the bell curve.
So, the difference between irony vs. sarcasm is that sarcasm is a verbal insult that points
towards someone’s flaws ironically, whereas irony encompasses contradictory ideas,
statements, and events. As such, sarcasm is sometimes a form of irony, but only partially falls
under a much broader umbrella.
Irony vs. Satire
Satire is another term that’s often confused with irony and sarcasm. Satire, like sarcasm, is a
form of expression; but, satire is also a literary genre with its own complex history.
Satire is the art of mocking human follies. Often, satire has the goal of critiquing or correcting
those follies. A good piece of satire will hold a mirror up against the reader, against
politicians, or against society at large. By recognizing, perhaps, our own logical fallacies or
erroneous ways of living, satire hopes to help people live more honest, moral lives (as
defined by the satirist).
Irony is certainly an element of good satire. We all act in contradictory or hypocritical ways.
Irony in satire helps the satirist illuminate those contradictions. But, the two are
fundamentally different: irony notices contradictions, whereas satire wields this and other
devices to mock human follies.
Some examples:
 A traffic cop gets caught speeding.
 A brain surgeon needs a lobotomy.
 A librarian yells across the library: “keep your voices down!”
 A tailor wears an ill-fitting suit.
 A man drops his contact lenses and can’t find them because he can’t see.
 A mortgage broker defaults on his loan.
 A “family first” politician is caught cheating on his wife.
 A marriage counselor gets a divorce.
 A man complains loudly about how everyone around him is too loud.
 A hunter gets eaten by a bear.
 A firefighter’s house burns down.
 A wedding planner’s own wedding turns out to be a disaster.
 A teacher sends a letter home to parents about the students’ poor spelling, only to
have spelling mistakes all through the letter.
 A lifeguard drowns.
 A man’s internet breaks during an online job interview for a job as a computer
technician.
 A pilot skillfully crash lands a plane, saving everyone on board, only to get injured as
he walks off the plane.
 A husband complains to his wife about how she never does anything for him while
she’s cooking him dinner.

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  A man is afraid of flying so he drives instead, only to get injured in a car crash.
 An anti-corruption politician gets caught accepting dirty money.
 A socialist politician turns out having three holiday homes in Canada.
 A free speech warrior sues someone for saying something mean.
 A 24/7 diner is closed.
 A tow truck gets into a car crash.
 A prison guard returns to his prison – as an inmate!
 A butcher turns out to be a vegan.
 A man impatiently explains to a woman that “mansplaining” means “man explaining”.
 A dolphin is found washed up on the beach. The autopsy finds it died from drowning.
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a figure of speech, usually one or two words, in which seemingly
contradictory terms appear side by side. This contradiction is also known as a paradox.
Writers and poets have used it for centuries as a literary device to describe life's inherent
conflicts and incongruities. In speech, oxymorons can lend a sense of humor, irony, or
sarcasm.
Modern pop culture works hard to attract the attention of the targeted viewer or reader in
today’s flood of advertising. And because oxymorons provoke curiosity and interest, they
make great titles for books, movies, and television:
Movie titles:
 “True Lies”
 “You Only Live Twice”
 “Eyes Wide Shut”
 “Dead Man Walking”
 “Back to the Future”
Book titles:
 Honest Illusions (Nora Roberts)
 The Worst Best Man (Mia Sosa)
 Big, Little Lies (Liane Moriarity)
 Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Yuval Noah Harari)
 The Big Short (Michael Lewis)
Oxymoron Examples in Literature
Some of the longest-lasting oxymorons were generated by Shakespeare in his plays and are
still widely used today.
But Shakespeare isn’t the only oxymoron guru. In fact, many modern authors are coming up
with their own as well, for example:
 Sweet sorrow (Shakespeare, 1597)
 Misshapen chaos (Shakespeare…again)
 Terrible beauty (William Butler Yeats, 1916)
 Deafening silence (Origin unknown, first seen in print 1830)
 Cruel kindness (Source unknown; to be “cruel to be kind” first in Hamlet c. 1601)
 Falsely true (Tennyson, 1862)
 Melancholy merriment (Byron, 1819)
 Scalding coolness (Hemingway, 1940)

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  Terrible beauty (Yeats, 1916)
 Listen loudly (David Nour, 2017): Nour invented this oxymoronic phrase. It drives
home the point of developing an intense level of listening to customers, employees,
and others.
These examples might help you use oxymorons to good effect in your writing:
 “And where did this insane notion of buying loyalty come from? It’s a contradiction in
terms.”- Steven Erikson, Dust of Dreams
 When my boyfriend gave me a definite maybe about going out this Friday night, that
was the last straw.
 As our team gathered for the staff meeting, the boss was conspicuously absent.
 James Bond approached the beautiful women he encountered in every assignment
with cool passion.
 The politician gave his deceptively honest opinion.
 Trying to put a positive spin on the company’s financial status, the CFO talked about
the negative growth in last quarter’s revenue.
 Now that many employees have shown high productivity working away from the
office, will their bosses now expect them to take working vacations?
 The cop-show investigator’s well-chosen use of eloquent silence always got the bad
guy to confess.
A song’s amazing melody may make it a fan-favorite. Add a great title, like an oxymoron that
represents the poetry of the lyrics, and you have a song that’s a beloved classic for years to
come.
Titles:
 “A Hard Day’s Night” (Beatles)
 “Sounds of Silence” (Simon and Garfunkel)
 “Hello I Must Be Going” (Phil Collins)
 “Definite Maybe” (Kinks)
 “Cold Fire” (Rush)
Lyrics:
 “New, old-fashioned way” from “Rockin’ Around the Christmas Tree” by Brenda Lee
 “Your eyes whispered have we met” from “Enchanted” by Taylor Swift
 “I only wanna die alive” from “Break Free” by Ariana Grande
 “Now my empty cup tastes as sweet as the punch” from “Along Comes Mary” by the
Association
 “When it’s cold outside, I’ve got the month of May” from “My Girl” by the
Temptations
Oxymoron Examples in Everyday Expressions
Many oxymorons have become part of our daily language to the point where they now make
sense and seem normal. They name things we know are contradictory but still apply at work,
at home, in families, and in society.
 Working vacation
 Virtual reality
 Alone together
 Unbiased opinion
 Minor miracle
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  Advanced beginner
 Friendly fire
 Plastic silverware
 Controlled chaos
 Original copy
 Only choice
 Act naturally
 Old news
 Approximate solution
 Modern history
 Near miss
 Free trade
 Minor catastrophe
 Clean dirt
 Small crowd
 Silent scream
A comical oxymoron often comes from sarcastic or cynical contradictions. When used well,
your reader or listener will at least smile if not laugh out loud.
 Microsoft Works
 Government organization
 Temporary tax increase
 Twelve-ounce pound cake
 Express mail
 Marital bliss
 Airline food
 Peacekeeper missile
 Soup sandwich
 Civil war
 Bureaucratic efficiency
 Living dead
Examples of Oxymorons in Sentences
 This is another fine mess you have got us into.
 There is a real love hate relationship developing between the two of them.
 Suddenly the room filled with a deafening silence.
 The comedian was seriously funny.
 You are clearly confused by the situation you have found yourself in.
 Her singing was enough to raise the living dead.
 Do you have the original copies that we requested?
 This is a genuine imitation Rolex watch.
 I really would like to try that new jumbo shrimp restaurant.
 His new girlfriend really is pretty ugly.
 Sorry, I can’t help you out right now, I am involved in my own minor crisis.
 Give me the fifty dollars you owe me or pay for dinner, it’s the same difference.
 My trip to Bali was very much a working holiday.
 I let out a silent scream as the cat walked through the door carrying a dead bird.
 You are going to have to use proofreading services, it is your only choice.
 The seventies was the era of free love.

