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28 INTO THE DEEP

Creepy sea life found
in the ocean depths
HOWITWORKSMAG

38 ROCK REUSED
How Earth recycles the
ground you walk on
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58 SEA SEARCHER
How to prospect for
Monsters oil on the seafloor
of the deep
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or a long time, scientists believed that life
PAGE 24 FOR
F couldn’t exist in the deep sea. It’s a cold
place subject to incredible pressures, but
crucially, it was considered too dark for
GREAT DEALS

photosynthesising life at the bottom of the food

chain to derive any energy from the Sun. But when
WHAT WE’RE ANTICIPATING
‘black smokers’, a type of hydrothermal
vent, were discovered on the floor of the
HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

Pacific Ocean in 1979, it turned our

understanding of life on Earth on its
head. The vents were surrounded by
strange flora and fauna entirely
dependant on the energy released NIKOLE SCOTT AILSA DUNCAN
PRODUCTION EDITOR STAFF WRITER STAFF WRITER SENIOR ART EDITOR
in the hot soup of minerals being READING
RIGHT NOW
belched into the water. Further
exploration of these midnight CAN’T
WAIT!

depths around the world has LOOKING

uncovered more alien-looking

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species, some of them more COOL

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nightmarish than others. Read

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Ben Biggs SPACE TEN AMAZING MONSTERS OF HOW TO DIG FOR DEADLY ASTEROID HOW COAL
EDITOR RADIATION EARTH FACTS THE DEEP TREASURE CLOSE CALLS IS MINED
© Alamy

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3
 INSIDE
Issue 202

SPECIAL TRANSPORT
26 Monsters of the deep
Dive deep below the ocean’s
surface to discover fearsome creatures
58 Seeking oil at sea
This prospecting vessel
sails while using sound to track down 34
that lurk in the darkness precious underwater resources

ENVIRONMENT 60 How firefighting

aeroplanes work

34 44
Aerial firefighters are essential
Ten amazing
machines used to cover and contain
Earth facts
rapid-spreading wildfires
From its active core to its explosive
surface, the incredible discoveries
about the past, present and future SCIENCE
of the rock we call home

TECHNOLOGY 62 Nature’s most

toxic rocks
What makes these sparkling crystalline

40 How coal is mined minerals so hazardous to human life?

68
Extracting the fossilised
How wine is made
remains of prehistoric animals can be
From grape to glass, the
a dangerous business – for people
ancient process of making one of the
and the environment
world’s most popular beverages

44 Dive into the world’s

deepest pool
The Blue Abyss pool will train scientists
70 What is jaundice?
This condition, common in
newborn babies, can turn skin and
and astronauts for deep-water diving
eyes a shade of yellow
and space environments

46 How are TV masts

constructed?
SPACE
These tall and spindly structures
send signals to connect you with daily
digital communications
72 Deadly asteroid
close calls
Asteroid 2024 YR4 isn’t the threat it
REGULARS

06 Global eye

48
was once thought to be, but scientists Science and tech news
Home gadgets
are still concerned about the possibility from around the world
explained
of asteroid collisions in general
We often take the technology that 22 Wish list
keeps our homes running for granted,
but here’s how they actually work 76 Space radiation
Space is full of lethal energies
we’re not exposed to on Earth. How can
Handy outdoor gadgets

84 Braindump
Your questions answered
HISTORY astronauts protect themselves from it?

78
90 Book reviews

50
Is our universe
How to dig
the only one? 92 Brain gym
for treasure
We look at the evidence that there’s Give your brain a workout
There’s more to a detectorist’s hobby
more than one cosmos out there with our puzzle pages
than picking up a metal detector and
sweeping a field 94 How to…

56
Make a water filter
Pet mummies
unwrapped 96 Letters
It’s not just people who were Have your say
mummified in ancient Egypt – animals
were too. But why was this done?
98 Fast facts 76

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5
6
 Kidney
clean-up
Inside our kidneys, there are hundreds
of thousands of tiny bundles of blood
vessels called glomeruli, seen here under
scanning electron microscopy. Their role
in the human body is essential for waste
removal. As microscopic cleaning crews,
glomeruli are tasked with filtering
the blood for waste products and
maintaining the circulation of blood
cells and vital proteins
around the body.

© Alamy

7
8
 Building
the body of Christ
In Encantado, Brazil, stands the world’s
largest statue of Jesus. Called Christ the
Protector, construction of the 43-metre
monument began in 2019 and concluded
in 2022. In this image, taken in April 2021,
you can see the steel beams and concrete
used to support its 1,700-tonne weight
and 39-metre-wide arm span. Christ
the Protector overlooks Rio Grande
do Sul on a hilltop 436 metres
above sea level.

© Getty

9
10
 Teddy
bear fight
It’s difficult to believe that these brown
bear siblings will grow into ferocious,
600-kilogram predators. Playfighting is
an important aspect of development for
these cubs. Along with relieving stress
and even building resistance to future
stresses, playfighting also helps them
develop social skills. Over time, it will
improve their strength and hunting
skills, which are vital for
their survival.

© Shutterstock

11
12
 Peering
behind the veil
Drifting in the void of space around 2,400
light years away is an ethereal cloud of
stardust called the Veil Nebula. Hubble
captured this view of the gossamer-like
nebula using data from its Wide Field
Camera 3 in 2021. This instrument uses
different filters to observe emissions of
hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen atoms
released by the supernova event that
created the Veil Nebula around
10,000 years ago.

© ESA/Hubble & NASA, R. Sankrit

13
 GLOBAL EYE
Showcasing the incredible world we live in Shatter cones
resulting from
are chunks of
meteorite impa
rock
The shatter co cts.
nes pictured
here are dolom
ite cones
in the US, not Au
stralia

Did
you know?
Around 44 tonnes
of meteorite
material falls to
Earth daily

PLANET EARTH

3.47-billion-year-old meteorite
crater discovered in Australia WORDS SASCHA PARE

cientists in Australia have formation called the East Pilbara Terrane, planet continuously recycles rock from the

S discovered the world’s oldest

known meteorite impact crater,
thanks to pristine structures
which scientists already knew dates back
to more than 3 billion years ago. The cones
were ‘exceptionally preserved’, according
crust into the mantle, erasing most crash
sites. Erosion and weathering also degrade
rocks sitting at the surface, meaning that
created by the blast in the rock. Hidden to the new study, providing unequivocal Earth’s early impact record is largely lost.
away in the country’s outback, the crater is evidence of an epic meteorite crash around Nevertheless, researchers suspect that
a whopping 3.47 billion years old. “Before our the dawn of life on Earth. Earth was regularly pummelled by meteorites
discovery, the oldest impact crater was 2.2 The impact likely rippled across the planet, in its first billion years of existence due to
billion years old, so this is by far the oldest opening a crater that may have measured scars on the Moon, which does not have
known crater ever found on Earth,” said Tim up to 62 miles across, although more work is plate tectonics. The Moon counts millions
Johnson, a professor in the School of Earth needed to confirm the size. The shatter cones of impact craters and 40 that are more
and Planetary Sciences at Curtin University revealed that the meteorite was travelling than 62 miles across, suggesting planets
in Australia. roughly 22,400 miles per hour when it hit the in the early Solar System also underwent
The crater is located in Western Australia’s ground. As well as being a destructive force, heavy bombardment.
Pilbara region, which is home to some of the impact may have helped spark life by The new discovery hints that some
Earth’s oldest rocks. Johnson and his creating the physical and chemical conditions information about Earth’s early history
colleagues identified the crater thanks to required. “Uncovering this impact and finding has survived. Not only does this offer new
cone-shaped chunks of rock known as more from the same time period could explain avenues to explore how life began on Earth,
‘shatter cones’, which form when the shock a lot about how life may have got started, as it could also shift geologists’ perspectives
waves from a meteorite impact propagate impact craters created environments friendly on the formation of Earth’s crust. “The
downward. The extreme pressure caused by to microbial life, such as hot water pools,” tremendous amount of energy from this
a meteorite collision fractures the rock below said Chris Kirkland, also a professor at impact could have played a role in shaping
in a branching pattern, leaving chunks that Curtin University’s School of Earth and early Earth’s crust by pushing one part of the
are shaped like cones, with the tapered end Planetary Sciences. Earth’s crust under another, or by forcing
pointing towards the centre of the impact. Evidence of ancient meteorite strikes magma to rise from deep within Earth’s
The shatter cones were buried in a rock on Earth is hard to come by because the mantle towards the surface,” Kirkland said.

14
 ARCHAEOLOGY

SCIENTISTS
HAVE REALISED
THAT A ‘VIKING’
SHIPWRECK IS
SOMETHING ELSE
WORDS TOM METCALFE
A 15th-century shipwreck off the
coast of Sweden may be Scandinavia’s
Two retinal stem cells were located oldest shipwreck built in the
in the outer edge of the retina innovative ‘carvel’ style, a design that
gave it the strength to carry heavy
cannons. The wreck at Landfjärden,
H E A LT H south of Stockholm, is one of five in
the area that have been known since

New cells discovered in the the 1800s. They were commonly

thought to have been from ships

eye could help restore vision dating to the Viking Age. But last
year, maritime archaeologists at Vrak,
the Museum of Wrecks in Stockholm,
WORDS EMILY COOKE revealed that four of the wrecks date
to the 1600s and 1700s and that the
cientists have identified never- any type of cell in the body under the right

S
oldest wreck was built before 1480
before-seen cells in the human conditions. Yet until now, scientists haven’t
and perhaps as early as the 1460s.
eye that could potentially help found suitable stem cells in the human retina
The most significant aspect of
reverse vision loss caused to achieve this. the wreck, now known as ‘Vrak 5’, is
by common diseases such as macular In the new research, scientists discovered that it was built in the ‘carvel’ style,
degeneration. Researchers discovered the two types of retinal stem cells with promising with planks on the hull that were flush
cells in the retina, a light-sensitive structure at regenerative properties: human neural retinal with neighbouring planks so that the
the back of the eye that is vital for vision. The stem-like cells (hNRSCs) and retinal pigment whole hull surface was relatively
cells were found in donated samples of fetal epithelium (RPE) stem-like cells. The smooth. By contrast, traditional
tissue. They also identified the same cells in researchers found that both types of cells Nordic ships, such as Viking longships,
lab-grown models of the human retina, and could clone themselves. However, only hNRSCs were built in the ‘clinker’ style with
when they tried transplanting those models could turn into other types of retinal cells under overlapping planks, which made
into mice with a common eye disorder, it the right conditions. In a separate experiment, them light and relatively flexible.
restored the rodents’ vision. “This research the researchers grew miniature replicas of the The use of carvel-style flush planks,
not only deepens our understanding of retinal human retina in petri dishes. These 3D tissue an innovation from the Mediterranean
biology, but also holds immense potential for models, known as organoids, better mimic the dating to about the 7th century CE,
advancing therapeutic interventions in RD unique complexities of human organs than meant that a ship’s hull could be
reinforced with framing to make
[retinal degeneration] diseases,” the traditional animal models do. An analysis of the
it stronger.
researchers wrote. cells within these organoids revealed that they
The retina detects light and converts it into contained hNRSCs similar to those found in the
The wreck is one of five located near
signals that the brain can then interpret to fetal tissue samples. The team also identified
the seaside village of Landfjärden, about
determine what we’re seeing. Deterioration specific molecular chains of events that turned
20 miles south of Stockholm
of the retina is a leading cause of blindness the stem cells into other retinal cells and
worldwide. It can be triggered by many things, regulated the repair process.
including ageing, diabetes and physical injury, When transplanted into the retina of mice
and the degeneration can lead to common eye with a disease similar to retinitis pigmentosa,
diseases such as macular degeneration and the stem cells from the organoids turned into
retinitis pigmentosa. Current treatments for the retinal cells needed to detect and process
these conditions focus mainly on reducing light signals. These new retinal cells ultimately
© AdobeStock / Alamy / Shutterstock

the rate at which retinal cells deteriorate and improved the vision of the mice compared with
protecting those that are still healthy. However, rodents that didn’t receive any transplanted
there are currently no effective therapies that cells. Taken together, these early findings
promote repair of the retina, which would suggest that hNRSCs could be used to
© Jim Hansson

effectively reverse the deterioration. A potential develop new treatments for retinal eye
solution is to replace deteriorated cells with disorders in humans. However, more
stem cells, cells that can mature to become research will be needed.

15
 TECHNOLOGY

CHINA’S
NEW BATTERY
CHARGER IS
TWICE AS FAST
AS TESLA’S
WORDS BEN TURNER

A Chinese automaker has developed

a battery that will enable electric
vehicles (EVs) to charge almost as
quickly as it takes to fill a regular car’s
gas tank. The new battery, named the
e-Platform, was developed by BYD, a
Chinese firm that’s overtaking Tesla
The European Extremely Large
Telescope will be situated on Cerro as the world’s top seller of electric
Armazones in the Chilean desert vehicles. Assigned a 10C rating,
meaning the battery can move charge
at ten times the rate of its nominal
SPACE capacity, the e-Platform can reach full
charge in just six minutes. At its peak

The Extremely Large Telescope charging power of 1,000 kilowatts, the

battery’s charging rate is twice as fast

could detect signs of alien life

as Tesla’s 500-kilowatt superchargers.
“We’ve been pursuing a goal to make
the charging time of electric vehicles
WORDS BRIAN KOBERLEIN as short as the refuelling time of
petrol vehicles,” BYD founder Wang
he Extremely Large Telescope atmospheres with spectral lines too faint for

T
Chuanfu said at a launch event.
(ELT), currently under construction Webb to observe. The ELT’s greater sensitivity To charge at such rapid speeds, the
in northern Chile, will give us a should be able to settle the question. e-Platform works by simultaneously
better view of the Milky Way than To determine just how powerful the ELT will creating a high voltage and delivering
any ground-based telescope before it. It’s be, a new study simulated results for several a large current to the charging car. But
difficult to overstate how transformative it will scenarios. They focused on planets orbiting high currents also tend to generate
be. The ELT’s primary mirror array will have an nearby red dwarf stars, since those are the heat that damages batteries. To get
effective diameter of 39 meters. It will gather most common types of exoplanets, and looked around this, BYD says it reduced the
more light than previous telescopes by an at four test cases: a non-industrial Earth rich internal resistance inside the battery.
order of magnitude, and it will give us images in water and photosynthesising plants, an early The company’s new silicon carbide
16 times sharper than the Hubble Space Archean Earth where life is just starting to power chips are also designed to
Telescope. It’s scheduled to come online in thrive, an Earth-like world where oceans have withstand higher voltages. BYD said
2028, and the results could start flooding evaporated – similar to Mars or Venus – and a it will install a network of 4,000 flash
in overnight. prebiotic Earth capable of life but where there charging stations across China. This
One of the most powerful features of the ELT is none. For comparison, the team also technology is currently only available
in China, and the company has yet to
will be to capture faint atmospheric spectra considered Neptune-sized worlds, which
confirm whether it will make it
from the atmospheres of exoplanets. This is should have significantly thicker atmospheres.
available internationally.
usually done as a planet passes in front of its The idea was to see if the ELT could
star from our vantage point. A small bit of distinguish between different Earth-like worlds,
starlight passes through a planet’s atmosphere and more importantly whether the data could
to reach us, and by analysing the absorption trick us into a false positive or negative. That is,
spectra, we can determine the molecules whether a lifeless world would appear to have
contained in the planet’s atmosphere, such as life or a living world would appear barren.
water and oxygen. But sometimes the transit Based on their simulations, the researchers
data we can gather is inconclusive. For found that we should be able to make clear and
example, when the James Webb Space accurate distinctions for nearby star systems.
Telescope looked for atmospheres on the For the closest star, Proxima Centauri,
planets of the TRAPPIST-1 system, it seemed researchers could detect life on an Earth-like
that the planets b and c were airless, but world with only ten hours of observation. For BYD electric vehicles displayed outside
the data isn’t strong enough to rule out the a Neptune-sized world, the ELT could capture a dealership in Bristol, England
presence of atmospheres. There might be thin planetary spectra in about an hour.