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  I will ask the professor for his unbiased opinion.
 The constant variable is the one that does not change.
 The sermon lasted for an endless hour.
 We laughed and cried through the tragic comedy.
 Parting is such sweet sorrow.
 They couldn’t wait to get out alone together.
 We’ll use plastic glasses at the picnic.
 The student teacher explained how to complete dissertation editing.
 The gossip is old news.
 The lady he eventually married is painfully beautiful.
 Wow! This ice cream is disgustingly delicious.
 Be careful in the playground, run slowly.
 Your apple pie is awfully good.
 A small crowd gathered to watch the concert.
 It’s an open secret that they have been having an affair for the past six months.
 He has a real passive aggressive personality.
 You were awfully lucky to escape the car crash unscathed.
 Stop being a big baby.
 I am sure I am growing smaller as I get older.
 She is my least favorite relation.
 The story was based on the concept of a true myth.
 That is an example of the typically weird behavior she continually demonstrates.
 He has become an extremely unpopular celebrity.
 I’m on a heavy diet until my wedding day.
 I am a deeply superficial person.
 I like a smuggler. He is the only honest thief.
 Good grief, we’re really late.
 I can’t make any promises but it’s a definite possibility.
 She was terribly pleased with her Birthday present.
 The army returned friendly fire as the enemy approached.
 He installed the new wireless cable in the television room.
 He was forced to stand down from his position as president.
 There will be zero tolerance in the future.
 I had no choice but to do what I was told.
Euphemism
A euphemism is a mild or indirect word or expression used in place of one that may be
considered harsh, blunt, unpleasant, or offensive. It's a way of softening the impact of a
statement or conveying something sensitive or taboo in a more socially acceptable manner.
Euphemisms are commonly used in various contexts, including polite conversation, politics,
advertising, and everyday language. For example, saying "passed away" instead of "died" or
"let go" instead of "fired" are examples of euphemisms. They serve to make communication
more delicate or less confrontational.
For example:
 The car isn’t used; it’s “certified pre-owned.”
 She’s not sick; she’s “under the weather.”
 He’s not a liar; he’s “creative with the truth.”
 They’re not in a sexual relationship; they’re “friends with benefits.”
 People don’t go to prison; it’s a “correctional facility.”
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  He’s not poor; he’s “economically disadvantaged.”
 She didn’t break up with him; she “needed some space.”
 It wasn’t a lie; it was a “terminological inexactitude.”
 He didn’t say the f-word; he said “oh, fudge.”
 She’s not talking about her buttocks; she’s referencing her “boom boom.”
 He’s not trying to make direct physical contact; he wants to “get to second base.”
 You’re not old; you’re “over the hill.”
 She’s not pregnant; she “has a bun in the oven.”
 It’s not a strip club; it’s a “gentleman’s club.”
 It’s not an annoying telemarketer calling; it’s a “courtesy call.”
 The item isn’t stolen; it just “fell off the back of a truck.”
 It’s not a tiny cramped apartment; it’s “cozy.”
 It’s not pornography; it’s “adult entertainment.”
 They didn’t get a divorce; they “consciously uncoupled.”
 It’s not a lie; it’s an “alternate fact.”
 It’s not torture; it’s “enhanced interrogation.”

Death and Dying
 passed away instead of died
 passed over to the other side instead of died
 late instead of deceased
 dearly departed instead of deceased
 resting in peace for deceased
 no longer with us instead of deceased
 departed instead of died
 passed instead of died
 gone to heaven instead of died
 gone home instead of died
 negative patient outcome instead of died
 put to sleep instead of euthanizing a pet
 gone over the rainbow bridge instead of died (for a pet)
States of Employment
 letting someone go instead of firing an employee
 between jobs instead of unemployed
 downsized instead of fired
 chose to resign instead of being given no alternative other than to quit or get fired
 my position was eliminated instead of I got fired
 taking an early retirement instead of losing one's job
 pursuing other opportunities instead of quitting or being fired
 left the company instead of quit, walked off the job or got fired
 embarking on a journey of self-discovery instead of jobless
 considering options instead of unable to find a job
 over-employed instead of in a job that is beyond one's capabilities
 under-employed instead of in a job that is below a person's career level
Financial Euphemisms
 economical instead of cheap

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  frugal instead of cheap
 thrifty instead of cheap
 negative cash flow instead of in debt
 upside-down instead of owing more on an asset than it is worth
 outstanding payment instead of past-due bill
 likes to shop instead of chronic overspending
 economically disadvantaged instead of poor or impoverished
 financially fortunate instead of spoiled
 wealthy instead of rich
 well-off instead of rich
 developing country instead of a third-world or impoverished nation
Bodily Functions and Aging
 powder your nose instead of go to the toilet
 break wind instead of pass gas or fart
 visit the ladies' room instead of go to the bathroom
 indisposed instead of in the bathroom
 tinkle for urinate
 number one for urinate
 number two for a bowel movement
 time of the month instead of menstruating
 sniffles instead of runny nose
 aging instead of getting old
 golden years instead of old age
 experienced instead of old
 seasoned instead of old
Characteristics, Attributes and Behaviors
 big-boned instead of large
 well-fed instead of overweight
 curvy instead of fat
 petite instead of short
 unique instead of odd or weird
 special instead of conforming with expectations
 late bloomer instead of being behind grade level
 truth-challenged instead of dishonest
 running a little behind instead of late
 overzealous instead of aggressive
 inquisitive instead of asking questions incessantly
 outspoken instead of bossy
Circumstances of Life
 correctional facility instead of jail or prison
 in a family way instead of pregnant
 with child instead of pregnant
 au natural instead of naked or nude
 under the weather instead of sick or ill
 unavailable instead of not here
 otherwise occupied instead of busy

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  otherwise engaged instead of doing something else
 highly strung instead of poorly behaved
 precocious instead of badly behaved
Sexual Activities
 birds and the bees instead of how babies are made
 going all the way instead of having sex
 doing it for having sex
 making whoopee instead of having sex
 sleeping with for having sex with
 sleeping around for cheating on one's partner
 afternoon delight for daytime sex
 hanky panky for fooling around; could be "making out" or sex
 going to third base instead of sexual touching

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Appendix
1- Summary of types of inversion (C1)

Subject-auxilary inversion - obligatory, no emphasis involved

1.1 Question forms Have you finished? Inversion is always

obligatory
You're Mark, aren't you?

I came first. - Did you?

1.2 After so and neither / nor
Same way agreement So do I Inversion compulsory
after so, neither, nor.
Neither is she
Same way coordination He can swim very well and Inversion compulsory
so can his brother. after so, neither, nor.

She didn't come and

neither did her sister.
nor + clause He hasn't seen it and Inversion compulsory
nor does he want to. after nor.
neither ... nor ... She has neither been there Inversion compulsory
nor has she any desire to after nor. Inversion of
go. first part is also
optionally possible.
Neither has he written
nor has he phoned.

2- Subject-auxilary inversion - optional, emphasis usually involved

2.1 Negative inversion Never before had it rained Fronting the adverbial is
After fronted negative and so much in one day. optional, but if used,
restrictive adverbials inversion obligatory
Only
then did she understand
what I was trying to say.

Little did they suspect what

would happen next.
2.2 Inversion in conditionals Should I be late, start Inversion completely
without me optional

Were he to ask me, I'd

accept like a shot

Had I not already got one,

I'd be very tempted.
2.3 Follow-on as + clause She thinks it's unlikely, Inversion optional
207
 as does her colleague.
2.4 After than in comparatives This year's sales are better Inversion optional and
than were last year's. rather rare
2.5 Question order in exclamatives Wow! Was that exam hard! Inversion optional
2.6 Hopes and wishes with may May all your dreams come Inversion obligatory and
true! rather literary

3- Fronted so and such - fronting optional, but if used, inversion is obligatory

3.1 So + adjective So exhausted were the

children, they were put Quite literary.
straight to bed.
3.2 So + adverb So badly did he sing, he was
booed off the stage.
3.3 Such + be + noun phrase + that Such was the state of the
roads that driving
anywhere was an
adventure.
3.4 So much/little did ... that So little did he care, he Literary and now rather
didn't even contact her. rare.
3.5 Such following on from And such has always been
something already stated the case.
3.6 Some expressions So be it. Set expressions
with so and such using inversion
Such is life!

4. Fronted adverbs and adverbials

4.1 After Here comes our train now Inversion obligatory for
fronted here and there (used nouns but not used
adverbally) Look! There are the dogs, with pronouns
by the bushes
4.2 Other common expressions Here you go Both fronting and
with fronted adverbs inversion are optional
And off they went
4.3 With verbs of position after In front of the shop were Both fronting and
prepositional phrases of place standing a lot of people. inversion are optional
4.4 With verbs of movement after Up the stairs came a noisy Both fronting and
prepositional phrases of group of children. inversion are optional
direction
4.5 Prepositional phrases with On the floor a child sat Fronting optional
verbs of position and quietly reading.
movement - without inversion
Round the corner they
came, lots of them.
4.6 Prepositional phrases of Behind the sofa a cat was Fronting optional

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 position and movement with playing with some wool.
other verbs - no inversion
Round the corner they
came, lots of them.
4.7 Fronting other adverbs and Slowly, he trudged up the Fronting optional
adverbials hill

At six o'clock, the church

bells started to ring out the
Angelus.

5. Fronting and inversion with adjectives

5.1 Fronted adjectives Completely optional

and rather rare
5.2 Fronted comparatives and Better still was his second More common.
superlatives book. Fronting optional, but if
used, inversion
Largest of all seabirds is the obligatory
albatross.
5.3 Fronted not so + adjective / Not so bright was the guy Fronting optional, but if
adverb who tried to jump across used, inversion
the river. obligatory
5.4 Expressions with fronted worth Well worth a visit is the Fronting optional, but if
fourteenth century castle. used, inversion
obligatory
Also worth a look are the
old city walls.
5.5 Double comparatives - the ... The more you pester him, Inversion completely
the ... the less is he likely do optional, and rather
anything. rare
5.6 Fronted present and past Walking slowly up the Fronting optional, but if
participles hill was an old man. used, inversion
obligatory
Believed by many is the
story of the Loch Ness
monster.

Long gone are the days

when this was fashionable.

6. Other forms of subject-verb inversion

6.1 Reversing subject and subject The person to ask is Peter. Totally optional
complement
6.2 To report direct speech "No doubt we'll meet Totally optional
again," said the young man

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 Bank robbers
escape, admit police.
6.3 Fronted expressions after also Also in the Fronting and inversion
picture are some tourists optional
6.4 Exclamations How small is man! Fronting and inversion
with how and what optional
6.5 Fronted noun clauses To win the race was a Fronting with inversion
dream come true! optional -
introductory it more
That she should feel that common.
way came as a bit of a
shock.

7. Fronting without inversion - fronting optional in all cases

7.1 Fronting object wh- clauses What happens after that,

you'll just have to wait and
see.
7.2 Fronting infinitives of purpose To make sure he wasn't
late he took a taxi.
7.3 Fronting objects He only met her quite
recently, but her
husband he'd known for
some years.

Great weather we're

having!
7.4 Fronting adjective complements Committed it may have
been, but it was hardly a
barrel of laughs.
7.5 Fronting with as or though Exciting as it was,I don't
think I'll be doing it again in
a hurry.
7.6 Fronting and echoing a He needed to act fast,
previously mentioned verb and act fast he did.
7.7 Detached fronted verb phrases Makes a good cake, your
mum (does).
7.8 Detached fronted verb subjects This film you were talking
and objects about, where's it showing?
7.9 Introductory phrases The thing / The thing is, if we don't
point / question is etc leave now, we'll be late.

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2. Noun forms of key verbs (B2)
When you're looking to express actions in a more nominal (noun) form, you can use the noun
forms of key verbs. This not only adds variety to your language but also allows for a more
concise and specific expression of actions. Consider the table below.
Verb Verb + noun form of key verb
Explain Give/provide/offer an explanation (of/for)
Explore Undertake/carry out an exploration (of), Embark on an exploration
(into)
Emphasize Put/place/lay emphasis (on)
Describe Give/provide a description (of)
Affect Have an effect on
Prove Offer/provide proof (that)
Analyze Conduct/perform an analysis (of)
Evaluate Conduct/perform an evaluation (of)
Discuss Have/hold a discussion (about/on)
Recommend Make/offer a recommendation (for/to)
Present Give/make a presentation (on/about)
Negotiate Engage in/enter into negotiations (with), Conduct negotiation (for)
Examine Conduct an examination (of), Perform an examination (on)
Clarify Seek/ask for clarification (on/about)
Propose Put forth/make a proposal (for)
Address Engage in addressing (the issue/concerns)
Acknowledge Provide an acknowledgment (of/receipt)
Confirm Receive confirmation (of/from)
Exemplify Provide an exemplification (of)
Elaborate Offer an elaboration (on/upon)
Assess Conduct/perform an assessment (of/on)
Justify Provide a justification (for/of)
Contribute Make a contribution (to/for)
Distinguish Make a distinction (between), Achieve a distinction (in)
Conclude Draw a conclusion (from), Arrive at a conclusion (about)
Argue Make an argument (for/against), Present an argument (in favor
of), Engage in argument (with), put forward the argument
Refer Make a reference (to), Provide a reference (for)
Consider Take into consideration, Give consideration (to)
Support Provide support (for/to), Offer support (to)
Compare Make a comparison (between), Draw a comparison (with)
Attend Take attendance, Confirm attendance (at), Record attendance (of)
Connect Establish a connection (with/between), Make a connection (between)
Defend Offer a defense (of), Present a defense (against)
Integrate Facilitate integration (of), Achieve integration (between)
Encourage Provide encouragement (to), Offer encouragement (for)
Implement Facilitate implementation (of), Oversee implementation (of)
Critique Provide a critique (of), Write a critique (on)
Generate Foster generation (of), Promote generation (of)
Illuminate Provide an illumination (of), Cast illumination (on)
Elucidate Offer elucidation (on), Provide elucidation (of)

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Synthesize Achieve synthesis (of), Facilitate synthesis (between)
Mitigate Engage in mitigation (of), Implement mitigation (strategies)
Perceive Influence perception (of), Shape perception (about)
Delineate Provide delineation (of), Offer delineation (between)
Elicit Conduct elicitation (of), Facilitate elicitation (from)
Propagate Facilitate propagation (of), Support propagation (efforts)
Disseminate Facilitate dissemination (of), Support dissemination (efforts)
Classify Make, provide a classification of
Progress Make progress (on/in)
Change Make a change
Attempt Make an attempt (to/at)
Advance Make advancement (in)
Enhance make enhancement (to)

3. Adverbs (B2)
Adverbs of manner Adverbs of time Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Degree
place Evaluation
Gladly Gently Yet Above Apparently Extremely Almost
Quietly Safely Yesterday Behind Clearly Quite
Truthfully Warmly Yearly Below Presumably Just
Wildly Carefully Weekly On Probably Too
Frankly
Wisely Hard Fast Usually Down Enough
Unfortunately
Straight Well Tonight Up Very
Hopefully
Angrily Boldly Tomorrow Far Bravely Well
Daringly Today In Rightly Virtually
Accidentally Then Outside Wrongly Utterly
Anxiously Still Towards Stupidly Totally
Awkwardly Badly Soon Under Luckily Thoroughly
Beautifully Blindly Sometimes Upstairs Sadly Terribly
Bravely Brightly Since Back Fortunately Strongly
Busily Calmly Seldom Over Unbelievably Somewhat
Carelessly Regularly Away So
Cautiously Recently Off Simply
Cheerfully Clearly Rarely About Scarcely
Closely Correctly Quarterly Abroad Really
Courageously Previously Anywhere Rather
Cruelly Often Downstairs Purely
Deliberately Occasionally Now East Pretty
Doubtfully Eagerly Normally Elsewhere Practically
Easily Elegantly Nightly Here Positively
Enormously Next Indoors Perfectly
Enthusiastically Never Inside Nearly
Equally Eventually Monthly Near Much
Exactly Faithfully Later Nearby Most
Fatally Fiercely Lately North Lots
Fondly Foolishly Late Out Little
Fortunately Frankly Last South Less
Frantically Just There Least
Generously Infrequently West Intensely
Gracefully Greedily Hourly Indeed Incredibly

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Happily Hastily Generally How
Healthily Honestly Frequently Highly
Hungrily Hurriedly Fortnightly Hardly
Inadequately Formerly Greatly
Ingeniously First Fully
Innocently Finally Far
Inquisitively Ever Fairly
Irritably Joyously Eventually Entirely
Justly Kindly Lazily Early Enormously
Loosely Loudly Earlier Deeply Decidedly
Madly Mortally Daily Completely
Mysteriously Constantly Before Barely
Neatly Nervously Annually Badly
Noisily Obediently Always Awfully
Openly Painfully Already Absolutely
Patiently Perfectly Before
Politely Poorly Later
Powerfully Since
Promptly Soon
Punctually Quickly Still
Rapidly Rarely Yet
Really Recklessly Early
Regularly Earlier
Reluctantly Eventually
Repeatedly Recently
Rightfully Roughly Previously
Rudely Sadly Finally
Selfishly Sensibly
Seriously Sharply
Shyly Silently
Sleepily Slowly
Smoothly So Softly
Solemnly Speedily
Stealthily Sternly
Stupidly
Successfully
Suddenly
Suspiciously
Swiftly Tenderly
Tensely
Thoughtfully
Tightly
Unexpectedly
Victoriously
Violently
Vivaciously Weakly
Wearily

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4. Verb + Preposition List and Examples (A1/A2/B1)

Verb + Preposition Example Sentence Notes

How do you account for the

differences between the two financial To “account for” is to explain or
account for reports? provide a reason

accuse (someone) of Dan accused Henry of stealing money To “accuse” is to say that
(something) from the company. someone did something bad

When I moved to a different country, it was hard for me to adapt to the

adapt to new culture.

add (something) to
(something) I added some salt to the soup to give it more flavor.

adjust to After I got divorced, I had to adjust to life as a single man.

admire (someone) for

(something) I admire Joanne for her dedication.