16
 Did
you know?
The centre of
the Earth is 3,959
miles deep

Two enormous blobs

deep inside Earth
appear to be the
remnants of oceanic
crust that was pushed
down into the mantle

PLANET EARTH

Giant blobs deep inside Earth

are ‘evolving by themselves’
WORDS STEPHANIE PAPPAS

e finally know where two giant oceanic crust that were pushed into the their age. “That potentially means that

W blobs in Earth’s middle layer

came from – and they’re a
mismatched pair. These strange
mantle when one tectonic plate slipped under
another, a process known as subduction.
The crust hypothesis had not been subject
shortly after we started having subduction
on Earth, then maybe that’s when we started
to have LLVPs.”
regions in Earth’s mantle, known as ‘large to as many studies as the ancient material The subduction process has resulted in two
low-velocity provinces’ (LLVPs), are actually idea, said James Panton, a geodynamicist at different types of blobs, the authors said in
chunks of Earth’s crust that have sunk into Cardiff University. Panton and his colleagues the study. The LLVP under Africa doesn’t
the mantle over the past billion years. used computer modelling to determine where currently get as much crustal material as the
Scientists have long known that there are subducted crust entered the mantle over the LLVP under the Pacific, which is fed by the
LLVPs, one below the Pacific Ocean and the past billion years and to find out whether that subduction zones of the Pacific Ring of Fire,
other below Africa. In these regions, seismic subducted crust could form features similar a horseshoe-shaped line of subduction that
waves from earthquakes travel one per cent to the LLVPs. “We found that the recycling circles the Pacific Ocean. The African LLVP is
to three per cent more slowly than they do of the oceanic crust can indeed generate thus older and better mixed with the rest of
in the rest of the mantle. Scientists believe these LLVP-like regions beneath the Pacific the crust, the team said. It also has less of a
they may affect the planet’s magnetic field and Africa without the need for a primordial volcanic rock called basalt, which means it’s
because of the way they influence heat flow dense layer at the base of the mantle,” said less dense than the Pacific LLVP. This may
from Earth’s core. Panton. “They are evolving by themselves, explain why the African LLVP extends 342
There’s a lot of debate about what LLVPs simply through the process of subduction miles higher in the mantle than the Pacific
are. Some studies have suggested that they of oceanic crust.” LLVP. One question for the future is how hot
© ESO / Getty / Shutterstock

are material from the ancient Earth, either a That doesn’t mean there isn’t dense regions of the mantle called mantle plumes
layer of primordial unmixed rock from the material from Earth’s youth at the bottom may help drive the subduction process in
planet’s formation or a leftover hunk of the of the mantle, Panton said. There may be a the Pacific and influence the LLVPs. These
giant space rock that hit Earth 4.5 billion thin layer of ancient material that contributes plumes stretch from the very bottom of the
years ago, forming the Moon. Others have to the LLVPs as well. But if subduction alone mantle to volcanic hotspots at the surface,
suggested that the blobs are huge chunks of can explain the LLVPs, that could hint at such as the Hawaiian islands.

17
 GLOBAL EYE
SPACE

HUBBLE SHOWS
A SPARKLING

© European Union, Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service

STELLAR
NURSERY
WORDS SAMANTHA MATHEWSON

A stellar nursery appears reminiscent

of the early universe in new images
from Hubble. The emission nebula,
known as Sh2-284, is an immense
region of gas and dust that fuels new
star formation. Located 15,000 light
years from Earth at the end of an The Antarctic Circumpolar Current is
outer spiral arm of our Milky Way, the strongest ocean current on Earth
Sh2-284 lacks elements heavier than
hydrogen and helium, much like the
environment of the early universe. PLANET EARTH
This is what is known as a ‘low-
metallicity’ region.
The image offers an up-close view The ocean’s ‘heart’
may be slowing down
of one section of the nebula that is
largely shaped by a young central star
cluster called Dolidze 25, located
outside of the frame. The cluster is
WORDS SKYLER WARE
home to young stars ranging in age
from 1.5 to 13 million years old.
elting Antarctic ice is slowing its way farther north before sinking. Together,

M
Emission nebulae are areas of active
star formation where ultraviolet Earth’s strongest ocean current. these changes affect the density profile of the
radiation from nearby young, hot stars The influx of cold meltwater could world’s oceans, which drives the slowdown.
ionises the surrounding gas, primarily slow the Antarctic Circumpolar Such a slowdown could allow more warm water
Current by up to 20 per cent by 2050. The to reach the Antarctic ice sheet, thereby
© NASA, ESA, and M. Andersen (European Southern Observatory - Germany), Processing Gladys Kober (NASA/Catholic University of America)

hydrogen, which then emits a bright

light. The ionising winds and radiation slowdown could affect ocean temperatures, exacerbating the melting that’s already been
from the star cluster push gas and sea level rise and Antarctica’s ecosystem. The observed. In addition to contributing to sea
dust around, creating the intricate Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which swirls level rise, this could add even more meltwater
features and cloud-like carvings. clockwise around Antarctica, transports to the Southern Ocean and weaken the
The new infrared view from Hubble around a billion litres of water per second. It Antarctic Circumpolar Current further.
captures the nebula’s dazzling keeps warmer water away from the Antarctic The Antarctic Circumpolar Current also
starlight, which might otherwise be ice sheet and connects the Atlantic, Pacific, acts as a barrier against invasive species by
obscured by dense dust and gas Indian and Southern oceans, providing a directing non-native plants, and any animals
clouds if observed at a visible pathway for heat exchange between these hitching a ride on them, away from the
wavelength. The newborn stars bodies of water. continent. If the current slows or weakens,
glow bright pink in infrared light.
Climate change has caused Antarctic ice this barrier could become less effective. “It’s
to melt rapidly in recent years, adding an like a merry-go-round. It keeps on moving
influx of fresh, cold water to the Southern around and around, so it takes a longer time
Ocean. To explore how this influx will affect to come back to Antarctica,” Gayen said. “If
the Antarctic Circumpolar Current’s strength it slows down, things can migrate very quickly
and circulation, Bishakhdatta Gayen, a fluid to the Antarctic coastline.”
mechanist at the University of Melbourne in It’s difficult to say when we’ll start to feel the
Australia, and his colleagues used Australia’s effects, if we haven’t already. The Antarctic
fastest supercomputer and climate simulator Circumpolar Current hasn’t been monitored
to model interactions between the ocean and very long because it’s in such a remote
the ice sheet. location. To better differentiate warming-
Fresh, cold meltwater likely weakens the induced changes from baseline conditions,
current, the team found. The meltwater dilutes “we need a long-term record,” Gayen said.
the surrounding seawater and slows convection The effects of the slowdown will be felt even in
A section of active star formation within between surface water and deep water near other oceans. “This is where the ocean’s heart
the emission nebula Sh2-284, located the ice sheet. Over time, the deep Southern sits,” he added. “If something stops there, or
around 15,000 light years from Earth Ocean will warm as convection brings less cold something different is happening, it’s going to
water from the surface. Meltwater also makes impact each and every ocean’s circulation.”

18
 ANIMALS

Iguanas sailed 5,000 miles

on rafts 34 million years ago WORDS K. R. CALLAWAY

round 34 million years ago, million years ago. “That they reached Fiji around the world. The work revealed that

A iguanas undertook the longest

known transoceanic trip of
any terrestrial species, sailing
directly from North America seems crazy,”
said Jimmy McGuire, professor of biology at
the University of California, Berkeley. “But
the Brachylophus genus in Fiji is most closely
related to lizards in the Diposaurus genus,
which are widespread in the deserts of North
one-fifth of the way around the world alternative models involving colonisation America. These desert iguanas are well
from North America to set up home in Fiji. from adjacent land areas don’t really work adapted to searing heat, so potentially
Researchers believe the iguanas made for the time frame, since we know had adaptations to survive the long
the 5,000-mile journey on rafts made of that they arrived in Fiji within the
Did journey. “Iguanas, and desert
vegetation, arriving in Fiji shortly after the last 34 million years or so.” you know? iguanas in particular, are resistant
islands formed. “You could imagine some Previously, some biologists There are 46 to starvation and dehydration, so
kind of cyclone knocking over trees where suggested that the Fijian lizards, different species my thought process is if there had
there were a bunch of iguanas and maybe which comprise the genus of iguana to be any group of vertebrate or
their eggs, and then they caught the ocean Brachylophus, descended from a any group of lizard that really could
currents and rafted over,” said Simon now-extinct family of iguanas that make a 4,971-mile journey across the
Scarpetta, an assistant professor of once populated the Pacific. Others think Pacific on a mass of vegetation, a desert
environmental science at the University the lizards could have floated shorter iguana-like ancestor would be the one,”
of San Francisco. distances from South America and through Scarpetta said.
Fiji’s bright-green lizards are the only Antarctica or Australia before finally ending The researchers estimate that these
iguanas outside the Western Hemisphere, and up in the Pacific. But these ideas were based lineages split around 34 million years ago,
how they got there has been a long-standing on past genetic analyses that did not roughly aligning with the geological history
mystery. Researchers found Fiji’s iguanas are conclusively show how closely Fiji iguanas of the islands’ formation. “This suggests
much more closely related to their Western were related to other iguanids. that as soon as land appeared where Fiji now
Hemisphere cousins than previously believed, The new analysis relies on a genome-wide resides, these iguanas may have colonised it.
making the journey directly from the West DNA sequence that Scarpetta collected from Regardless of the actual timing of dispersal,
Coast of the United States to Fiji about 34 over 200 iguana specimens from museums the event itself was spectacular.

Four species of iguana populate

Fiji, including the crested iguana

© Shutterstock

19
 GLOBAL EYE
PLANET EARTH

Scientists
break down
plastic waste
using air
WORDS BEN TURNER

cientists have developed a new

S method to break down plastic

waste using moisture from the
air. By exposing a common type
of plastic to an inexpensive catalyst and
leaving it exposed to ambient air, researchers
broke down 94 per cent of the material in
just four hours. The plastic transformed into
terephthalic acid (TPA), a highly valuable
building block for polyesters. Because
TPA can be upcycled into more valuable
materials, the process offers a safer and
cheaper alternative to current plastic
recycling methods.
“The US is the number-one plastic
polluter per capita, and we only recycle
five per cent of those plastics,” said Yosi
Kratish, a research assistant professor of
chemistry at Northwestern University.
“What’s particularly exciting about Every day, around 8 million pieces of
our research is that we harnessed Did plastic find their way into the ocean
moisture from the air to break you know?
down the plastics, achieving an It can take 500
exceptionally clean and selective years for plastic To find a new method to break into pure, colourless TPA. “It worked
process. By recovering the waste to degrade down some of this waste, the perfectly,” Kratish said. “When we added
monomers, which are the basic researchers applied a molybdenum extra water, it stopped working because it
building blocks of PET [polyethylene catalyst – a silver, ductile metal – was too much water. It’s a fine balance. But
terephthalate], we can recycle or even and activated carbon to PET, the most it turns out the amount of water in the air
upcycle them into more valuable materials.” common type of polyester plastic. The was just the right amount.”
Plastic waste is an increasingly important researchers then heated the mixture. After The team’s next steps will be to adapt the
issue. Over half of the plastic ever made a short time, this broke the polyethylene’s process to large-scale industrial applications.
has been produced since 2000, and annual chemical bonds. Then, when the team “Our technology has the potential to
production is projected to double by 2050, exposed the material to air, the mixture significantly reduce plastic pollution, lower
according to the European Environment transformed into TPA, a valuable polyester the environmental footprint of plastics and
Agency. To date, only nine per cent of the precursor, and acetaldehyde, an industrial contribute to a circular economy where
plastics ever produced have been recycled. chemical that is also valuable and is easy to materials are reused rather than discarded,”
The remainder, with lifetimes often lasting lift from the mixture. study author Naveen Malik, who was a
generations, can have serious environmental When they tested the method on mixed researcher at Northwestern University at
and health impacts. For example, they wash plastics, the researchers found that it had the time, said in a statement. “It’s a tangible
out to sea to form floating blobs of trash, an effect only on the polyester materials. step towards a cleaner, greener future, and
harm wildlife and break down into That meant they didn’t have to presort the it demonstrates how innovative chemistry
microplastics that can enter the human plastics. It worked on plastic bottles, T-shirts can address global challenges in a way that
brain and other parts of our bodies. and coloured plastics, breaking them down aligns with nature.”

20
 TECHNOLOGY

A ROAD-LEGAL
FLYING CAR IS
CLOSE TO TAKING
TO THE SKIES
WORDS RORY BATHGATE

A new kind of road-legal flying car is

now a step closer to hitting the roads,
and skies, after Alef Aeronautics
signed an agreement with aerospace
companies PUCARA Aero and MYC to
build it. The Alef Model A is designed
Kanzi at the Great Ape Trust of Iowa after to work as both a road vehicle and
arriving from Georgia State University aircraft, with its aim being to beat
commuter congestion. Styled as a
‘retro’ flying car, the Model A will
ANIMALS operate as an all-electric car capable
of vertical takeoff and landing. When

Genius ape who could understand

in flight, the chassis can rotate 90
degrees to become a large fixed wing

English and play Minecraft dies

for aerodynamic flight, with the body
of the car made from mesh for air to
flow through when in flight mode.
When the body rotates, the ‘cockpit’
WORDS KRISTINA KILLGROVE
section of the vehicle stays in place to
keep the pilot stabilised. Unlike other
anzi, a male bonobo with an outperformed the child, suggesting that his
flying car prototypes, the Alef Model A

K advanced aptitude for language,

has died at the age of 44, according
to the Ape Initiative, a conservation
linguistic ability was at least as good as a
human toddler’s.
In another study, Kanzi learned some
is only a single-seater, and therefore
not envisaged as a taxi or passenger
vehicle. In 2023, Alef Aeronautics said
and research centre in Des Moines, Iowa, American Sign Language (ASL) simply by the vehicle would have a road range of
where he had lived since 2004. As an infant, watching videos of Koko the gorilla, who had 200 miles between charges versus a
Kanzi, who was born at the Emory National previously been taught to use ASL. And when flying range of 110 miles. On the road,
Primate Research Center in Atlanta, Georgia, separated by a wall from his sister, Panbanisha, it will have a maximum speed of 25
accompanied his adoptive mother Matata to Kanzi vocalised a sound for ‘yogurt’ that miles per hour. Engineers have been
language lessons. But while Matata wasn’t Panbanisha understood. Although Kanzi building this vehicle since 2015, the
interested in learning from her human showed one-of-a-kind linguistic abilities for an year Alef Aeronautics was founded.
caretakers, Kanzi surprised them by quickly ape, he didn’t speak in the same way humans While they initially thought they
learning the lexigrams, or symbols that map do. Researchers think this is related to the could build one in just six months, it
to words, that the researchers were trying anatomical differences between chimpanzee wasn’t until 2019 that a pilot first flew
to teach his mother, in much the same way and human vocal tracts. However, a 2024 study a full-scale prototype. The Model A is
expected to cost $299,999 (around
human children learn language by listening published in Scientific Reports suggests that
£232,934) when it launches, and the
to their parents talking. chimpanzee vocalisation abilities may have
company has received a reported
Primatologists have used lexigrams since been underestimated, as these apes can
3,200 preorders to date.
the 1970s to understand how chimpanzees produce novel sounds and have the brain
and bonobos think and communicate. Using capacity necessary for speech.
a special lexigram keyboard, the great apes Beyond his language skills, Kanzi showed
are encouraged to communicate with their off his ability to make and use stone tools,
caretakers by pressing different buttons or earning him the epithet ‘bonobo genius.’ He
pointing to pictures. Researchers taught Kanzi was then taught to build a fire and cook food,
more than 300 lexigrams, and Kanzi combined demonstrating his ability to learn behaviours
them to create new meanings, an important key to human evolution. Later in life, Kanzi was
aspect of symbolic thinking, something which even taught to play video games. He seemed
experts previously assumed only humans to understand how to beat Pac-Man and
© Shutterstock / Alamy

were capable of. But Kanzi was also able to defeated the final boss of Minecraft. On 18
understand and respond to requests in spoken March 2025, staff at the Ape Initiative found
English. In a study undertaken when Kanzi was Kanzi unresponsive. He was being treated for Alef CEO Jim Dukhovny overseeing
eight years old, he and a two-year-old human heart disease, but necropsy results clarifying a test flight of the flying car
© Alef

child were given 660 spoken instructions. Kanzi his cause of death are pending.

21
 WISH LIST
OUTDOOR GADGETS

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WONDERBOOM 4
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and weather forecasts. additional Wonderboom 4 to play from one source.

22
 LIFESTRAW GO
FROM £46.95 / $44.95
LIFESTRAW.COM

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£44 / $55 LUMINAID.COM
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Tackling the darkness of the wilderness
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at night, the PackLite Max by LuminAID is
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There are four sizes to choose from
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© Garmin / BioLite / Ultimate Ears / LuminAID / LifeStraw

flashlight, 40-metre dive rating, enhanced

map navigation and an offline voice-
activated speaker and microphone.
The fēnix 8 can also act as a wrist-bound
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23
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26
DID YOU KNOW? There’s enough water in the oceans to fill 352,670,000,000,000,000,000 gallon-sized milk cartons

Dive deep below the

ocean’s surface to
discover razor-mouth
viperfish, animal-
eating sponges and
other fearsome and
fascinating creatures
that lurk in the
midnight depths
WORDS SCOTT DUTFIELD

he unknown abyssal depths

T of the ocean and the creatures

that dwell there have intrigued
humanity for millennia. Once
thought to be devoid of life, the last 200
years of ocean exploration have revealed
the weird and wacky creatures that call the
deep sea home. There’s no official waypoint
to separate the ‘deep sea’ from the rest of the
ocean, though it’s generally considered to
begin at around 200 metres deep, where
the water is starved of the Sun’s light and
warmth. The farther you descend through the
water, the darker, colder and high in pressure
the environment becomes. The ocean’s
depths are divided into different zones: the
sunlight zone (0 to 200 metres), twilight zone
(200 metres to 1,000 metres), midnight zone
(1,000 metres to 4,000 metres), abyssal zone
(4,000 metres to 6,000 metres) and the
hadal zone (6,000 metres to the deepest
known point in the ocean, 10,984 metres).
Along with mounting pressure and
plummeting temperatures of around four
degrees Celsius below 200 metres, each zone
is home to curious creatures. For example, if
you were to journey to the twilight zone,
you might come across some of
Did the world’s most mesmerising
you know? bioluminescent species. Far
The average from the reach of the Sun’s light,
ocean depth animals in this zone and below
is 2.3 miles have evolved the ability to
produce their own light to guide
their way through the water,
communicate with one another and
even lure prey towards them.
In the abyssal zone, bizarre benthic animals
roam the seafloor looking for food, including
the awe-inspiring tripod fish. Also known as
the ‘stilt walker’, these fish use three modified
fins to stand on the seafloor, waiting for a

27
 SPECIAL

The tripod fish can

‘stand’ on its fins
2 LIGHTS
EXPLORING Without the Sun’s light, ROV

THE DARKNESS
How deep-sea ROVs survey the ocean,
operators rely on onboard
LED lights. These typically
deliver around 1,500 lumens
and what have they found in recent years – a typical household bulb
emits around 800 lumens.

9 DEEP-SEA SQUID
© NOAA

1 TETHER Along with new species, deep-sea exploration

has discovered some secrets of animals’
ROVs are typically
tethered to the surface to lives. In 2015, MBARI observed brooding
maintain a physical power deep-sea squid carrying a cluster of giant
meal to swim or crawl past them. Along
and communications link eggs. Carrying eggs is often associated with
with piquing the interest of marine biologists, octopuses, but rarely seen among squid.
deep-sea creatures play a vital role in the with their operators.
overall health of the ocean ecosystem.
From feeding into the complex food
web that’s woven through the Did
ocean to returning vital organic you know?
compounds like carbon back
97 per cent of
into the ocean when they die,
Earth’s water is
rich biodiversity is thanks in the oceans 1
to deep-sea species.
While the exact number of
ocean species is unknown, it’s
estimated there could be as many as 2.2
million – although only 240,000 have been
formally identified. What could be waiting to
be found in the depths? Covering around 71
per cent of Earth’s surface with an estimated 9
volume of 321,003,271 cubic miles, it’s no
wonder that just 26 per cent of the ocean
has been explored by humans. Research
institutions, such as the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), use
2
4
hardy unmanned machines called remotely
operated vehicles (ROVs), which can put eyes
in deep waters while a monitoring research
team remains safe at the surface. The
3
NOAA’s ROV ‘Deep Discoverer’, for example,
can dive up to 6,000 metres below the waves,
carrying with it a host of tools for detecting
and recording any marine life that crosses
its path.
One of the greatest challenges in deep-
sea exploration is tackling the great weight
of the water. Generally, pressure in the
ocean increases by the equivalent of one 4 THRUSTERS
atmospheric pressure for every ten metres Electronically or hydraulically
of depth. Pressure-resistant metals, such as powered propellers drive
titanium, and hydraulic systems that use the ROV through the water at
just a few miles per hour.
incompressible fluids help keep these remote
explorers from a catastrophic implosion.
Deep-sea animals are naturally built to
withstand these pressures through malleable “Tools detect and 3 CAMERA
bones, cartilage skeletons or gelatinous Along with capturing footage
bodies. Even a sperm whale’s lungs are tough record any marine life of what lurks in the darkness,
onboard cameras are the
enough to withstand the pressure at more
than 2,000 metres, which would be around that crosses its path” only way operators can
navigate the ROV.
200 times greater than at sea level.

28
DID YOU KNOW? The deepest point in the ocean, Challenger Deep, is deeper than Mount Everest is tall

5 STRONG FRAME 10 DEEP-SEA CROWN JELLY

In 2022, a new species of deep-sea crown
To withstand the pressure of deep-
sea exploration, the body of an
jelly called Atolla reynoldsi was found in
the midnight zone. The unusual jelly has
THE FISH’S
ROV is made out of lightweight
and robust materials, such as
a single elongated tentacle that extends
to around six times the length of its
FISHERMAN
aluminium or titanium alloys. As the poster child for the mystery
diameter. Researchers think that the
creatures that swim through deep
jelly uses the tentacle to catch prey.
ocean waters, anglerfish are some of
6 SENSORS the most menacing-looking animals on
Sonar, gyroscopes and Earth. With a permanently fixed gape
pressure sensors are all filled with needle-like teeth, these
packed onto a ROV, held fearsome predators aren’t just brutal
in pressurised chambers so biters, but slick snatchers of their
they aren’t damaged by the prey. Equipped with a head-mounted
increasing water pressure. bioluminescent lure called an esca,
these fish trick their prey into
believing a glowing source of food is
nearby. On closer inspection, any
hopes of a meal are dashed by the
deadly anglerfish attachment that
emerges from the darkness.
To make this illuminated trap,
anglerfish have forged a symbiotic
relationship with a microscopic
friend called photobacteria.
5 10 These tiny organisms do all the
heavy lifting when it comes to
generating light, using an enzyme
called luciferase to oxidise
a substance called luciferin, the
process of which results in
6 the emission of light. From this
relationship, the anglerfish gains
a glowing lure and a way to
communicate with another of its
species, while the bacteria have a
protected space to live and gain
nutrition from inside the esca. It’s
thought that anglerfish take the
photobacteria from their environment
once the esca has formed, rather than
inheriting them from their parents
during development.

8 SWIMMING SEA SLUGS

The Monterey Bay Aquarium Research 7 SNAILFISH
© Alamy / Illustration by Nicholas Forder

Institute (MBARI) discovered a new In 2023, researchers achieved the

species of sea slug named Bathydevius deepest recording of any fish, at
caudactylus in 2024. Most sea slugs, or a depth of 8,336 metres. The
nudibranchs, are found crawling on the deep dweller in question is called
seafloor; this species, however, uses a a snailfish and can withstand
gelatinous hood and paddle-like tail to pressures 1,000 times greater
swim through the water. than at the surface. A black seadevil cruisin
g though
the darkness of the mid
night zone

29
 SPECIAL

A spiral octocoral
seen in the Gulf of
Mexico in 2012,
captured by the
NOAA’s Okeanos
Explorer program

ENTERING THE ESCA

How this anglerfish organ is turned into a beacon
FAC T S
that lures prey like moths to a flame LOTS OF
LURES

4 WINDOW 4 3 CAVITY
Sphincter-like
muscles open and
Bioluminescent
bacteria are fed 1 WHIPNOSE ANGLER
(GIGANTACTINIDAE)
Known for swimming
into the cavity of
close around the upside down in depths
the esca, where
window of the of up to around
they carry out
esca to block light 2,500 metres, these
light-producing
or release it. anglerfish dangle
reactions. their esca from an
extra long illicium,
which can be several
times longer than
its body.

2 WOLFTRAP ANGLER
(THAUMATICHTHYS
BINGHAMI)
3 Unlike other anglers
that dangle an esca
from a long illicium

CURIOUS
protruding from the
top of their head,
these fish have

CORALS
glowing esca
2 hanging down from
the roof of their mouths.
Octocorals are one of the oldest

1
3 PRICKLY
ANGERFISH
(HIMANTOLOPHUS
bioluminescent organisms in the ocean.
Unlike their shallow-water cousins,
APPELII) these deep-sea corals do not have a
Along with the symbiotic relationship with algae to
spines that run obtain food through photosynthesis.
5 along this fish’s Instead, octocorals collect passing food
body, its Illicium particles. This has led to some weird
extends a thick and wonderful octocoral shapes
1 PIGMENT 2 REFLECTOR 5 ILLICIUM tentacle-like
designed to best catch food in their
A layer of dark A material called The light- structure around the
esca to entice prey. locale, such as the fanned-out spiral
pigmentation guanine forms emitting esca is
prevents light a reflective layer attached to the octocoral. In 2024, researchers
from penetrating
the surrounding
in the esca to
enhance the
fish’s body via a
structure called
4 BUFOCERATIAS
SHAOI
The esca at the end
estimated that the ability to glow
emerged in these strange creatures
tissue. This light being the illicium, around 540 million years ago, during
of this anglerfish is
keeps the illicium emitted by the which acts like more complex than the Cambrian period. Separate research
and the body of photobacteria. a fishing rod some others. Its has suggested that bioluminescence
the anglerfish pole holding light does not emit may have evolved as a way to detoxify
hidden until glowing bait. exclusively from a molecular oxygen they consumed,
it’s too late for central bulb, instead which at the time would have been a
its prey. extending into a toxic substance to early marine life.
hair-like structure.
It also allowed them to communicate

5 HUMPBACK in the low light.

ANGLERFISH
(MELANOCETUS
JOHNSONII)
Short and stout, the
illicium and esca
of the humpback
angler jut out from
between the eyes,
right above their Oarfish spend their time swimming
overhanging jaws. vertically to camouflage their thin
bodies from food swimming overhead
Fish are drawn
in by the glow
30
DID YOU KNOW? In just one litre of ocean water, there are 38,000 different kinds of microbes

GELATINOUS
GATHERING
Siphonophores are mysterious organisms
that you can look at for as long as you like
without really knowing what it is you’re looking
at. Without any discernible features, such as
Although siphonophores are eyes or a mouth, these alien-like creatures
capable of self-propulsion, they are one of many freaky inhabitants of the
can often be found passively twilight zone. To make matters even stranger,
cruising on ocean currents siphonophores aren’t even a single organism.
Instead, they’re made up of individual organisms
called zooids. A single siphonophore colony can
include a dozen zooids or have thousands. Each
zooid has its own functions, such as feeding
and reproduction, to contribute to the overall
A Phronima feasting on siphonophore form. Alone, each zooid wouldn’t
the insides of a salp before be able to survive, but together they form a
making it its new home floating colony that thrives in one of the
harshest environments on Earth.