You agree ON a noun: We

My teacher and I agree on the agree on politics. We don’t
agree on (topic) importance of listening practice. agree on religion.

agree to (do She agreed to make cookies for the

something) party. You agree TO a verb

agree with (someone) I agree with you. You agree WITH a person

apologize to
(someone) for (doing
something) Barbara apologized to her boss for being late to the meeting.

apply to (a university
/ program) I applied to the top university in the country – but I didn’t get in.

apply for (a job /

scholarship) Sandra applied for a marketing job at a multinational company.

approve of My parents don’t approve of my new boyfriend.

To argue is to have a verbal

conflict. The noun form is
I argued with my business “argument” and we also say
argue with (someone) partner about how much to invest in “have an argument with
about (something) advertising. (someone)”

arrange for
(someone) (to do
something) We’ll arrange for a babysitter to take care of the kids.

To “arrest” is when the police

take a person into the police
station because they are
arrest (someone) for Pat was arrested for driving without a suspected of some crime. This
(something) license. is often in the passive voice:

214
 “(Someone) was arrested for…”

arrive at (a place) By the time we arrived at the train station, our train had already left.

arrive in (a city,
country) I’ll be arriving in Berlin on Thursday.

ask (someone) about She asked them about their plans for You ask someone ABOUT (a
(someone/topic) the holiday. topic)

ask (someone) for

(something) I asked my classmate for a pencil. You ask someone FOR (a noun)

You ask someone TO (a verb).

ask (someone) to (do The teacher asked me to make copies Never say “I asked to him…”
something) of the worksheet.

base on Our conclusions are based on scientific research.

I’m from Ecuador, so I’m “I’m accustomed to” is the

be accustomed to not accustomed to the cold weather! same as “I’m used to”

be/get acquainted
with At the conference, I got acquainted with various leaders in the industry.

You can also say you’re

“addicted to” interests (like
be addicted to music or sports) – it’s not only
(something) The rock star was addicted to heroin. for drugs and alcohol!

My 5-year-old daughter is afraid of the “Afraid of” is the same as

be afraid of dark. “scared of”

be angry at/with
(someone) for Bob is angry at his son for driving his car without permission – and crashing
(something) it.

Notice that after

be annoyed at/with I’m annoyed at my “annoyed/angry at someone
(someone) for husband for forgetting to wash the for…” the verb is in the –ING
(something) dishes. form.

be anxious about
(something) Everyone in the class is anxious about the final exam.

be associated with There are a number of risks associated with the surgery.

be aware of I’m not aware of any problems.

To be “blessed with” something

is to have received something
We’ve been blessed with good health good / positive, which you’re
be blessed with and stable jobs. thankful for.

be bored with I’m bored with the classes I’m currently taking.

be capable of
(something) This technology is capable of changing the world.

215
 “Cluttered” means there are
be cluttered with The spare room is cluttered with my too many objects in the space,
(something) sister’s half-finished art projects. and it’s disorganized.

be committed to Our organization is committed to improving education in the community.

be composed of The group is composed of doctors and lawyers.

be concerned about I’m concerned about the increasing violence in this neighborhood.

be connected to/with Less education is connected with higher unemployment.

The employees weren’t content with the salary adjustments – they wanted
be content with a bigger raise.

be dedicated to Veronica is very dedicated to her job. She always does her best work.

be devoted to Frank is a great father; he’s so devoted to his family.

be disappointed
in/with (someone/
something) We were disappointed in our son when he failed three classes.

be discouraged by I’m discouraged by the poor results of the marketing campaign.

be done with
(something) I’m done with my work – time to go home.

be dressed in The robbers were dressed in black.

be engaged in The company is engaged in a legal “Engaged in” is like “involved

(something) battle with one of their competitors. in”

If you are “engaged to”

My brother is engaged to a woman he someone, it means you are
be engaged to met while traveling. They’re getting going to get married to that
(someone) married next month. person

be envious of I’m envious of my sister’s success.

be equipped with
(something) This building is equipped with a solar power system.

be excited about We’re excited about our upcoming trip around the world.

be exposed to The children of smokers are exposed to secondhand smoke.

be faced with
(problem / dilemma / My family didn’t have health insurance, and we were faced with enormous
decision) medical bills after my father got sick.

be faithful to He’s faithful to his wife – he wouldn’t get involved with another woman.

be familiar with Sorry, I’m not familiar with that computer program. I’ve only used it once.

be famous for That musician is famous for her poetic song lyrics.

be filled with The stores were filled with shoppers during the week before Christmas.

216
be finished with Don’t throw away the newspaper – I’m not finished with it yet.

To be “fond of” something

means you especially like it,
I’m quite fond of peppermint tea. I you have an emotional
be fond of drink it almost every day. connection to it.

be frightened by My dog was frightened by the fireworks, and hid under the bed.

be frightened of Alex never talks to women because he’s too frightened of rejection.

be grateful to
(someone) for
(something) I’m grateful to Sally for helping me find a new apartment.

The director was found guilty of sexual “Guilty” is the opposite of

be guilty of (a crime) harassment. “innocent”

be happy about
(something) My family wasn’t happy about my decision to drop out of college.

be innocent of
(something) I believe she’s innocent of the charges – she doesn’t seem like a criminal.

be interested in
(something) I’m interested in photography.

If you are “interested in”

someone, it usually means you
be interested in Kevin keeps asking me out to lunch, have romantic interest in that
(someone) but I’m not really interested in him. person

be involved in
(something) Ten politicians were involved in the scandal.

be involved with Sorry, I don’t have any information – I’m not involved with that project.

be jealous of All my colleagues are jealous of me because I have the biggest office.

be known for
(something) Thailand is known for its beautiful beaches.

be limited to This scholarship is limited to applicants from low-income families.

We use “made from” when

there is a transformation in the
be made from process of making the final
(something) Wine is made from grapes. product

We use “made of” when talking

about the material (wood,
be made of (material) This table is made of wood. metal, plastic, etc.)

be married to
(someone) My cousin is married to a dancer.

be opposed to Many of the students are opposed to the new school policy.

217
be patient with The teacher was very patient with me when I couldn’t understand the
(someone) exercise.

be pleased with Are you pleased with the results of the project?

be polite to
(someone) The woman wasn’t very polite to me when I asked her for directions.

be prepared for I didn’t study, so I wasn’t prepared for the test.

I’m proud of my daughter – she graduated with the highest grades in her
be proud of class.

be relevant to Why are you talking about that? It’s not relevant to this discussion.

be responsible for I’m responsible for training new employees.

be satisfied with I wasn’t satisfied with the quality of that product.

be scared of My wife is scared of spiders.

I’m terrified of enclosed spaces – I can “Terrified” means EXTREMELY

be terrified of get panic attacks in an elevator. scared or afraid

be thankful for We’re thankful for everyone who volunteered to help with the program.

be tired of (doing
something) I want to buy a car. I’m tired of taking the bus.

My ex-
boyfriend begged me for another
chance, but I said the relationship was To “beg” is to ask repeatedly
beg for over. with a lot of emotion

believe in Do you believe in magic?

belong to No, that motorcycle’s not mine. It belongs to my brother.

benefit from The local population will benefit from the new hospital.

blame (someone) for

(something) He blamed the other driver for the car accident.

blame (something) on
(someone) She blamed the mistakes in the article on the editors.

I hate talking to Ronald because he’s

always boasting about how much “Boasting” means to talk about
boast about money he makes. something arrogantly

“Borrow” is the opposite of

borrow (something) “lend” (when you borrow, you
from (someone) I borrowed a dress from my sister. receive the object temporarily)

care about (someone

/ something) Our company cares about the environment.

Rachel is caring for her 95-year-old It’s also common to say “taking
care for (someone) grandmother. care of” a person

218
don’t care for I don’t care for Mexican food. It’s too “I don’t care for it” means “I
(something) spicy for me. don’t like it very much.”

“Cater to” means to be

cater to (group of Most of the restaurants in this specialized towards that group
people) area cater to tourists. of people

The restaurant charged us for the In this case, “charge” means to

charge (someone) for water – I thought it was require money for a product or
(something) complimentary! service

In this case, “charge” means

charge (someone) He was charged with assault with a when someone is formally
with (something) deadly weapon. accused of a crime

choose between
(someone/
something) and
(someone/ I’m trying to choose between Australia and New Zealand for my next
something) vacation.

collide with Eight people were injured when a bus collided with a car.

come from The world’s best chocolate comes from Belgium.

comment on A number of people commented on my new haircut.

communicate with
(someone) The company needs to communicate with customers.

compare (someone
/something) to/with
(someone/
something) Organic food is expensive compared to non-organic food.

compete with Pepsi launched a new type of soda to compete with Coca-Cola.

complain about We complained about the slow service in the restaurant.

complain to
(someone) about
(something) We complained to the manager about the slow service in the restaurant.

compliment
(someone) on
(something) George complimented Erica on her ability to speak French.

We’re trying to do too many things; we need to concentrate on one project

concentrate on at a time.

To “confess” is to admit that

The scientist confessed to lying about you did something wrong, or
confess to the results of his research. reveal a secret

confuse (someone/
something) with
(someone/ You’re confusing a laptop with a netbook – they’re two different types of
something) computers.

219
congratulate
(someone) for/on
([doing] something) We congratulated Vanessa on her promotion.

consent to
(something) The director consented to the employees’ proposal.

consist of My CD collection consists of jazz and classic rock music.

contribute to
(something) Stress can contribute to various health problems.

When someone is “convicted,”

convict (someone) of it means they are found guilty
(something) He was convicted of child abuse. of a crime

convince (someone)
to My wife convinced me to take dance lessons.

“Cope with” means to deal with

something and emotionally
Psychologists can help people cope process it – usually a negative
cope with with tragedies. thing

I’m counting on you to finish the work

count on by tomorrow. “Count on” is like “depend on”

cover in/with The mountains are covered with snow.

crash into A drunk driver crashed into a tree near my house.

“Cure of” is used with diseases,

but can also be used with bad
habits – “Working as a
cure (someone) of The antibiotics cured her of the journalist cured me of my
(something) infection. tendency to procrastinate.”

deal with How do you deal with an annoying co-worker?

When I needed money, I considered If you “decide against”

selling my car, but in the end I decided something, you decide NOT to
decide against against it. do it

decide between
(someone/
something) and
(someone/ I’m trying to decide between buying a motorcycle and saving up the money
something) for a car.

decide on The government is going to decide on the proposed new law next week.

dedicate (something) I’d like to dedicate this performance to my mother, who has always helped
to (someone) and inspired me.

Avoid the common error of

I’ll be there in 20-30 saying “depend in” or “depend
depend on minutes, depending on the traffic. of” – it’s always “depend on”!

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derive (something)
from (something) Many medicines are derived from natural products like plants.

deter (someone) from Difficulties with organic chemistry class deterred me from becoming a
(something) doctor.

differ from New Year’s traditions differ from country to country.

disagree with
(someone /
something) I disagree with the decision to close down the program.

disapprove of Religious groups disapprove of that TV show; they say it’s offensive.

discourage (someone)
from (something) They discouraged us from visiting Paris, saying it was extremely expensive.

discriminate against He’s racist – he discriminates against black and Hispanic people.

discuss (something)
with (someone) We need to discuss these problems with the boss.

distinguish between
(someone/
something) and
(someone/ Cashiers need to know how to distinguish between real and counterfeit
something) bills.

distract (someone)
from (something) The loud music distracted me from my work.

If talking about dreams (hopes)

for the future, you can say
“dream about” or “dream of.”
If talking about a dream you
I dream about becoming a famous had when you were sleeping,
dream about/of singer someday. use only “dream about”

elaborate on
(something) Could you elaborate on that last point? I’d like to know more.

escape from (a place) Three prisoners escaped from the jail last night.

exchange (something)
for (something) I exchanged the small shirt for a medium.

exclude (someone)
from (something) He excluded them from the meeting.

excuse (someone) for

(something) Please excuse me for interrupting.

“Expel” means someone was

forced to leave a group, school,
expel (someone) from He was expelled from university for or company – usually because
(a place) using drugs. they did something bad

experiment on Scientists are experimenting on monkeys to develop new medicines.

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explain (something) The doctor explained the Never say “He explained me
to (someone) procedure to me in detail. the procedure.”

feel about How do you feel about the new company policy?

“I don’t feel like doing it”

I don’t feel like going out to a means “I don’t want to do it;
nightclub. I’d rather relax at home I’m not in the mood for doing
feel like tonight. it”

My kids are fighting about whose turn You “fight about” the topic of
fight about it is to use the computer. the conflict

You “fight against” your

This organization is fighting opponent (when it’s a person
fight against against discrimination and injustice. or an idea/thing/etc.)

You “fight for” something you

After the accident, he was fighting approve of, or you want to
fight for for his life. have

The protestors are fighting with the You “fight with” your opponent
fight with police. (only when it’s a person)

forget about Oh no! I forgot about the meeting –

(something) now I’m going to be late. You “forget about” a noun

forget to (do
something) I’m cold – I forgot to bring my jacket. You “forget to” a verb

forgive (someone) for

(something) I forgave him for taking my camera without asking permission.

“Gaze” means to look at

She sat on the beach, gazing at the something for a long time and
gaze at ocean. in a contemplative way

get back from (a I just got back from the gym – I need “Get back from” is the same as
place) to take a shower “return from”

I got rid of some old clothes that I “Get rid of” means to throw
get rid of don’t wear anymore. away or give away

I’m a relaxed person, so it was hard for me to get used to the fast pace of
get used to New York City.

give (something) to You can also say “I gave Pamela

(someone) I gave the keys to Pamela. the keys.”

Rita glared at her husband when he

started chatting with a beautiful “Glare” means to look at
glare at woman at the club. someone/something angrily

graduate from (a
place) He graduated from Harvard University in 1986.

He’s grieving for his mother, who died “Grieve” means to be sad
grieve for just a few days ago. about a loss – usually a death

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 My husband is grumbling about how
grumble about early we need to get up to catch our 6
(something) AM flight. “Grumble” is like “complain”

happen to What happened to your car? Did you get in an accident?

“Harp on” means to emphasize

The salesman was harping on all the something strongly (and rather
harp on wonderful benefits of the product. annoyingly)

“Hear about” is used for

Did you hear about the bank robbery knowing about the details of a
hear about that happened last night? situation

My cousin is traveling and doesn’t have much internet access, so I

hear from (someone) haven’t heard from her lately.

“Hear of” is used for hearing

just a mention of something
hear of I’ve never heard of that movie. (no details)

help (someone) with

(something) She really helped me with the problem.

hide (something)
from (someone) I hid the cookies from my kids so they wouldn’t eat them before dinner.

“Hinge on” is like “depend on”

– it means teamwork and
The success of this project hinges collaboration are ESSENTIAL to
hinge on on teamwork and collaboration. the success

hope for (noun) I’m hoping for good weather this weekend. My husband and I are hoping
hope to (verb) to go camping.

I thought the company website was great, but my boss insisted

insist on on redesigning it.

insure against My car is insured against theft.

“Interfere in” means to get

interfere in Don’t interfere in the situation if you involved in something that you
(something) don’t know all the facts. shouldn’t

“Interfere with” means to add

an obstacle that delays or
interfere with The flight delay interfered with our prevents something from
(something) travel plans. happening

introduce (someone/
something) to
(someone/
something) I’d like to introduce you to a friend of mine from college.

invest in The city is investing thousands of dollars in improving public transportation.

invite (someone) to She invited me to her birthday party.