THE ALIEN OF
THE THE DEEP SEA
SHIMMERING If this animal is scarily familiar, you might have
seen something that closely resembles it on

EMBODIMENT the silver screen. Thought to be the inspiration

for one of cinema’s most fearsome foes in

OF DOOM
Also known as the doomsday fish, the giant
the movie Alien, Phronima are a group of
translucent crustaceans that dwell deep in the
twilight zone, around 1,100 metres below the
oarfish can live up to 1,000 metres below the surface. Instead of terrorising spaceship crews,
surface and grow up to 11 metres long. Despite these tiny parasites seek out squishy marine
their intimidating appearance, these fish are animals called salps. After devouring the insides
toothless filter feeders, chowing down on tiny of the barrel-shaped salp, the hollowed-out
krill, plankton and crustaceans. Along with body becomes a new home for the Phronima.
having no teeth, oarfish don’t have scales. Often referred to as the ‘pram bug’, a female
Instead their bodies are covered in skin that is Phronima will fill the salp cavity with her eggs
coated with a silvery material called guanine. and peddle it around with her legs.
As to why these fish find themselves with such Phronima are also prey to many other
an ominous nickname, Japanese folklore has deep-sea fish, such as lanternfish. To avoid
the answer. According to legend, when the being detected in the glow of passing
doomsday fish swims to the surface, an bioluminescence, their skin is covered with a
earthquake is due to follow. Over the years, bacterial coating that gives them anti-reflective
these harbingers of earthquakes have been abilities. One species, P. sedentaria, can even
reported to show themselves. The Guardian control pigment-filled cells in its body that
reported that in the months before Japan’s make it appear invisible in the water.
2011 earthquake, 20 oarfish washed up on
Japan’s shores. Nevertheless, scientists Did NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program / Alamy / Illustrations by Nicholas Forder

have yet to make any tangible link between you know? Phronima are tiny
beached oarfish and earthquakes, dubbing Only female parasites around 2.5
the occurrence of both at the same time a anglerfish have centimetres long
mere coincidence. glowing lures

31
 SPECIAL 1

ALL FOR ONE AND 1 PNEUMATOPHORES

ONE FOR ALL
These are the
siphonophore’s
Meet the members of a flotation devices,
siphonophore’s family which fill with
carbon monoxide
for buoyancy.

3 GASTROZOOID
These are the siphonophore’s
hunters, which form a network 2
of tentacles to catch
and digest prey.

Did 2 NECTOPHORES
you know? For propulsion, these
specialised structures
Just three people pump water out the
have visited the back to propel the
Challenger Deep colony forward.

4 MALE GONODENDRON
The male reproductive “The exact number
organs are a collection of
pores called gonophores of ocean species
that release sperm cells
into the water. is unknown”

5 FEMALE
GONODENDRON
The female
gonophores
release eggs into
the water in the 5
hope that the
released sperm
The Portuguese man ‘o war looks like a
fertilises them.
jellyfish, but it’s made up of thousands
of organisms – it’s a siphonophore

32
DID YOU KNOW? The lion’s mane jellyfish has a tentacle reach of 36.5 metres

BEHIND TOOTHY BARS As imposing as they

look, viperfish only
grow to around 30
There are few fish with a more menacing face than centimetres long
Sloane’s viperfish. They’re found at depths of between
200 and 1,000 metres in the twilight zone, feasting mainly
on lanternfish and crustaceans. Like deep-sea serpents,
viperfish can unhinge their jaws to capture prey. But rather
than swallowing them whole, these unusual fish expand
their stomachs out of their mouths to engulf prey before
retracting it and trapping their meal behind a row of toothy
bars. In 2021, researchers found that these teeth are made
from enamel and dentine – the same materials that make
up human teeth. However, unlike in our gnashers, the
structure and arrangement of these materials allow light
to pass through them, rather than scattering it. This not
only gives their teeth an eerie translucent appearance,
but also helps them stay hidden in the darkness, out of
sight of potential prey. Like anglerfish and many other
deep-sea creatures, the viperfish is bioluminescent. Their
aim is to lure unsuspecting fish towards the light and into
their mouths. Having translucent teeth prevents them
from catching the light, which would reveal their
presence and spook fish away.

The bloody-belly
jelly is one of 150
different species
of comb jelly

BLOODY-
BELLY JELLIES
THE DEEPEST
This might look like an unusual type of jellyfish,
but the bloody-belly jelly is a type of ctenophore or
comb jelly. What separates the two is the lack of
stinging cells, called nematocysts, found on wispy
tentacles. Instead, the bodies of these scarlet jellies
are covered in tiny structures called ctenes.
‘SUPERPREDATOR’
Found as far as 3,500 metres below sea level, the
Together the ctenes beat in waves to propel the NOAA deems the deepsea lizardfish “the world’s
creature through the water. Along with its gentle deepest living superpredator”. Without a preference
locomotion, the ctenes also diffract light into for any particular kind of food, these menacing fish
A specimen of the
waves and create a rainbow glow as they move. deepsea lizardfish
spend their time lying on the ocean floor with their
Red is nearly invisible in the dark depths of the from the Zoological heavily toothed jaws angled upwards, snatching
ocean water, so by illuminating their entire bodies Museum, University of anything and everything that has the misfortune of
in crimson, bloody-belly jellies are obscured from Hamburg, Germany swimming too close. Scientists remain unclear on how
the view of potential predators. It also helps many of these fearsome predators live on the seafloor.
conceal the light of any glowing prey they might However, it’s thought that the likelihood of two
© Alamy / Shutterstock

have captured and are digesting in the stomach lizardfish crossing paths must be quite low due to the
at the centre of their translucent bodies. It’s way they reproduce. Lizardfish are hermaphroditic,
estimated that comb jellies have been drifting meaning they have both male and female reproduction
around the world’s oceans for at least the last organs. This allows them to mate with any other
500 million years. lizardfish that they encounter.

33
 ENVIRONMENT

From its active core to its explosive surface,

scientists have made incredible discoveries
about the past, present and future
of the rock we call home
WORDS AILSA HARVEY

34
DID YOU KNOW? Earth’s longest mountain range is under the Atlantic Ocean

1 EARTH IS 10,000 TIMES

OLDER THAN HUMANS
The evolution of life on Earth, step by step

9 200 MILLION YEARS AGO

Stromatolites are
the oldest fossils

The earliest known mammals were

the Morganucodontids, which were 10 450,000 YEARS AGO
small animals the size of shrews. The first fossil evidence of early modern
humans is from 300,000 years ago. Homo
sapiens have existed for 450,000 years at
8 420 MILLION most – 1/10,000th the age of Earth.
YEARS AGO
Plants that could
9
transport water 1 4.5 BILLION YEARS AGO
and nutrients In the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago,
began to flourish masses of energy and matter were
across the planet.
Mammals Humans released. Over billions of years, dust
and gas collided and stuck together in
8 10 a process called accretion, growing
7 542 TO 543 Vascular plants larger until Earth was born.
MILLION
YEARS AGO

H
Shelly invertebrates 2 3.7 BILLION

ART
Invertebrates
YEARS AGO
evolved during OF E Scientists think
this time, which
GIN
was called Earth evolved
ORI

the Cambrian conditions that could

period. Many 7 support life by this
animal groups time, such as an
with hard 1 4.5 billion years ago increase in oxygen in
skeletons and the atmosphere and
shells appeared. volcanic activity
altering organic
molecules.
1 4

2 Life

Algal kingdoms
1.5 3.5
6 Phototrophic bacteria
3
6 1.5 BILLION 5
YEARS AGO 2 3
Green and red 3 3.5 BILLION YEARS AGO
algae evolved 2.5 Phototrophic bacteria
into a group of were the earliest life
photosynthetic forms that used sunlight
eukaryotes to produce energy.
called Macroscopic eukaryotes
Archaeplastida.
Cyanobacteria and other phototrophs
Did 5 2 BILLION YEARS AGO 4 2.4 BILLION 4
Multicellular organisms, YEARS AGO
© AdobeStock / Shutterstock / Getty

you know? large enough to be seen with Cyanobacteria

You weigh less at the naked eye and containing feature in some of “Homo sapiens have
the equator than cells with a clear nucleus, the oldest fossil
at the poles emerged at this time. records on Earth. existed for 450,000
years at most”

35
 ENVIRONMENT
Did
you know?
Coral reefs are

3
Earth’s largest
living structures

EARTH’S MAGNETIC
NORTH POLE IS MOVING
How does Earth’s core affect the magnetic
There’s one gram of gold in field surrounding the planet? 2 MAGNETIC NORTH
110 million tonnes of ocean The magnetic north pole
has moved almost the
water, which is around
42 square miles
5 MAGNETIC POLE same distance in the last
Magnetic north is 30 years as it did in the
located where magnetic 5 GEOGRAPHIC previous 180 years.
fields lines emerge from NORTH POLE

THE SEA
Earth perpendicular
to the surface.
2

IS FULL 7
AGONIC LINE
6

OF GOLD SIBERIA

2
ALASKA
There are 20
million tonnes of
gold suspended
in Earth’s oceans.
However, this gold 4 6 MAGNETIC
can’t be easily and efficiently MOVEMENT 4
extracted. In 1872, chemist Due to
Edward Sonstadt discovered unpredictable
traces of gold in samples of flows in Earth’s
molten core,
seawater. Scientists had
magnetic north
previously known that there has shifted
was silver, copper and lead from northern
suspended in the oceans, but Canada, where 4 POLARITIES
after news of its valuable gold it lay in 1590. Earth’s magnetic
content, people rushed to field has two opposite
polarities. Labelled
explore ways of extracting the
wealth in the waves. Despite 7 SIBERIA-BOUND positive and negative,
Since 2015, magnetic LIQUID they are north-seeking
there being about 100 times OUTER CORE and south-seeking.
north has moved 30
more gold in the ocean than miles a year towards
on land, when dispersed SOLID
Siberia, Russia. INNER CORE
throughout the oceans, the 1
concentration is very low and
UPPER
extraction isn’t cost effective. MANTLE 3
In 2018, chemists in 1 OUTER CORE
Switzerland invented a Earth’s outer core is
gold-collecting sponge made up of molten
material that binds with and metal that spins
concentrates the gold in water. 1,864 miles below
LOWER MANTLE CRUST
This is a porous polymer that the surface.
targets and attracts 90 to 99
per cent of gold ions in water. 3 MOLTEN MOVEMENT
Even though production of Elements near the
this material is relatively boundary of Earth’s inner
inexpensive, it would need to core create convection
be treated with ascorbic acid currents in the molten
between uses to regenerate outer core, causing
the material to rotate
the chemical attraction,
and generating a
making the process too costly.
magnetic field.

36
DID YOU KNOW? Antarctica holds 70 per cent of Earth’s freshwater

EARTH IS
SQUISHED
5
Antarctic landscapes are extremely dry
When viewed from space, Earth because the cold air holds less moisture
looks round, but our planet is

ANTARCTICA IS THE
an ellipsoid. Earth bulges at the
equator under the centrifugal
force produced by the planet’s

WORLD’S LARGEST DESERT

rotation. Centrifugal force is the tendency

4
of an object spinning in a circular motion
to move away from the axis it’s rotating
on. The outward force is greater at the The world’s largest 250 millimetres of rainfall over a
equator, and because of the fluidity of desert doesn’t bake year. Antarctica falls well below
the molten core, it’s capable of contorting in extreme heat or this threshold. With an average
slightly. As a result, the diameter of Earth feature sand dunes annual precipitation of 50
at the poles is about 7,900 miles, while at stretching to the millimetres, it’s a cold, polar
the equator it’s about 7,926 miles. horizon. Instead, the entire desert. The other main desert
record-breaking continent of types include hot and dry,
Antarctica is extremely dry – semi-arid and coastal deserts.
The bulge at the definition of a desert being a The polar desert of Antarctica
the equator region of low precipitation. It has shares features of some more
is 26 miles.
an area of 5.37 million square common desert types with its
This is twice
miles and the lowest temperature flat, desolate and windswept
the distance
from Mount
ever recorded on Earth: -89 land. There are only two
Everest’s peak degrees Celsius. flowering plants that grow on
to the ocean’s A landscape is classed as a the continent – Antarctic hair
deepest point desert when it receives less than grass and Antarctic pearlwort.

THE HOTTEST PLACE ON

EARTH AVERAGES 45°C
6
Furnace Creek in Death Valley, California, has
blazing air temperatures, reaching a high of
56.7 degrees Celsius on 10 July 1913. Currently,
the summer months see an average daily high
of 45 degrees Celsius, and surface heat is
even higher. On a typical summer night, the lowest
temperatures are between 30 and 35 degrees Celsius.
In 1972, the ground temperature was recorded to be close
to the boiling temperature of water. This is largely due
to the shape and depth of Death Valley. The valley has a
depth of 86 metres below sea level and is surrounded by
steep mountain walls. Because the ground is unable to
support much vegetation, the intense summer sunlight
has direct contact with the desert’s rock and soil, heating
© Alamy / Shutterstock

the surface. As a result, any heat that radiates from the

ground becomes trapped in the valley.

Death Valley got its name after a group of

pioneers were lost in the winter of 1849 and
feared they would all die – one person did

37
 Did
you know?
People have 1
climbed Mount
Everest with
no oxygen
LAVA 7
Slow uplift to Transport and
the surface deposition

IGNEOUS ROCK Sedimentation

6

2
Crystallisation Compaction
of magma and cementation

MAGMA
8
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
5
3

Melting 4 Burial, high temperatures

and pressures

METAMORPHIC ROCK
Magma forms from molten
crust and mantle

8
“In a volcanic
THE GROUND YOU eruption,
WALK ON IS RECYCLED
Earth’s crust is recycled through subduction, melting and eruption
magma spills
onto the
1 WEATHERING 3 COMPACTION AND
the rock’s mineral
structure and texture, 7 MAGMA TO LAVA surface”
AND EROSION CEMENTATION turning it into harder In a volcanic eruption,
Changes in As sand, clay or dirt is metamorphic rock. magma spills onto the
temperature and pressed together over surface of Earth,
Lava is molten rock
exposure to wind
and rain cause
time by gravity
pushing upper layers
5 MELT TO MAGMA becoming lava. When
this cools, it becomes
above the surface
Geothermal heat
rock and soil to downwards, gaps melts metamorphic a new layer of
break apart. between sediment rock into magma. igneous rock.
are reduced to form
2 SEDIMENT sedimentary rock. 6 CRYSTALLISATION 8 HEIGHTENED LAYERS
TRANSPORTATION When magma cools New rock layers reach
Sediments that break 4 PRESSURISED ROCK and solidifies, it the surface when the
away from the surface Sedimentary rock is crystallises into a top layer is eroded
are washed or blown exposed to increased new structure to away, exposing the
to new areas to make heat and high form igneous rock. minerals beneath.
new layers. pressures that change

38
DID YOU KNOW? Depending where on the planet you stand, you could be spinning over 1,000 miles per hour with Earth

MILLIONS OF INDONESIANS
LIVE IN RANGE OF A
VOLCANIC ERUPTION

7
When a volcano erupts, most
fatalities occur in communities
that lie within 6.2 miles of it. In
Indonesia, there are around 130
active volcanoes that make up the
Pacific Ring of Fire, and 8.6 million people This diagram shows how Pangaea became today’s continents
and three possible plate movements that could form Amasia
live within this deadly range. More than 70
per cent of Indonesia’s population live
within 62 miles of the ring’s 130 active
volcanoes. Indonesia’s abundance of ASIA AND AMERICA WILL
volcanoes is due to its placement in the
COLLIDE IN 200 MILLION YEARS
9
Ring of Fire. This is a horseshoe-shaped
zone where seismic activity is high and 75
per cent of the world’s active volcanoes The Pacific is the The existence of a huge
lie, as it traces the boundaries between largest of Earth’s supercontinent isn’t new. Millions
© Wikimedia Commons/ Chuan Huang, Zheng-Xiang Li, Nan Zhang

multiple tectonic plates. When Earth’s oceans, but it of years ago, Earth’s land was
tectonic plates move, they can release won’t exist forever. unified as Pangaea. Continents
magma from beneath the surface. Scientists predict are embedded within tectonic
that the surrounding continents plates, which are constantly
Mount Tambora in Indonesia was reduced of America, Asia and Australia moving against and underneath
in height from 4,300 to 2,851 metres will close in with the movement one another in a process called
after its 1815 eruption of tectonic plates, and will subduction. The very same
eventually collide and connect convection currents in the
in over 200 million years. The mantle that will slowly bring
supercontinent that will be Amasia together caused the
formed as a result is referred to continent of Pangaea to be
as Amasia, aptly merging the broken apart into today’s
names of these continents. land masses.