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 “Joke about” is to talk about it
Chris is always joking about how bad with humor, in a
joke about he is at sports. funny/comedic way

“Jot down” is the same as

I jotted down a few notes during the “write down” – jot means “to
jot down (something) presentation write quickly”

“Keep someone from doing

keep (someone/ A something” is the same as
something) from password keeps people from accessing “prevent someone from doing
(doing something) your account. something”

know about He knows a lot about computers.

Our travel disaster was annoying at

the time, but we laughed about it
laugh about later. You “laugh about” a situation

You typically “laugh at” a

person (although sometimes
“laugh at” is used for a
When I said something stupid, situation – “I laughed at her
laugh at everyone laughed at me. reaction to the news.”

learn about I like learning about other cultures.

“Lend” is the opposite of

“borrow.” When you lend
lend (something) to I lent a book to my friend six months something, you give it to
(someone) ago, and he hasn’t given it back yet. someone else temporarily

listen to I usually listen to music on my mp3 player while I exercise.

I long for a job in which I have more To “long for” something means
long for flexible hours! you REALLY want something

look at I looked at the pictures from Jason’s vacation.

“Look forward to” means you

I’m looking forward to having lunch are happy or excited for
look forward to with you next week. something in the future.

matter to (someone) We can take the 8 AM or the 11 AM train – it doesn’t matter to me.

meet with (someone) I met with the department manager to discuss the project.

mistake (someone/
something) for
(someone/ My sister looks like a famous actress, so people always mistake her for a
something) celebrity.

If you “object to” something, it

I object to the idea that stay-at-home means you oppose it or
object to moms are lazy. They work really hard! strongly disagree with it

participate in
(something) Representatives from 15 countries will participate in the conference.

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pay for I paid $100 for this perfume.

“Plan on” is followed by the -

plan on We plan on attending the party. ING form of the verb

praise (someone) for

(something) He praised me for my creative solution to the problem.

pray for I’m praying for you to feel better soon.

prefer (something) to
(something) I prefer swimming to biking.

prepare for The sports team is preparing for the tournament next month.

present (someone)
with (something) The company presented Randy with an award for excellent service.

prevent (someone/
something) from
(doing something) Computer problems prevented me from finishing my work yesterday.

prohibit (someone)
from (doing
something) Employees are prohibited from smoking inside the office.

protect (someone)
from (something) Wearing a bicycle helmet can protect you from serious head injuries.

provide (someone)
with (something) We provided all the children with computers.

punish (someone) for I punished my teenage daughter for going to a party without my
(something) permission.

quarrel with
(someone) We quarreled with the hotel
about/over receptionist about the extra charges “Quarrel” is the same as
(something) on our bill. “argue” (have a verbal conflict)

Environmental groups are reacting to the city’s plans to build a new

react to shopping center in the middle of the park.

recover from She stayed home from work because she’s still recovering
(something) from pneumonia.

refer to (something) Please refer to the diagram on page 15.

“Related to” is also used for

family members – “I’m related
The website has information on to a famous actor. He’s my
related to various topics related to pregnancy. cousin.”

You can’t rely on other people to

rely on make you happy. “Rely on” is like “depend on”

remind (someone) of
(something) You remind me of my sister – you have a similar personality.

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remind (someone) to I reminded my husband to buy some milk at the store on the way home
(do something) from work.

reply to I’ll reply to your e-mail later today.

rescue (someone)
from (something) The coast guard rescued the fisherman from the sinking boat.

respond to The film director responded to the criticisms about his latest movie.

The advertising campaign resulted in hundreds of new customers for the

result in (something) company.

save (someone) from

(something) The fireman saved the child from the burning building.

To “scold” is to reprimand or
scold (someone) for The teacher scolded the criticize someone for doing
([doing] something) student for coming to class late. something wrong

I’m searching for a two-bedroom You can use “searching for” or

search for apartment in the city center. “looking for”

separate (something)
from (something) I separated last year’s documents from this year’s documents.

share (something)
with (someone) I shared the food with my brother.

To “shout” is to yell, to speak

My mother shouted at me when I left very loudly. You can also say
shout at a big mess in the kitchen. “yell at”

show (something) to
(someone) I showed my new cell phone to all my friends.

smile at (someone) She smiled at me.

Both “to” and “with” can be

used after “speak,” but “with”
implies more of a two-way
speak to/with conversation. If the
(someone) about conversation is only one way,
(someone / I spoke with my son’s use “to” – “The president spoke
something) teacher about his behavior in school. to an audience of 5,000.”

specialize in
(something) I’m a biologist. I specialize in the study of tropical plants.

spend (money/time) I spent $300 on this backpack because I wanted one that was really high-
on quality.

stand for NATO stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

“Stare” means to look at

When I dyed my hair bright green, a something intensely for a long
stare at lot of children stared at me. time

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 The current health crisis stems “Stem from” is like “originate
stem from from lack of nutritional education. in”

stop (someone) from

(doing something) I stopped the child from playing with the scissors.

subject (someone) to I was subjected to verbal abuse from my boss in my previous job – that’s
(something) why I quit.

subscribe to I don’t subscribe to any magazines – I just read them online.

substitute
(something) for
(something) You can substitute chicken for beef in this recipe.

succeed in (doing
something) She succeeded in running a marathon in under 4 hours.

suffer from My aunt suffers from arthritis.

suspect (someone) of
(something) He is suspected of planning a terrorist attack.

If you “take advantage of”

someone, it has a negative
connotation – you are using
that person for your own
benefit. If you “take advantage
of” a situation, it can be
take advantage of With low interest rates, many negative, but it can also be
(someone/ people took advantage of the neutral – as in the example
something/ situation) opportunity to buy a house. sentence.

take care of I’m taking care of my neighbors’ dog while they’re traveling this weekend.

talk to/with
(someone) about I need to talk with you about plans for
(topic) next year. Similar to “speak to/with”

tell (someone) about

(something) Caroline told us about her trip to South Africa.

thank (someone) for

(something) Thank you for helping me with my homework.

think about I’m thinking about taking piano lessons.

think of He thought of a great way to increase sales.

translate (something)
into (a language) We need to translate this document into Italian.

travel to (somewhere) We’re traveling to Moscow by train.

trust (someone) with

(something) I trust her with my car – she’s a careful driver.

turn into The city is going to turn this old “Turn into” means to transform

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 church into a museum.

use (something) for (-

ING) / to (infinitive) I use vitamins to give me more energy.

That senator voted against a law

proposing stricter measures for gun “Vote against” means you
vote against control. oppose it, you vote NO

I’m going to vote for Janet for “Vote for” means you support
vote for president. it, you vote YES

If you “vouch for”

someone/something, it means
vouch for (someone / I can vouch for him – he’s an honest you recommend it because you
something) and dependable guy. have experience with it

wait for I can’t leave yet because I’m waiting for my wife to finish putting on her
(someone/something) makeup.

warn about They warned us about the poisonous snakes in the forest.

waste (money/time)
on I wasted $10 on a flashlight that didn’t even work.

work for (a company /

person) I work for a car dealership.

work on (a project /
task) We’re working on a new project.

worry about My grandmother always worries about my safety.

write about The journalist wrote about the election.

write to (someone) Make sure to write to your grandparents and thank them for the gift.

The secretaries were yapping

about the newest episode of the TV To “yap” is to talk or chat in an
yap about show. annoying way

“Yearn for” is like “long for” – it

means you really want
The poor children are yearning for a something, with a lot of
yearn for better life. emotion

5- Useful Modifiers (A1/A2)

Structure Example
The comparative+ the comparative The bigger, the better.
(adj/adv) The earlier you start the sooner you’ll finish.
Than/as + auxiliary I earn less than he does.
Adverb+ than/as+ auxiliary He knows more than I did at his age.
She ran faster than he did.
I don’t speak French as well as she does.
Than/as + I/we/you+ auxiliaries He has more time than I (have). He has more time than me.

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Than/as+ he/she/it/they+ verb You are stronger than he/she is or than they are.
You are stronger than him/her/them.
Of+ object in adj+infinitive It was stupid of him to leave. Other common adjectives:
brave, kind, clever, foolish, generous, nice, good, idiotic,
sensible, silly etc.
Far/near How far is it from Australia to New Zealand?
Is the station far away?
She doesn't live far from here.
[before noun] The children ran to the far side/corner of the
room.
Is there a train station near here?
I'd like to sit near a window, please.
Don't come too near me - you might catch my cold.
The hotel is near the airport.
A long way (away) Paris is a long way away.
It is a long way to paris.
Distant- remote/neighbouring- She could hear the distant sound of fireworks exploding.
nearby a remote mountain village.
She married a man from the neighbouring village.
If there's a cafe nearby, we could stop for a snack.
With superlative adverbs we do not He likes tennis best.
need any special phrase Which evening would suit you best for the party?
He couldn't decide which one he liked best.
The Grand Canyon is best seen at sunset when it seems to
change colour.
Ever. Chiefly used in interrogative Is he ever on time?
and in mid-position Do you ever drive to work?
Has he ever passed an exam?
Ever+negative verb I haven’t ever driven a BMW
Ever after if or comparisons That was the best holiday I have ever had.
If I ever go to Paris
Even+ comparative adj/adv I find some of his habits rather unpleasant, disgusting even.
Even+noun/pronoun/verb She has always been very kind to me, even generous on
occasion.
The next 36 hours will be even colder with snow showers
becoming more widespread.
Any devaluation of sterling would make it even more difficult
to keep inflation low.
I don't even know where it is.
Everyone I know likes the smell of bacon - even Mike does
and he's a vegetarian.
Far/much+ too adj/a comparative You are far too fat to wear those pants.
He is much taller than you.
Much: (something) of good quality He's not much to look at, but he has a wonderful personality.
I've never been much of a dancer.
There's not/nothing much on TV tonight.
Rather as intensifier I rather like Tom.
Ann rather enjoys queueing.
She said it was rather a good programme.
Neither as subject Two buses came. Niether was the one I wanted.
Neither + of+ the+ plural noun Neither o the boys went. Or neither of them went.
Neither + Neither of my parents likes my boyfriend.
of+us/you/them/these/those/mine/ Neither one of us is particularly interested in gardening.
yours etc. Chris wasn't at the meeting and neither was her assistant.
Negative verb+ either= affirmitive I haven’t read either of them= I have read neither of them.
verb+ neither
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Affirmitive verb+ neither… nor He neither wrote nor phoned=he didn’t either write or
Negative verb+ either…or phone.
I am neither a liberal nor a conservative= I am not either a
liberal or a conservative.
Both/all of us/you/them Both of us work.
All of it We both work.
as subject: we/you/they/ both/all He saw us both
it all
as object: us/you/them both
us/you/them/it all

6- What structures (A1)

Structure Example
What+ be+ subject+ for What is the red car for?
What+ be+ subject+ like What was the beach like?
What+ be+ subject+ look like What does he look like?
What+ be+ he/she What is she? She is a teacher.

7- Prepositions (A1/A2)

prepositions Example/meaning
At At 4.30
At midnight
At noon
At dawn
At christmas
At Easter
At night
on On Monday
On 4 June
On Christmas day
On Friday evening
On the morning of 6 December
On time At the time arranged
On arriving/leaving/hearing… When he arrives/leaves/hears
In In five minutes
In 1984
In the 19th century
In the morning/evening/afternoon
In time (for) Not late (for).
Make sure you are in time for the train
Until, by, up to We have to be at home until 2:30. (We must not leave home
before 2:30) and
We use until (or informally till) to say We have to be at home by 2:30. (We must arrive home
that something continued or will either before or at 2:30).
continue to a particular time, and by
to say that something happened or
will happen either before a
particular time or at that time at the
latest.

In informal contexts we can use up

to or up till instead of until. We I’ve just bought a tablet computer. I’ve always used a laptop
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commonly use up to / till with now up to now. (or … up till now …).
and with then.

We can use until now to talk about a Supermarkets say that until now there has been little
situation that will not continue consumer interest in buying organic produce. (The situation
beyond now. has changed or is going to change).

Note, however, that we don’t use It was certainly the best match of the football season so far.
until now for a situation that will or When the contract is signed it will be the building company’s
may continue into the future. biggest order to date.
Instead we can use so far or, in
formal contexts, to date.
By At or earlier than.
Be at station by 6, because your train leaves at 6.15.
She wants the job finished by the end of May.
Over/During Weather conditions have been improving over / during the
past few days.
We can use over or during when we I hit my head and can’t remember anything that happened
talk about something that goes on over / during the next hour or so.
for a length of time within a period
of time, either for some of that She sneezed during the performance. (= once or a few times;
period or for the whole of it. not … over the performance.)
However, if we talk about a short During a pause in the conversation, she left the room. (not
event that happens within a period Over a pause …).
of time, we prefer during.
Throughout We had enough firewood to keep us warm throughout the
winter. (or … warm during / through the winter.)
We can use throughout to
emphasise that something happens
over the whole of a period of time.
Above, over; below, under; beneath, during something, or while doing something:
underneath I was in Seattle over the summer.
Shall we discuss it over lunch/over a drink?
We can use either above or over They took/spent an hour over lunch.
when we say that one thing is at a Above / Over the door was a sign saying, ‘Mind your head’.
higher level than another.
They lived in a village in the mountains above the lake. (not
However, we prefer above, when directly over) and
one thing is not directly over the The bird hovered just a few metres above / over the lake.
other. (directly over)

We use over, not above, when She put a quilt over the bed.
something covers something else I saw the helicopter fl y out over the water, near the fi shing
and touches it, and usually when we boat.
are talking about horizontal
movement at a higher level than
something.
It’s hard to believe that there is a railway line below / under
Below is the opposite of above; the building. (at a lower level)
under is the opposite of over. The Her head was below the level of the table so nobody noticed
differences in the uses of below and her. (not directly under)
under are similar to those between She hid the presents under a blanket. (the blanket covers and
above and over. touches the presents)
Zara ran under the bridge. (horizontal movement at a lower
We can use underneath as an level)
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alternative to under as a preposition
of place. Beneath is sometimes
used as a more formal alternative to
under or below.
Across/Over Antonio lives in the house across / over the road from ours.
We can use across or over to talk Once she was across / over the border, she knew she would
about a position on the other side be safe.
of, or moving to the other side of a
road, bridge, border, river, etc.

We use over rather than across He jumped over the fence into the garden. and
when we talk about reaching the He jumped across the stream.
other side of something that is high,
or higher than it is wide.

When we are talking about He suddenly saw Eva across the room.
something we think of as a fl at The programme was broadcast across Canada.
surface, or an area such as a country
or sea, we prefer across rather than
over

We prefer all over rather than all The disease has now spread all over the world. (or … (right)
across to mean ‘to or in many across the world.)
different parts of an area’. However,
we commonly use across, or right
across for emphasis
Along, through
They walked along the footpath until they came to a small
When we talk about following a line bridge.
of some kind (a road, a river, etc.),
we use along

We use through to emphasise that

we are talking about movement in a He pushed his way through the crowd of people to get to
three dimensional space, with things her.
all around, rather than a two
dimensional space, a fl at surface or
area She walked through the forest to get to her grandmother’s
house. and
Through often suggests movement She spent a lot of her free time walking in the forest.
from one side or end of the space to
the other.
Between and among She held the diamond between her thumb and forefi nger.
Zimbabwe is situated between Zambia to the north,
As prepositions of place we use Mozambique to the east, Botswana to the west, and South
between with two or more people Africa to the south.
or things that we see as individual or He stood among all his friends at the party and felt very
separate, and we use among when happy.
we see the people or things as part She eventually found her passport among the clothes in the
of a group or mass. Among is only drawer.
used with three or more people or Relax, you're amongst friends.
things.

amongst is sometimes used instead

of among, but in more literary The money is to be divided between / among the towns in
contexts. the area.

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 The prize will be shared between / among the fi rst six fi
Between and among are not only nishers in the race.
used as prepositions of place. For
example, we can use either to talk
about something divided or shared
between people.
Talking about exceptions
The price of the holiday includes all meals except (for) lunch.
We use except (for) to introduce the Everyone seemed to have been invited except (for) Mrs
only thing(s) or person / people that Woodford and me.
a statement does not include. I had no money to give him except (for) the few coins in my
pocket.

We use except, not except for, with I rarely need to go into the city centre except to do some
to-infinitives, and that-clauses. shopping.
They look just like the real thing, except that they’re made of
plastic.

We use except (for) to mean that don’t enjoy watching any sports except (for) cricket. (= I
something is not included in a enjoy only cricket) and
particular statement, but we use Besides cricket, I enjoy watching football and basketball. (= I
besides to mean ‘as well as’ or ‘in enjoy three sports)
addition to’. I haven’t read anything by her, except (for) one of her short
stories. and
Besides her novels and poems, she published a number of
short stories.