EVEREST ISN’T EARTH’S TALLEST MOUNTAIN More than 7,000

10
people have summited
Mount Everest
Most people will peak. But if you were to measure a column of molten rock was
tell you that the the world’s mountains from the released up to the surface to
tallest mountain in base to the summit, Mauna Kea in form the volcanic mountain.
the world is Mount Hawaii can be considered the tallest. Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador
Everest, straddling Mauna Kea is 10,210 metres from its could also be considered a contender
Nepal and China. However, this is base to its peak. It’s located on the for the record, as its peak is the
only true when considering its largest island of the Hawaiian farthest from Earth’s centre – it’s
altitude above sea level. Mount archipelago. When the Pacific over 2,072 metres farther
Everest has a summit 8,849 metres plate, the largest tectonic from the planet’s core
above sea level and is the highest plate, moved over this area, than Mount Everest is.
© Shutterstock / Alamy / Getty

39
 TECHNOLOGY

Extracting the fossilised remains of prehistoric

animals can be a dangerous business –
for people and the environment
WORDS SCOTT DUTFIELD

40
DID YOU KNOW? 17 per cent of coal mine fires start from spontaneous combustion

t takes millions of years to form, but Revolution. With just a pickaxe and shovel to Extracting this precious natural resource

I just moments to break coal apart.

What began as lush vegetation
around 300 million years ago has
hand, 18th-century mining was a hard day’s
work for those who spent the day chipping
away at coal seams.
occurs in one of two ways: either open-pit
mining or underground mining. Open-pit
mining involves removing rock at the surface
since decayed, decomposed, compressed and Modern mining takes advantage of mighty to reveal coal seams for extraction. Unlike
been heated over millions of years to become diggers, colossal drills and excavators to rip quarrying, where all the rock is valuable,
a hard rock packed with potential energy – a the coveted rock from the ground. Each year, open-pit mining piles up the unwanted rock
potential that was discovered thousands of around 7.2 billion tonnes of coal is mined from around the coal, which can then be used to
years ago. Researchers have found evidence 70 countries around the world. Its predominant fill in the pit after mining ceases. The largest
of coal fireplaces during the late Paleolithic use is in energy production. Burning coal is open-pit coal mine in the world can be found in
period, around 10,000 years ago. The first used to heat water into steam, which is used to Wyoming. The North Antelope Rochelle Mine
written documentation of widespread coal turn turbines and generate electricity. In 2023, contains around 1.27 billion tonnes of coal, and
use dates back to the Chinese Han dynasty coal was used to generate 10,467.93 terawatt- in 2023 alone, 56 million tonnes of coal was
around 2,000 years ago. Coal’s rise to global hours of electricity. Globally, coal is still excavated at the site.
popularity, however, happened during the age the primary fuel for power generation Did Another way to reveal coal seams
of raging furnaces and the invention of the and accounts for approximately 35 you know? is with the help of explosives.
steam engine, known as the Industrial per cent of total energy production. Known aptly as ‘blast mining’, this
70 per cent of
technique uses a bore drill to dig
steel production
relies on coal down to around eight metres into
Overburden blast coal mining in
the surface before an explosive
central Queensland, Australia
is inserted into the hole – typically a
mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel
oil. After the controlled explosion, the broken-
up rock can then be removed to access the
coal seam below.
When coal reserves are too deep to reach
from the surface, deep boring drills are sent
underground to do the dirty work. Armed
with a rock-ripping drill bit, often made from
tungsten carbide, bore drills make easy work
of breaking up coal seams. One of the biggest
challenges in harvesting this fossil fuel
underground is the threat of fire. A simple
spark from electrical equipment or even
spontaneous combustion of hot coal can
trigger a raging coal fire. From water-spraying
coal to venting flammable gases such as
methane, coal mines have to take extra
precautions to prevent coal from doing what
it does best: burn.

FOSSIL FUEL FAMILY

ANTHRACITE BITUMINOUS SUBBITUMINOUS LIGNITE

Up to 97 per cent carbon, this Between 45 and 86 per cent At around 251 million years old, The youngest type of coal is
variety of coal has the highest carbon, this coal type is the subbituminous coal is among lignite, at just 60 million years
energy value of any coal type. It second most valuable in terms the younger types of coal, and old. Its age means that it also
forms in areas of geological of its energy payload. It is also it’s also one of the most has a lower carbon density of
deformation, such as mountain used to make ‘metallurgical common. With around 70 to 76 around 65 to 70 per cent, with
ranges, under intense heat and coke’, whereby ‘destructive per cent carbon, this coal type a higher moisture content than
© Shutterstock / Alamy

pressure. It’s predicted that the distillation’ heats and breaks it is commonly used in steam harder coal such as anthracite.
global anthracite yearly export down into a source of carbon generation for electricity
will reach 22.2 billion kilograms for making steel. production.
by 2026.

41
 TECHNOLOGY

2 SLOPE MINE
CARVING OUT COAL
The tools and techniques used to extract the
When a deep shaft
isn’t required to access 3 DRIFT MINE
underground coal, a When coal seams are
world’s most popular fossil fuel
drift mine with a sloped horizontal near the
entrance can give surface, a drift mine with
miners access. a standard entrance
6 SCRAPING AT THE SURFACE can be constructed.
In open-pit coal mining, several colossal vehicles are used to
extract rock. From bulldozers to bucket-wielding draglines, these 6
mega-machines can haul hundreds of tonnes of rock per minute.
One of the largest surface extractors found in open-pit mines is
the Bagger 288. Standing at 96 metres tall, the Bagger 288 uses a
bucket wheel to chip away at the rock and remove 250,000 tonnes
of fuel per day. Extracted coal is then transported along its four
conveyor belts at around 11 miles per hour and deposited.

1 SHAFT MINE
To access deep coal
reserves, vertical or near-
vertical tunnels penetrate
deep below the surface, up
to around 300 metres.
8

3
7

1
2

7 DIGGING DEEP
Underground room and pillar mining uses a
mining drill that bores into a coal seam, leaving coal
pillars to hold up the rock ceiling. As the drill creates
‘rooms’, the excavated coal is then hauled out of the 4 COAL BEDS
mine via a converter belt. Another underground These seams of coal
technique is known as longwall mining. Instead of can span anywhere
creating rooms and pillars, a longwall drill moves up from 30 centimetres
and down along a seam’s coalface. Instead of coal to 30 metres wide.
pillars, this method uses hydraulically powered roof
supports to hold up the ceiling during excavation.

42
DID YOU KNOW? In 2023, coal combustion contributed 15.4 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions worldwide

Did
you know?
The Bagger 288 is
taller than the
6
Statue of Liberty

8 TURNING THE SCREW

On the surface of the coal mine, auger
mining machines bore into coalfaces
horizontally. An auger uses a corkscrew
mechanism that rotates and carries the crushed
coal from the screw head out to the surface.
A Bagger 288 dragline surface mining
This technique is often used when the coalbed is
coal at the Tagebau Garzweiler mine
too thin and needs more precise mining.

5 OVERBURDEN
The surrounding rock 7
that’s removed from coal
reserves is known as ‘rock
spoil’ or ‘overburden’.

Excavation of hard coal by a rotary

4 drilling machine and support vehicle

© Getty / Alamy / Illustration by Adrian Mann

“Modern mining takes advantage

of diggers, drills and excavators
to rip the coveted rock from An auger inserting a corkscrew drill

the ground” into the side of a mound of overburden

43
 TECHNOLOGY

DIVE INTO
THE WORLD’S 7

DEEPEST POOL
The Blue Abyss pool will train
scientists and astronauts for
“The deepest point
subsea and space environments 7 CLASSROOM AREAS
The surrounding buildings
contain classrooms for
will narrow into
WORDS AILSA HARVEY
trainees to cover the theory
related to their sessions.
a 16-metre-wide
new indoor swimming pool is set
cylindrical section”
A to steal the title of world’s deepest
and largest with a volume of 42,000
cubic metres – large enough to
contain the water of 17 Olympic-sized
swimming pools. Named after the
company building it, Blue Abyss will
also become the deepest pool Did When completed, the
housed in a closed environment, you know? pool is expected to
generate £8 million
with a maximum depth of 50
Blue Abyss is ($10.4 million) a year
metres. The deepest point will
a £150 million
narrow into a 16-metre-wide ($194 million)
cylindrical section, while the investment
pool’s surface opens up to an
area of 40 by 50 metres.
It’s being built in Cornwall, but the pool
is not open to the public. It will instead be used
for sea and space research, for astronaut
training, energy research projects and defence
and ecology research. Large pools like this are
essential for astronauts to experience
environments similar to space, navigating their
surroundings while experiencing
weightlessness. This sensation is achieved by
the neutral buoyancy divers achieve while WHAT’S
underwater. Neutral buoyancy occurs when
an object’s density is equal to the density of
ON SITE?
The pool will be located on a 15.5-square- training courses.
the fluid it’s immersed in. Inflating a diving suit
mile site next to Cornwall Airport in The hypobaric chambers are altitude
to balance a diver’s weight creates an equal
Newquay. The main building, housing the chambers that simulate low air pressure
floating and sinking force closely resembling
pool, is designed to be a sleek teardrop and low oxygen environments, while
the weightlessness of microgravity.
shape. This is the work of British hyperbaric chambers have high oxygen
Alongside its contributions to space architect Robin Partington, who also levels and air pressure to treat
exploration, the pool will also benefit research designed The Gherkin in London. The decompression sickness that can occur
projects closer to home. This could include pool will be surrounded by buildings that from alternating between extreme
the experimentation of remotely operated contain an astronaut training centre, a pressure changes. This can cause
underwater robots and the testing of small human performance centre, microgravity nitrogen dissolved in the blood and body
submersible vehicles. At the time of writing suites, hypobaric and hyperbaric tissues to bubble, leading to pain,
the pool is yet to be completed, with an chambers and accommodation cramps, numbness or paralysis, also
estimated building time of 18 months. and classrooms for those taking part in known as ‘the bends’.

44
DID YOU KNOW? The Blue Abyss pool’s volume is equal to 168 million cups of tea

1 SLIDING ROOF 3 CHANGING CONDITIONS

The roof covering the pool The water’s temperature
slides open so that larger and salinity are controlled
apparatus can enter. to simulate different
environments.
1

3
2

2 DEPTH DIFFERENTIATION
4 TAKE THE
PLUNGE
The stepped design enables
different current strengths to
be created at various depths.
How the Blue Abyss
pool is tailored to
extreme environments
This is a computer simulation of
the Blue Abyss pool, which will
be five metres deeper than the
current deepest pool, Deepspot
4 ATMOSPHERIC LIGHTING
The lights in the pool can
in Warsaw, Poland
be altered fortraining in
different lighting conditions
that match specific
environments.

5 HEAVY-LIFTING CRANE
A 30-tonne crane lowers heavy
submersible vehicles and
other training technology.

6 FLOOR ANCHORS
The floor of the pool features
6 tie-down points to secure
any large apparatus
needed for training.

NASA COLLABORATION
NASA signed a Space Act Agreement with Blue Abyss in January 2025,
forming a partnership between the pool and NASA’s Glenn Research Center
in Cleveland, Ohio. As part of the collaboration, which officially links Blue
Abyss to NASA as a company working towards the same space travel goals,
the two will share relevant information and make joint decisions based around
the selection and training available to future astronauts. Blue Abyss will
© Alamy / Illustration by Adrian Mann

develop its own commercial pool facility for astronaut training, but will use
the experience and technical support of NASA. The companies’ shared goal
is to best prepare astronauts at the pool for space missions in low-Earth
orbit, cis-lunar missions between Earth and the Moon and those on the NASA astronauts training
Moon and Mars. Currently, NASA uses its own Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at the Neutral Buoyancy
near Johnson Space Center in Texas, which has a depth of 12 metres. Laboratory

45
46
COLOSSAL
CONSTRUCTION
TV masts are pieced together in sections
on the ground and then erected
TECHNOLOGY

2
These tall and spindly structures send signals
to connect you to daily digital communications
WORDS AILSA HARVEY
A solid foundation of reinforced
1LAYING FOUNDATIONS
concrete is built to support the
or a television (TV) viewer, the tower’s weight and keep it stable.
process of pressing a button on a
F remote control and experiencing MAST
video and audio being produced
instantly by the device can seem like a simple BREAKDOWN
process. However, data embarks on a more These components make up
complicated journey before being decoded a telecommunications mast
into your favourite programme, which often
involves towering masts. There are thousands 1 LIGHTNING ROD
of tall, metal structures built into landscapes A metal rod at the very top of the mast
around the world. These are TV, radio and conducts lightning away from
phone masts, all constructed to keep the global communications equipment.
population connected. To construct these The rod transfers the electrical
massive masts, a suitable site needs to be energy safely to the ground. Each section is put together on
2GROUND ASSEMBLY
the ground. They’re typically made
selected. This needs to be a large, open and flat
of steel strips, built into a weight-
area with a stable soil. Each segment of the 2 ANTENNA ARRAY distributing lattice framework.
tower is built on the ground in a lattice A group of antennae at the top of
before being stacked to the desired the mast receive audio and video
height. Each part is made by Did electrical signals, converting them
welding together long, thin pieces you know? into radio waves to transmit to
of metal in a cuboid shape, with Television signals television antennae in homes.
triangular patterns crossing over travel at the
inside. This lattice results in a tall speed of light
tower with a strong structure that
3
TV masts are often bui
requires fewer materials to build. lt on
hills for greater elevat
Triangles distribute forces evenly across ion
and broadcast reach
their three sides, helping masts withstand
the weight of hundreds of tonnes of metal.
These communications towers are also Using a crane to stack each
3CRANE HOIST
called TV transmitters, as this is their key role piece, a typical TV mast is built in
– to transmit data in the form of radio waves. 10 to 20 sections to reach heights
of between 150 and 350 metres.
 After TV stations produce video and audio, this
data is sent to the towers. The towers relay this 3 TOWER LATTICE
The metal body of the tower is made
data, transmitting it through the air from the 4
of strong steel. This is built in a lattice
antennae to TV aerials on viewers’ homes in structure, with triangular cross sections
the area. As the radio waves can only travel by for further strength and support.
DID YOU KNOW?

line of sight, the taller a tower is, the further

the data can be broadcast. Usually, this limits
broadcasting to around 40 to 60 miles from a 4 TRANSMISSION FEEDERS 5
tower. Each channel has its data broadcast at a Cables connect antennae and microwave
different frequency. When you press a specific dishes to the base of the mast. Audio and
button on your remote control, you tune in to video signals from a television transmitter
the corresponding frequency and stream from at the base are converted into radio waves Workers are hoisted up the
4MODULAR CONNECTION
a particular TV station. and sent up the cable to the antennae. mast to weld and bolt together
the new section of mast to the
existing construction.
5 LINE OF SIGHT
Microwave dishes are dispersed around
THE TALE OF THE the mast. As the endpoint signal
transmitter, this maximises their line
WORLD’S TALLEST of sight to reach device antennae.
The tallest telecommunications mast,
and at one time the world’s tallest 6 GUY-WIRES 6
structure, was the Warsaw Radio Mast Diagonal cables connect at different
in Poland. This 646-metre-tall radio heights on the mast and extend down to
mast was erected in 1974. From this the base, where they are secured into
year until 1991, the mast transmitted the ground. This keeps the tall, thin
signals for Warsaw Radio-Television. structure steady, even in strong winds.
Because the mast was so large, it At higher levels, steel cables
5FINAL PIECES
could transmit its signals across called guy-wires are attached to
7 MICROWAVE DISHES
Europe, Africa and North America. These large dishes carry out point-to- the tower, which are anchored to
But because it was exposed to strong point communication – signals sent the ground for support.
winds at higher altitudes, the mast directly to the endpoint receiver. They
suffered damage over the course of use microwave frequencies for high-
its first decade. On 8 August 1991, the quality and long-distance signals.
Warsaw Radio Mast succumbed to the 7
elements. During maintenance that
involved exchanging guy-wires,
powerful winds caused some of the 8 ACCESS POINTS
cables to break, and the entire stalled
shes are in Platforms are
Satellite di rece ive
structure toppled to the ground. uses to
outside ho on data attached to span
transm is si
satellite TV the length of the
The UK’s first TV mast was built at Alexandra Palace, London, in 1936 and was 60 metres tall

mast. These are

used by engineers
and technicians After the frame is complete,
6ATTACHING EQUIPMENT
to stand on while mounting brackets and clamps are
they work on used to attach dishes, antennae,
the mast at
8
transmitters and receivers.
different heights.

“Each segment of the

© Wikimedia Commons/ R. Kreyser

tower is built on the
The Warsaw Radio Mast before it fell
ground in a lattice”
© Alamy / Illustration by XXXXXX

47
 TECHNOLOGY

We often take the technology that

keeps our homes running for granted,
but here’s how they actually work
WORDS DUNCAN GEERE

WI-FI
SENDING PULSES
THROUGH THE AIR

ENERGY-SAVING BULBS
MAKING GAS GLOW
Beaming information through the air
seems magical, but we’ve been doing
it even since our ancestors started
communicating with smoke signals.
raditional light bulbs work by In principle, Wi-Fi isn’t that different –

T passing a current through a thin

wire. The wire then heats up so
much that it glows and gives off
a router turns a message into a series
of on-off pulses, broadcasts it, then
a computer with a wireless adapter
light. That takes a lot of energy, and much decodes the message on the other
of it is wasted as heat. An alternative, the end. Those pulses are sent using
fluorescent lamp, became popular in 1938. electromagnetic radiation – just like
Today’s energy-saving light bulbs, called radio waves. Radio waves travel long
compact fluorescent lamps, or CFLs, are distances but can’t contain much
merely small cousins of the fluorescent information, whereas Wi-Fi is short
tubes you see in offices. They’re filled with range but can carry plenty of data.
a gas that releases ultraviolet photons Wi-Fi sits at the 2.4 gigahertz area
– particles of light – when an electrical of the electromagnetic spectrum, also
current is passed through them. The inside used by other technologies such as
of the tube has a coating of phosphors. Bluetooth, microwave ovens, car
When the photons hit the inside of the tube, alarms and certain video devices. So
the ultraviolet light is converted to visible it’s clear why interference from these
light and your room lights up. They are sources can cause weak network
more efficient than traditional bulbs and signals. While there are a lot of
work out cheaper in the long run. suggestions about what it stands for,
More recently, these bulbs have begun to Wi-Fi isn’t an abbreviation of anything.
be replaced with LEDs, which generate light It was a name chosen in 1999 because
using yet another method – the movement its other name – IEEE 802.11 – is a bit
of electrons in a semiconductor. These are of a mouthful.
safer, longer lasting and more energy
efficient than CFLs.

48
DID YOU KNOW? Six per cent of TV viewing in US households occurs on mobiles

MICROWAVE OVEN
MAKING WATER MOLECULES WOBBLE
Everything that we eat contains water. energy through friction as all the water
It’s crucial to the structure of almost molecules start to rub together.
every form of life, and it’s also vital in Heat likes to spread, so as the water
the operation of a microwave. When molecules heat up, other molecules
you hit water molecules with certain nearby do as well. However, it sometimes
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation takes a little while for the heat to
– those in the microwave band – they spread, which is why you’re usually
begin to rotate. This swivelling motion
creates vibrations that turn into heat
told to stir your food halfway through
the microwaving process. FRIDGE
CHANGING STATES
TO KEEP COOL
In 1852, a pair of scientists named
James Joule and William Thomson
noticed something interesting about
gas. When you compress it, it gets
hotter, and when you let it expand, it
cools. Using this effect, inventors built
a device called a heat pump. They
filled a pipe with gas and sealed it into
a continuous loop that passed from
inside an insulated box to the outside.
Outside the box, the tube slowly
narrowed, compressing the gas.
Inside, however, it widened, allowing
the gas to cool. By pumping the gas
around the loop, heat is constantly
collected from the inside of the box
and carried to the outside.
Today, our refrigerators work in
almost exactly the same way – except
the gas has been replaced by a
chemical that changes state from a
cool liquid to a warm gas as it passes
around the loop. With this neat
quirk of physics, regulated using a
thermostat, your milk can be kept

TELEVISION
at the perfect temperature.

MAKING DOTS SHINE BRIGHT

If you get really close to your television, you’ll notice

that instead of a smooth image you’ll see individual
dots – called pixels – that shine red, green or blue to
make up the picture. In an old-fashioned cathode ray
tube television, these pixels are made up of holes in a
grid. Those holes are coated in phosphors to create
different colours and are shot with an electron gun
guided by electromagnets – the electrons cause
the phosphors to glow. Plasma screens are slightly
different and contain tiny cells that each contain blue,
red and green lights. The cells are filled with gases
that start to glow when exposed to electricity.
Many modern televisions use tiny LEDs that
generate light from the movement of electrons in
© Getty / Shutterstock

a semiconductor. From your sofa, your eyes can’t

discern enough detail to make out individual pixels
on your TV, and the colours change so quickly that
they give the appearance of motion.

49
 HISTORY

There’s a lot more to a detectorist’s hobby than

picking up a metal detector and sweeping a
field. Here’s how to responsibly prepare for a
fun day out, detecting techniques and,
perhaps most importantly, the law
WORDS BEN BIGGS

50
DID YOU KNOW? The 1,000-year-old Chew Valley Hoard consisted of 2,584 silver coins valued at £4.3 million ($5.6 million)

ritain has a deep and chequered

B history that can be traced across

dozens of major cultures right
back to prehistoric times. Over
thousands of years it has been populated by
neolithic hunter-gatherers, the gregarious
Beaker people, fractious Celtic tribes and
powerful civilisations like the Romans, wielding
their influence from faraway lands across
the sea. They have invariably warred and
squabbled with each other in a tug of war over
territory, and sometimes settled into periods
of peace and prosperity. It’s quite literally a
rich history, if we are to go by the fantastic
treasures that are pulled out of Britain’s
muddy fields on a surprisingly frequent basis.
Among the stone tools, remnants of ancient
dwellings and singular coins or personal items
that have been lost, forgotten or abandoned for
centuries, are finds whose enormous monetary
value is equalled only by their contribution to
British history.
In July 2009, a metal detectorist sweeping
a field in Staffordshire, England, stumbled
upon a find that can only be equated to winning
the lottery. After Terry Herbert’s bargain metal
detector, which he had picked up in a car boot
sale, lit up like a Christmas tree, he spent the

WHERE
TO START
We’ll get into the basic
detecting techniques and
equipment later, but before
you get out there and start
sweeping any old patch
of land, give your metal
detector a practice run by
burying a few metal objects
in your garden or a patch of
land you have access to.
Then familiarise yourself
with the laws surrounding
amateur metal detecting in
your country. If there’s a
local metal-detecting club
in your area, join it! Not only
will you benefit from the
experience and advice of
seasoned detectorists,
you’ll have access to group
events with permission
prearranged with the
landowner.

Joining a club can be

a more fulfilling way
of pursuing a metal-
detecting hobby
© Alamy

51
 HISTORY

Divers can detect shipwrecks

using specialised waterproof
metal detectors

A fraction of the 52,503

Roman
coins discovered buried
in a giant
pot near Frome, Englan
d

DOS AND DON’TS

Did Do check the weather
you know? forecast before an outing
and dress accordingly
next five days carefully digging up The first metal This find was a detectorist’s
Familiarise yourself with
hundreds of antiques – buttons, detectors were dream that Terry said, to the the laws surrounding metal
rings, wires, sword pommels and developed in Birmingham Mail, was “more fun detecting in your country
many other gold and silver objects. the 1800s than winning the lottery… money
Seek permission from the
The fact these ancient artefacts had was a plus, but seeing the treasure landowner before detecting
been cast in precious metals meant he coming out of the ground was a wonderful on private land
legally had to report it, so he got in touch with experience.” The odds of finding something like
Follow the countryside
the local finds liaison officer Duncan Slarke. the Staffordshire Hoard is the equivalent of code by closing gates
Duncan was gobsmacked by the quantity hitting the jackpot from a single lottery ticket, and respecting plants
of Anglo-Saxon items Terry had found, and though that shouldn’t dissuade a beginner and animals
excitedly emailed his colleagues for their looking to pursue a fulfilling metal-detecting Immediately report finds
opinion on the hoard, saying he thought it was hobby. Most detectorists spend hours such as ‘treasure’,
“nationally important”. But those 250 artefacts meticulously pacing a few square acres of suspected human remains,
bombs or ammunition
were just the tip of the iceberg. A month-long land in all weathers just to get out in nature,
excavation ensued, revealing another 1,600 spend time with like-minded members of a
objects, followed by nearly another 3,000 by club or for the occasional thrill of turning up Don’t detect on protected
the time archaeologists finished with the site something small but significant. They might sites, including scheduled
monuments and sites of
a few years later. They were mostly of military tell you, in one way or another, that their hobby
special scientific interest
origin in various states of fragmentation, and is really about connecting with the history of
are thought to have been the trophies collected the land and that even the most common of Don’t leave holes in the
ground, always backfill once
by an Anglo-Saxon military man. A total of finds – be it a worn Roman coin or a cavalier’s
you’ve finished digging
5.1 kilograms of gold, 1.4 kilograms of silver musket ball – has a story. The razor-thin
and around 3,500 semi-precious gems were chance of discovering a golden treasure that Don’t leave any litter behind.
Take it with you and dispose
excavated. The largest Anglo-Saxon hoard redefines history can still make them giddy of it responsibly
ever discovered, it was valued at nearly £3.3 with excitement when their metal detector
million ($4.3 million) – split between Terry starts to beep, but that’s a fantasy rather
and the landowner. than an expectation.

WHERE TO LOOK
In the UK, you can legally metal detect in many public places, such
as public beaches, parks and playing fields. These can be good
places to start if you don’t have access to a garden to practice
detecting in, as you don’t have to seek prior permission and you
can still turn up coins and other small finds that you won’t
necessarily have to declare. But be sure to double-check that
you can metal detect on any piece of land first. Some places
the public has access to, such as public rights of way, are strictly
off limits to detectorists without the landowner’s permission. You can usually detect on
public beaches without
permission in the UK and
a few other countries

52
DID YOU KNOW? Metal detectors are also used to detect buried landmines, bombs and weapons

WHAT YOU
2
WILL NEED
1 Metal detector
You don’t need to spend
a lot of money on a metal
detector – Terry Herbert’s
3 jackpot-finding device cost
him less than a cup of
coffee. You won’t have to
raid your savings account
to buy a good beginner’s
single-frequency detector,
and though it won’t be
as effective as a multi-
frequency detector, it
will be easier to use and
less expensive.

2 Shovel
A lightweight shovel is
essential: standard garden
spades are often too heavy
and cumbersome to cart
1 around all day. There are
plenty of options available
for detectorists, including
long-handled trowels with
foot assists and telescopic
shovels that can easily be
stowed away in a pack
when not being used.

3 Finds pack
You’ll need a backpack
or satchel to carry your
detectorist kit in, and any
finds you want to keep,
with space for a waterproof
coat or warm pullover
depending on the weather
in the area you’re searching
in. Over several outings
you’ll likely find yourself
adding more items to your
inventory, which might
include an insulated flask
or bottle for drinks, a
sandwich box and a torch.

“Their hobby is about connecting

with the history of the land”
Other useful items
There are a few other items that experienced
detectorists often take with them to make
identification and collection easier in the
field: a spray bottle of water to rinse loose
© Alamy / Shutterstock

dirt off excavated items, an old toothbrush to

scrub away more stubborn dirt and a coin
pod to carry any loose coins – these can
often be discovered in small batches that
might once have been held in a purse.

53
 HISTORY
It’s not just hum
an-
made artefacts

HOW A METAL
that
can be found wi
th
a metal detecto

DETECTOR
r–
metal nuggets
and
meteorites can

WORKS
be
detected too

Get to know about this

vital piece of equipment
before you start

4 LCD DISPLAY
4 DETECTING TECHNIQUES
There are two basic metal-detecting methods you should
Modern metal detectors can employ to maximise your chances of finding something
distinguish between metals such
as gold, silver, iron and copper
based on their electrical
conductivity, as well as whether
the object is likely to be a coin,
jewellery or something else. 2

1 SEARCH COIL
This consists of a transmitter 2 TO THE
coil, which generates a CONTROL BOX
magnetic field that goes into When the receiver
the ground, and a receiver picks up a signal,
coil, which detects metal it sends it to the
when the magnetic field computer in the Swinging Gridding
passes over it. control box, which You may have seen detectorists waving This is simply the path you take to
determines whether their metal detectors over the ground, sweep as much of the ground as
it’s a metal object or but there’s more to this than meets the possible. On a site that isn’t yielding
something else, like eye. It’s vital that you keep the coil of much, this might simply be a case of
soil mineralisation. your metal detector close to the ground walking up and down in rows. But on
at all times during each swing or it won’t more productive sites you should walk
3 TREASURE FOUND be able to detect properly. Keep the arc up and down, left to right and diagonally
If a metal object is detected, of your swing small so that you’re not in both directions. Even though it might
1
the detector makes a lifting it more than a couple of inches seem pointless to sweep the same patch
beeping sound. The off the surface. It’s also important to of ground again, some targets won’t be
detectorist can hear this overlap your swings to ensure you’ve detected when moving in one direction
3 through a pair of headphones efficiently detected every inch of the but will produce a strong signal when
plugged into an audio jack. ground in your path. swept in another direction.