Apart from can be used with the I don’t enjoy watching any sports apart from cricket. (=
same meanings as both except (for) except for)
and besides. Apart from cricket, I enjoy watching football and basketball.
(= besides; as well as)

We can use but with a similar After the operation he could see nothing but / except (for) /
meaning to except (for), particularly apart from vague shadows.
after negative words such as no, There was no way out but / except / apart from upwards,
nobody, and nothing. towards the light.

But for has a different meaning from The country would now be self-sufficient in food but for the
except for. We use it to say what drought last year. (= if there hadn’t been the drought …)
would or might have happened if But for the leg injury he suffered last year, he would probably
the thing introduced by but for had have been picked for the national team by now. (= if he
not happened. It means: if it were hadn’t injured his leg …)
not for. the game could be over but for you

However, some people use except I’d have got there on time except for the taxi being late. (or
for in the same way as but for, … but for the taxi being late.)
particularly in informal spoken Except for the problems with my computer, I would have got
English. the book finished weeks ago. (or But for the problems with
my computer …)

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Note that we can use excepted, It has been, 1984 excepted / apart / aside, the hottest July
apart or aside after mentioning a for the last 100 years.
person or thing to say that they are
not included in the statement we
make.
ahead of He studies all the time, because he wants to stay ahead of his
classmates.
1. In a position of advantage or The troop leader walked a few feet ahead of the boys.
power over. 2. In front of; before. 3. Betty finished her test ahead of the others.
Earlier than; previous to, before.

8- Prepositions after verbs (A2/B1)

About For Of On with examples

Agree * * * Many people are arguing for a big tax cut.
We agreed on a time to meet. (usually there has
been previous discussion or disagreement.)
Once the government agreed to the scheme it went
ahead without delay.
Adam thinks we should accept the offer, and I
agree with him.
I agree with letting children choose the clothes they
wear. (or I agree about / on …)
Stefan’s story agreed with that of his son.
Argue * * * I used to argue / talk with Pedro for hours.
Ask * * * He finished the drink quickly and asked for another.
I have a favour to ask of you and your sister.
Care * * He doesn’t seem to care about the effect a poor
diet has on him.
Jo cared for her disabled mother until her death
last year. (or Jo took care of …)
I don’t care for the theatre much.
Would you care for a cup of coffee?
Know * * The whole country knew of Churchill’s love of
cigars. (or less formally … knew about …)
Learn * * They began to learn about nutrition when they
were at primary school.
I have just learnt of the death of Dr Ramirez. (or
less formally … learnt about …)

Talk * * * * Mira went recently to Laos and can talk of nothing

else. (or less formally … talk about …)
I was asked to talk on my research. (or … to talk
about …)
I used to argue / talk with Pedro for hours.

9- Prepositions after nouns (A2)

Many nouns are followed by Are you satisfied with the way that the business is being run? and
the same prepositions as their The shareholders have expressed satisfaction with the way the
related adjective or verb business is being run.
A few nouns are followed by They became fond of each other at school. and
different prepositions. Their fondness for each other grew and many years later they
married.

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 proud of / pride in,
ashamed of / shame about / at
Some nouns take a preposition I respect Louis enormously. and
where their related verb does I have enormous respect for Louis.
not.
admiration for, ban on, discussion about / on, improvement in,
influence on, interview with, lack of, respect for
many other nouns are He described the conductor as moving his arms like a windmill. and
commonly followed by of His description of the conductor was very funny.
phrases which indicate
possession, a property, or
classify the noun by describing
what it relates to.
Some nouns can be followed by He’s got into the habit of biting his nails when he’s nervous.
of + -ing but not usually to-
infinitive cost, effect, fear, likelihood, possibility, probability, problem,
prospect, risk, sign
Some nouns can be followed by His unhappy childhood explains his reluctance to talk about his
a to-infinitive but not usually of parents.
+ -ing.

Note that many of these nouns ability, attempt, concern, decision, desire, determination, failure,
can also be used with other inability, permission, proposal, reason, refusal, (un)willingness
prepositions + ing (e.g. attempt
at -ing, reason for -ing, etc.).
Some nouns can sometimes be Do staff have the opportunity of taking unpaid leave? (or … the
followed either by of + -ing or a opportunity to take …)
to-infinitive with a similar The aim of providing clean drinking water has been achieved. (or
meaning, usually after the The aim to provide …)
some nouns, such as chance, What’s the chance of getting five heads when you toss a coin five
sense and way, have more than times? (= likelihood; not … chance to get …) and
one meaning and are followed Will you get the chance to visit Miki in Japan? (= opportunity; not
either by of + -ing or a to- … of visiting …)
infinitive depending on which He didn’t have the sense to move away from the puddle of water
meaning is used. as the bus went past. (= good judgement; not … sense of moving
…) and
Everyone was very friendly and she had a sense of belonging
within a few days of moving to her new school. (= feeling; not …
sense to belong …)
I’ve got a new way to cook rice. (= method; or … way of cooking …)
and
She has a really funny way of speaking. (= manner; not … way to
speak)
Note also that of + -ing usually I have no intention of lending Dan any more money. (not … no
follows no / every / the sole / intention to lend …) and
the slightest / (not) any / with He announced his intention to stand in the election. (or …
the + intention, but that we can intention of standing …)
use either of + -ing or a to-
infinitive in most other cases.

10- Miscellaneous (A1/A2)

Structure Example
Onself/ by onself I did it myself (it was me who did it).
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 I did it by myself (I did it alone, without help).
Arrive at/in We arrive in a country or city; at or in a village; at any other
places:
We arrive in Spain/in Madrid.
I arrived at the airport/at my hotel/at the bridge.
It was dark by the time we arrived at the station.
We arrived in Prague later that day.
On arrival at the police station, they were taken to an
interview room.
microcomputers arrived at the start of the 1970s.
they arrived at the same conclusion.

Get to We get to any type of place

He got to Berlin/to the airport at 10.30
Travell by, on, via We travel by sea/air, by bus/car etc.
By bicycle or on a bicycle
On foot
On horseback
Via: The London-Addis flight goes via Rome.
Get/go/return home He got home
Get on/off Large vehicles like train and bus but also horse and bike.

Get into/out of Cars and buildings.

Get in/out We use in/out without a noun: he got in and drove away
But into and out of need nouns
Go on to For giving directions: go straight on to the end of this road
Onto We use onto for movement when there is a change in level:
People climbed onto their roofs to escape the floods.
I slipped as I stepped onto the platform.
The sheep were loaded onto trucks.
I've been having problems loading this software onto my
computer.
opposite We're in the building opposite the government offices.
Put a tick opposite (= next to) the answer that you think is
correct.
Who owns that shop opposite (= on the other side of the
road)?
Tom sat opposite Mary at the table.
Had better do something For unreal past and giving advice.
You'd better get moving if you want to catch your train.
You’d better go home at once.
I had better leave now, or I'll be late.

Woul/used to We can use either used to or would for a past routine:

At weekends we would cycle to the beach.
He used to cycle to the beach.
We would take our lunch with us.

Be used to= be accustomed to Be used to+noun/pronoun/gerund:

I am used to queues/stannding in queues.
I am not accustomed to having my word questioned.

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Bibliography
Thomson, A.J., Martinet A. V., Oxford Pocket English Grammar, 2000, Oxford university press.
Swan, Michael., Oxford Pocket Basic English Usage, 1992, Oxford university press.
Swan, Michael., Oxford Practical English Usage, 2017, Oxford university press.
Greenbaum, Sidney., The Oxford Reference Grammar, 2000,Oxford university press.
Betty . Azar., Hagen A Stacy., Understanding and Using English Grammar, fourth edition,
2009, Pearson.
Oshima, Alice, Hongue, Ann., Longman Academic Writing Series, Essays, 2014, Pearson.
Meyers, Alan., Longman Academic Writing Series, Essays to Research Papers, 2014, Pearson.
Moore, Malcolm, Sentence Improvement, 1971, Houfton Miffin Company.
Hewings, Martin, Advanced Grammar in Use, 2013, Cambridge.

Websites:
https://www.guidetogrammar.org/grammar/
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/
http://random-idea-english.blogspot.com/p/contents.html
https://test-english.com/
www.wallstreetenglish.com/exercises
www.grammarly.com
www.createandgo.com

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