THE LAW
Is treasure hunting
permitted in your
country?
PERMITTED
PROHIBITED
PERMITTED BY PERMIT

54
DID YOU KNOW? In 2024, two UK detectorists who failed to declare a £12 million ($15.5 million) Viking hoard were jailed for over eight years

British Museum
WHAT IS THE SENIOR

© Trustees of the
TREASURE
FAC T S
INCREDIBLE
AMATEUR
TREASURE?
There’s a legal definition of ‘treasure’ in England,
Wales and Northern Ireland that was established
REGISTRAR
AT THE
DETECTORIST
FINDS
under the 1996 Treasure Act. Essentially, any
gold or silver item that is at least 300 years old,
any group of ten or more base (non-precious)
BRITISH Richardson holding part of a

MUSEUM
Bronze Age hoard at the
metal coins that are at least 300 years old, a British Museum

1 HENRY VIII’S
MISSING CROWN
The solid-gold centrepiece
group of two or more prehistoric base metal
items or anything found with a treasure object,
Ian Richardson and his team are responsible
should be considered treasure. A similar but
made for the English king’s for acquiring and assessing thousands of
broader law exists in Scotland.
crown was thought to be lost
treasure items found across Britain
forever after Charles I fled the What if you find it?
battle of Naseby in 1645, until
a detectorist dug it out of tree Treasure needs to be reported to the county What stage in the process are you involved in?
roots in a Northamptonshire finds liaison officer or a local museum within 14 I would say most of it – almost all of it is what our
field in 2021. It was valued at days of discovery. There are finer points to the team keeps track of. Basically, when someone finds
£2 million ($2.6 million). legal definition, but a good rule of thumb is that something that they suspect meets the definition of

2 HAND OF FAITH if you dig something up that you’re unsure of, treasure, we need to put it through the legal process.
This record-breaking gold report it. If your find is deemed to be treasure We monitor and keep track of it and do little bits of
nugget shaped like a human and a museum expresses an interest in it, a processing along the way, all the way up until either no
hand was found under 30 committee will have the treasure valued and you museum wants to acquire the find, so it’s disclaimed and
centimetres of soil in Victoria, will be entitled to a share of its value, possibly returned to the finder or landowner, or a museum does
Australia, in 1980. It’s the half if you’re splitting it with the landowner.
world’s biggest gold nugget want it and it’s valued, and they pay that amount of
found with a metal detector money to us. We pay it out as a reward to the finder and
and weighs in at over 27 What if it’s not treasure? landowner, then it’s in that museum’s collection.
kilograms. It was sold for the If you’re detecting on someone else’s land, you
equivalent of $3.5 million
need to inform the landowner of anything you Have you been involved in a find that has changed
(£2.7 million) today.
find and want to take away, even if it’s not how historians view that period of history?

3 THE MARYBOROUGH
METEORITE
A 4.6-billion-year-old space
treasure. In England, Wales and Northern
Ireland, you don’t have to report non-treasure
The biggest one that I can think of is probably the
Staffordshire hoard, which is a collection of several
antiquities, although you are encouraged to thousand artefacts, some quite substantial gold and
rock was discovered by a record them on the Portable Antiquities Scheme
gold prospector in Victoria, garnet items, mostly bits of weaponry, pieces of sword
(PAS) database. This will help the UK’s national
Australia, in 2015. It weighs 17 and helmet. It wasn’t found in the traditional areas where
kilograms and is thought to museums build a fuller history of the land on a
lots of high-status Anglo-Saxon artefacts had been
have fallen to Earth between local and possibly national level.
discovered previously, in East Anglia and Kent. Finding
100 and 1,000 years ago.
it in the Midlands meant that it was demonstrating that

4 COENWULF COIN
A unique, 1,200-year-old Did
Anglo-Saxon material culture was quite advanced and
prolific throughout England.
gold coin featuring a portrait
of the English king Coewulf you know?
was found near the river Ivel Do you have any advice for young treasure hunters?
Nearly 2 million
in England in 2001. It was Go to our website, the Portable Antiquities Scheme,
objects are
bought in 2006 for £357,832 read the advice for finders and the code of practice
by the British Museum.
recorded on the
PAS database for responsible detecting. You always have to get the

5 SANTA MARGARITA permission of the person who owns the land, and every
CHALICE bit of land in Britain is owned by someone. And if you
While searching in shallow ever have a question about what you found, do get in
water off the Florida coast in touch with your finds liaison officer. Try to have a
2008, a detectorist dug up
relationship with them – there’s
what he thought was a beer
can at first, but turned one in every county in England
out to be a 17th- and covering most places in Wales
century gold chalice – so that you can share your finds
that sank with a
and hopefully contribute to the
© AdobeStock /Shutterstock

Spanish ship called

the Margarita in archeological record and our
1622. It was understanding of the past.
valued at over $1
million at Beneath Our Feet, by Michael Lewis
the time. and Ian Richardson, is available
from book stores now

55
 HISTORY

DR KRISTINA
KILLGROVE
Anthropologist and
science writer
Who mummified their

© Dr Kristina Killgrove
dead most recently?
“The Guanche people of
the Canary Islands were
mummifying their dead
It’s not just people who were mummified in ancient in a process similar to Egyptian
mummification up to the time the
Egypt – animals were too. But why was this done? Spanish settled there in the 1400s.
And the Inca mummified their dead
WORDS GRAHAM BARLOW well into the 16th century.”

hen we think about mummies, we holidayed in Egypt. “Archival records tell us

W tend to think of wealthy Egyptian

pharaohs who were buried in grand
tombs along with their gold. But it
about a shipment of cat mummies that arrived
at the docks in Liverpool in February 1890
containing 19 tonnes of cat mummies from
wasn’t just humans who were mummified, as Beni Hasan,” says McKnight. “The mummies
millions of animals were preserved too. were used as ballast on the ship, but once
In ancient Egypt, some creatures were they got to Liverpool the majority were
worshipped as cult animals and were thought ground down as fertiliser or used as
to be manifestations of the gods. They were foundations for roads.”
idolised while alive, and mummified with the Thankfully, not all of the cat
same degree of respect as royalty. Other mummies delivered to Britain ended
mummified animals were beloved family up spread on our fields. Some were
pets, and there were also ‘victual mummies’ bought for museum collections
– those that were simply meant to be a tasty after they were sold in dockside
snack in the afterlife. auctions and have now been
But it’s the votive animal mummies – catalogued for posterity by
creatures sacrificed as offerings – that form the Bio Bank project.
the vast majority of specimens that survive
in museums around the world today. “Votive
mummies were produced all round Egypt,
mainly towards the end of ancient Egyptian
history when foreign invasions took place,”
says Dr Lidija McKnight, senior research
associate in Egyptology at the University of
Leicester. “And their popularity may have
been due to the desire to assert national
pride at a time of uncertainty.”
McKnight and her colleague Dr Stephanie 3
Atherton-Woolham of the University of
Manchester have been working on votive
animal mummies for many years and have 4
compiled the Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio 4 MUMMY MENAGERIE
Bank – a centralised database and image This mummified cat would have
bank of mummified animal material from been intended for the goddess
museums worldwide. The project aims to Bastet. Cats seem to have been by
increase awareness of Egyptian animal far the most common type of animal
mummies by showing that they are just as mummy. But there are mummified
examples of almost every beast,
important as their human counterparts.
except pigs or hippos.
Animal mummies were interred at catacomb
sites across Egypt, usually during annual
3 RELIGIOUS SACRIFICE
ceremonies presided over by priests of a cult.
Many of these catacombs were excavated
“In ancient Egypt, some Animals intended as gifts to the gods
were often raised on temple grounds
during the 19th and early 20th century,
although reports say little about the
creatures were worshipped – their sole purpose in life was as an
offering. When visiting a temple,
mummies themselves. Some were even
bought as souvenirs by travellers who
as cult animals” Egyptians could buy an animal
mummy to be offered in their name.

56
DID YOU KNOW? Different types of animals were idolised at particular locations across Egypt

1 WRAPPED UP
Some animal mummies are plainly bound,
while others have elaborate patterned
wraps. Some, like this one, have painted NEW MUMMIES
faces and modelled features. Mummies
were often wrapped in a material called
IN THE MAKING
cartonnage. It was made of layers of linen Researchers at the KNH Centre
or papyrus covered with plaster. for Biomedical Egyptology at the
University of Manchester have been
trying out a little of their own animal
mummification. The idea is to use the
same techniques as those used by
ancient Egyptians to see whether they
could create a ‘stable’ mummy that
1 wouldn’t simply decay.
The first mummy was a
sparrowhawk that had been found
dead by a member of the public
and donated to the Natural History
Museum in London, who handed it to
the team in Manchester. They first
took a computerised tomography
(CT) scan of the bird to assess
how damaged it was before
mummification. “This formed the
baseline from which we could
establish whether the mummification
procedure causes any fractures to the
bones,” says McKnight. Next, a hot
resin and beeswax emulsion was
poured over the bird. The internal
organs were not removed and no
Did natron – a drying agent – was used.
you know? “We don’t see evidence of this in the
votive animal mummies generally,”
Crocodiles were
often mummified says McKnight.
and buried with At least three birds have been
artefacts mummified in this way, and it has
proven to be a success. The 21st-
century mummies are X-rayed
regularly to chart the desiccation
of the organs and soft tissues. “We
thought it might be a tall order to get a
bird to preserve to a stable point in a
lab in cold, damp Manchester. But so
far all of our bird mummies have
preserved perfectly.”
2 KEEP IT SIMPLE
The process for creating votive
2 animal mummies appears to have
been very straightforward.

© The Trustees of the Natural History Museum, London / Dr Lidija M. McKnight / Alamy
There’s little evidence that
they underwent the traditional
techniques used on humans,
such as desiccation using natron
(a form of salt) and the removal
of their internal organs.
© Dr Lidija M. McKnight

SOME MUMMIES ARE NOT WHAT THEY SEEM

X-rays have shown that some wraps purchasers. But the researchers think
don’t contain any remains, and some there’s a more innocent explanation.
contain just parts of one animal or “We think that the Egyptians thought
parts of several. Traditionally, this that a part represents the whole,” A dead sparrowhawk is covered with resin
has been seen as an attempt to dupe says McKnight. and beeswax prior to mummification

57
 TRANSPORT The Ramform Titan in 2020

This prospecting vessel

6 SPEED
sails while using sound Surveys are typically
carried out at speeds
to track down precious of between four and
6
five knots, or around
underwater resources 5.7 miles per hour.

WORDS SCOTT DUTFIELD

ow do the world’s oil companies

H know where to find oil fields out

in the ocean? Without any signs
above the water’s surface to rely
on, companies turn to a subsea technique
called seismic surveying. To hunt for hidden
oil fields, vessels such as Ramform, a fleet of
seismic vessels owned by a Norwegian-based
energy intelligence company called TGS, are
deployed to scan the seafloor.
To achieve this, a triangular-shaped
ship releases an array of sensors called
geophones that trail on streamers
behind the vessel. In much Did
the same way that bats use
echolocation to ‘see’ their
surroundings, geophones record
you know?
There were 213
LISTENING FOR OIL
How Ramform Titan can detect oil using
distance by bouncing sound offshore oil sophisticated underwater listening equipment
waves off layers of subsurface
rigs worldwide
in 2024
rock to create a 3D map of the
ocean floor and the layers of rock
beneath it. Sound waves travel at different
speeds when they move through solid rock
and viscous oil. Typically, sound waves move
faster through dense solid rock than they
do in liquids like oil. By tracking differences
in timing as the sound waves return to the
geophones, the sensors are able to map out Streamers are rolled out through
potential oil fields within the layers of subsea these openings at the rear of the
rock. These sensors can also detect the triangular Ramform Titan
presence of hydrocarbons that may have
escaped and risen through the water column
from underground deposits.
The largest Ramform vessel is called Titan.
At 104.2 metres long and 70 metres wide, the
triangular ship can extend 24 streamer reels
lined with geophones. Once a vessel like Titan
has completed its survey and a potential oil
field has been located, oil companies such as
BP or Shell build offshore rigs to drill into the
field and pump out the oil reserve. As of 2025,
roughly 28 per cent of the world’s crude oil
production comes from offshore sites.

58
DID YOU KNOW? An estimated 1.6 billion barrels of recoverable oil remain around the world Another TGS seismic survey
vessel, Sanco Swift, deploying
sensors to survey the ocean

4 DIVERTERS 3 GEOPHONES 5 BUOYS

Diverter buoys either Along the ship’s streamers are To prevent any collisions
side of the sensor array several geophone sensors, which between the streamers
are used to keep the can detect sound waves and and other vessels, buoys
streamers spread out calculate the distance they’ve at the end of the streamers
during the survey. travelled from the seafloor. are equipped with radar
reflectors and flashing lights.

3
FAC TS
WORLD’S
BIGGEST
7 OIL RIGS

1 PACIFIC BERKUT
Around 4.5 million
tonnes of crude oil is
extracted from this
Russian rig each year. The
1 SOUND WAVES 1
rig itself stands over 144
metres tall and weighs
Sound waves generated around 200,000 tonnes.
by either a burst of air
pressure or explosives
travel from the vessel
to the ocean floor.
2 STONES FLOATING
PRODUCTION,
STORAGE AND
OFFLOADING
(FPSO) FACILITY
Found in the Gulf of
Mexico, this American
2 rig drills the deepest of
any oil rig. It extracts
7 WIDE REACH crude oil from a depth
of around 2,896 metres.
Titan’s streamers and geophone
2 DETECTION
3
array can survey an area greater PERDIDO
Emitted sound waves hit the
than 4.6 square miles. Also found in the Gulf
topography of the seafloor,
of Mexico, this rig handles
reverberate and are redirected
the removal of around
towards the surface. 100,000 barrels of oil per
day. Almost as tall as the
Eiffel Tower, this rig weighs
around 22,000 tonnes.

4 HIBERNIA
This 106-metre-long

UNDERWATER RUMBLE rig has storage tanks

that can hold up to 1.3
million barrels of crude
To generate enough sound waves to map the seafloor, seismic
oil. Due to its position
vessels typically release either an explosion or air blast rapidly
in the North Atlantic,
© Shutterstock / Alamy / Illustration by Nicholas Forder

over short periods of time. These explosive sounds can go off it has been designed to
as frequently as every ten seconds during operations. Each blast withstand collisions with
can reach more than 250 decibels, according to the Center for icebergs up to 1.1 million
Biological Diversity. This can be heard for miles underground, tonnes in weight.
causing “hearing loss and disturbing essential behaviours” such
as feeding and communication among marine mammals. A 2019
study published in the journal Scientific Reports found an 88 per
5 GULLFAKS A
Found in the North
Sea, this Norwegian-
cent decrease in sightings of baleen whales, such as humpback Humpback whales are one of the many owned oil rig holds the
whales, and a 53 per cent decline in toothed whale sightings, marine mammals whose communication with record for oil production at
such as sperm whales, during active seismic surveys. one another is affected by seismic surveys 605,965 barrels in a day,
achieved in 1994.

59
 TRANSPORT

Firefighting planes can fly as close as 15

metres to the ground during missions FLAME-
SUPPRESSING
SUPERTANKER
The Boeing 747 Supertanker is
equipped to tackle wild infernos

2 RETARDANT TANKS
The supertanker stores Phos-
Chek fire retardant, a fertiliser-
based liquid of polymers,
surfactants and water, to coat
vegetation and stop wildfires.

3 LARGE TANKS
The main storage tanks hold
72,700 litres of retardant.

Did
you know?
80 per cent of US
wildfires are caused
by humans

3
2

7 INTAKE VALVE

HOW FIREFIGHTING
To top up its contents,
the supertanker needs
to return to the ground.
It can make multiple
drops in one day.

AEROPLANES WORK
Aerial firefighters are essential machines used
“Aerial firefighting
is also much safer
for the firefighters”
to cover and contain rapid-spreading wildfires WORDS AILSA HARVEY

ildfires can travel at speeds of over sulphate. These mineral salts coat the chemicals onto the flames to reduce the

W 14 miles an hour, escalating into

large fiery furnaces that can be
impossible to extinguish from the
surrounding grass and other flammable
vegetation to stop oxygen from reaching it,
therefore reducing the fire’s fuel source.
intensity of a wildfire. This method lowers
the temperature and coats the ground to
block the fire’s access to fuel. By lowering the
ground alone. This is where firefighting planes Aerial firefighting is also much safer for the temperature, any ground-based firefighters
come into play. These often low-flying vehicles firefighters as it creates distance between can approach the wildfire and have a better
target the areas of and around blazing fires, them and the fire. Conditions are usually too chance of putting it out. Indirect attacks work
releasing a cloudy trail behind them. This trail hot and dangerous to approach from the by aiming retardant at unburnt areas. This is
is fire retardant, which sinks to the ground and ground. Using aircraft, the process of fire called a firebreak. By planning ahead of the
stops the flames spreading. Fire retardant is extinguishing can take place with two different fire’s path, the land is made less flammable
usually ammonium phosphate or ammonium methods. A direct attack involves dropping and fire can be stopped in its tracks.

60
DID YOU KNOW? Wildfires add 5 to 8 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere a year

The CL-215 can refill 5,000 litres while EARLY ORIGINS

skimming over water for ten seconds Aerial firefighting planes have been used since the early 20th
century. This type of aircraft, which began as experimentation
with military helicopters, revolutionised the way fires could be put
out. The idea of using planes to fight fires was inspired by the use
of military helicopters in spreading insecticides and herbicides.
The first firefighting planes involved a similar method, dropping
water from planes with no self-dispensing technology.
One of the first aircraft to be designed specifically as
a firefighting plane was the Canadair CL-215. This plane
targeted wildfires and was designed in the late 1960s.
The CL-215 scooped water from large bodies like
lakes or had to land for regular refills. It gained
the nickname ‘super scooper’ for its ability to
land on lakes.
1

4 DISCHARGE VALVES
The retardant is released forcefully and
evenly through this pressurised system.

1 CALL SIGN
Firefighting planes have
4 call signs so they can
8 RED DYE be easily identified and
The retardant is red communicated with
so that its dispersal can during firefighting.
5 6 PRESSURISED AIR TANKS be easily monitored and the
Compressed air ejects the area covered made clear.
retardant faster than gravity
could spread it alone.
5 MULTIPLE DROPS
Multiple discharge
valves create an even 8
dump of retardant over
an extended period.

AERIAL BLAZE-BATTLERS
Depending on the environment, airtankers. These planes are commonly
different sizes and styles of firefighting used in incidents when a fire is in its
aircraft are deployed – from large early stages or an environment is
planes that can store great volumes of so hot that it could spontaneously
water, dispensing it across wide areas combust soon. They can only carry
© Alamy / Shutterstock / Illustration by Adrian Mann

over long periods, to smaller water 3,000 litres of fire retardant but can
scooper planes that refill themselves take off and land with little runway
when flying over bodies of water. Water space. Larger airtankers carry up to
scoopers can refill 6,000 litres of water 15,000 litres and can fly over big forest
in just 12 seconds. They have large fires, above the canopy. The Boeing 747
openings that are lowered into the Supertanker is in the biggest category
This scooper plane is
water to serve as a scoop when of firefighting aircraft, carrying 30,000
dousing flames with water
flying low over a lake. The smallest litres of fire retardant and covering 600 before refilling its tank
firefighting planes are single-engine miles per hour.

61
 SCIENCE

Why these sparkling crystalline minerals are

among the most hazardous rocks in nature

62
DID YOU KNOW? Arsenic comes from the Greek word ‘arsenikos’, meaning ‘potent’

TOXICITY RATINGS
Extremely toxic, even in small amounts
Highly toxic in certain conditions
Dangerous but not immediately lethal
Harmful when ingested
1 DRAGON’S BLOOD
Chemical composition: HgS
Harmful with prolonged contact Toxic element: Mercury
Toxic but relatively stable in normal conditions

Did Derived from the Arabic word the skin and cause damage to the
you know? ‘zinjafr’, meaning ‘dragon’s blood’,
cinnabar is a bright-red mineral
nervous system, digestive system
and immune system, as well as
China produces that is found in the fractures of multiple organs.
88 per cent of the volcanic rock. In traditional Chinese
world’s antimony medicine, cinnabar is used as a
sedative for medicinal procedures. Cinnabar was used in ancient Chin
ese
However, its toxic mercury content art as it hardens when exposed to
can cause more harm than good. oxygen and creates vibrant piece
s
As long as cinnabar isn’t heated, it’s
relatively harmless, as the mercury
is trapped within the sulphur.
However, with increasing
temperatures, the rock releases
a mercury vapour that’s toxic to
breathe in. Even in situations when
cinnabar is cool, you should avoid
touching the mineral. Mercury can
be absorbed into the body through

2 MINING HAZARD
Chemical composition:
CuSO₄·5H₂O
Toxic element: Copper

This bold-blue mineral is a water-soluble

copper sulphate that’s classed as a
secondary mineral due to the nature
of its formation. Chalcanthite comes
from the oxidation of copper sulphide
Chalcanthite is only that makes contact with water and air.
toxic when ingested Much of this toxic rock is found around
copper mines. As copper sulphide ores
are mined to extract copper from the
ground, any ores deposited above the
ground around the mine are exposed
to the air and water. If this mineral
dissolves, chalcanthite releases copper
ions into the environment, poisoning
plants and animals. A buildup of copper
in the body can severely damage your
© Alamy / Shutterstock

kidneys and liver.

63
 Did
you know?
Asbestos is
banned in 55
countries

1 ASBESTOS FIBRES
The fibres can be
straight or curled
and aren’t visible
to the human eye.

3 TOXIC EYESHADOW
Chemical composition: Sb₂S
2
Protective gear is required
Toxic element: Antimony to remove asbestos

1
When stibnite forms, it crystallises into long,
needle-like projections, These dramatic clusters 4 PIERCING
CARCINOGEN
usually form at sites of hydrothermal activity.
Sulphur and metalloid antimony undergo a
chemical reaction when there’s low oxygen and
high temperatures over 500 degrees Celsius. At Chemical composition:
hydrothermal sites, where cracks in the ocean floor Mg₃Si₂O₅(OH)₄
enable hot magma to leak above Earth’s surface, Toxic element:
6 INGESTION
Asbestos can
these conditions are met. There’s only 0.2 to 0.5 Silicate fibres be swallowed,
parts per million of antimony in Earth’s crust. When potentially
magma carrying antimony combines with sulphur in damaging
these conditions, stibnite is produced. Stibnite was stomach and
used for thousands of years as a cosmetic and as Unlike many of the minerals in this list, intestinal tissue.
medication by the ancient Egyptians. Its cosmetic asbestos isn’t toxic because of a chemical
use involved crushing stibnite into a powder to be reaction within the body – it’s its structure that
applied around the eye to darken it, in a similar causes damage. Asbestos used to be a very
fashion to modern eyeshadow. Inhaling fine stibnite common building material before its hidden
powder can lead to severe health issues, as the harm was uncovered. The mineral makes
antimony can cause heart problems, nausea floors, ceilings and roofs heat and fire resistant.
and muscle and joint pain. Over time, tiny pieces of asbestos can break
away from this insulation material, and the
microscopic fibres can be inhaled in the air.
This tool was used to apply stibnite make-up The sharp edges of asbestos fibres pierce lung
tissue and can remain in the lungs for many
years, causing scarring, inflammation and
sometimes cancer. There are around 30 million
US homes that still contain asbestos-
containing materials. Asbestos can be
encapsulated by using a sealant over the
material that prevents the fine fibres from
entering the air. In some instances, removing
the asbestos is far more risky than leaving it in
a building, as it breaks it apart and releases
great clouds of fibres into the air. You should
seek professional assistance if you believe
your home could contain asbestos.

64
 DID YOU KNOW? Globally, 125 million people are exposed to occupational asbestos every year

2 EASY INHALATION
When asbestos-
containing materials EMBEDDED
are damaged, fibres
become airborne and
are easily inhaled.
ASBESTOS
How the fibres of this carcinogenic
mineral damage lung tissue

3 DAMAGED TISSUE
Asbestos fibres pierce the tissue
in the alveoli – small air sacs in
the lungs where oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged.

5
5 GREEN FOR RADIOACTIVE
Chemical composition: Cu(UO₂)₂(PO₄)₂•11(H₂O)
4 Toxic element: Uranium

Tobernite is a bright-green Over time, as this oxidises

4 LUNG CANCER 5 SCAR TISSUE radioactive rock. It’s a copper and weathers, tobernite is
As asbestos infiltrates lung phosphate that contains the produced. Tobernite releases
Asbestos-damaged
cell can cause tissue, it causes scarring that element uranium. Tobernite radon gas naturally, which can
genetic changes that prevents the lungs expanding forms as a secondary mineral cause lung cancer if the body is
result in abnormal and contracting, making when uranium-containing exposed to it for long enough.
cell growth. breathing painful. deposits oxidise. Cornwall The uranium in tobernite has
in England is a hotspot for unstable atoms, which causes
tobernite, and is where the it to release dangerous ionising
mineral was first discovered. particles. When inhaled,
“Asbestos used to Cornwall has a lot of granite
intrusions – bodies of rock
tobernite can cause lung,
kidney and bone damage.
be a very common formed by magma cooling
beneath the surface – in its
It emits both alpha and beta
radiation, the latter of which
building material” landscape. Granite contains can penetrate your skin if
© Alamy / Shutterstock

trace amounts of uranium. you’re exposed to the mineral.

65
 SCIENCE

6 KILLER CONCOCTION
Chemical composition: (Tl,Pb)₂As₅S₉
Toxic element: Thallium, lead and arsenic

Found in hydrothermal vents, hutchinsonite is an

arsenic sulphide that contains thallium and lead.
Thallium and arsenic are the two most deadly
minerals in this rock, which can be fatal when
ingested. Thallium is the 60th most abundant element
in Earth’s crust, and because it’s highly
toxic and nearly tasteless, it’s used in rat
rare, but can
poison and insecticides. Hutchinsonite Hutchinsonite is very
Mine, Peru
was discovered by Arthur Hutchinson in be found in Quiruvilca
1904. With three of its four minerals being
lethal upon entering the human body, the
rock has a high toxicity rating. Thallium can Did
cause severe neurological damage. Arsenic you know?
is poisonous, carcinogenic and can cause
organ failure, while lead poisoning can The Romans used
cinnabar to paint
result in brain damage.
interior walls

7 KING’S GOLD
Chemical composition:
As₂S₃
Toxic element:
Arsenic

8 BLUE DEATH
Orpiment is a golden-yellow transparent rock that was
used in ancient Middle Eastern art as a bright pigment.
The mineral became known as ‘king’s gold’, as many
people experimented with the golden rock to try to find Chemical composition:
ways to extract real gold from it for kings. It’s likely that Na₂(Fe2+₃Fe3+₂)Si₈O₂₂(OH)₂
this excessive testing of orpiment led to the discovery The crystal
Toxic element: Silicon structure of
of its toxic nature. The arsenic in orpiment causes
riebeckite has
tissue damage, skin darkening, skin thickening, sores
double chains of
and heart disease. Despite its detriment to skin in the silica tetrahedra.
long term, ancient Chinese medicine involved using Riebeckite is also known as blue This looks like tiny
orpiment to apply to skin ulcers. It was thought that asbestos and is considered a more pyramids linked in
it helped by drying out ulcers. hazardous variation because it’s parallel chains
extremely strong and even thinner
in structure. This makes the silicate
fibres easier to inhale and better at products that were used for inhalation,
piercing lung tissue. Riebeckite is also including cigarette filters and in the
known as crocidolite and is grey-blue filter materials of early gas masks.
or green-blue in colour. It was banned Riebeckite is believed to be
in the UK in 1985. Prior to this, in responsible for more cancer deaths
the 1950s riebeckite was used in than any other type of asbestos.
s/ Ra’ike

Orpiment turns to
© Wikimedia Common

powder easily and can

atched
break apart when scr
l
with a fingernail or coi

66
DID YOU KNOW? Lead poisoning is responsible for around 1.5 per cent of deaths worldwide annually

This close up of arsenopyrite

shows its boxy structure

9 SYSTEM SHOCK
Chemical composition: PbS Toxic element: Lead
4 MENTAL CHANGES
In adults, lead

4
poisoning can cause
memory loss,
headaches, irritability 10 POISON
3 BEHAVIOURAL PROBLEMS
Lead poisoning can reduce a
child’s attention span. Severe
poisoning causes long-lasting
2
and depression.
PRISMS
Chemical composition: FeAsS
brain damage. Toxic element: Arsenic
2 LOWER
3 5 ABSORPTION
1 HIGH Adults absorb
ABSORPTION 10 to 15 per
cent of the lead Arsenopyrite is a silver-white mineral
Children absorb that contains the most arsenic of any
40 to 50 per they ingest.
1 7 naturally occurring mineral – around 46
cent of the lead
they ingest. per cent of arsenopyrite is made up
of this toxic element. The rest is 34 per
5 INCREASING cent iron and 20 per cent sulphur. The
8 BLOOD
6 7 rock is sourced from hydrothermal
6 ANAEMIA PRESSURE vents and forms prism-shaped crystal
Lead in the body Lead exposure
prevents the can damage structures. The toxic properties of the
production of the cells lining arsenic in arsenopyrite have led to
the protein blood vessels, arsenopyrite being used in herbicides,
haemoglobin in red 9 preventing insecticides and rat poison. Countries
blood cells. This their dilation. where large arsenopyrite deposits have
reduces the oxygen been discovered and extracted include
carried in the body,
causing anaemia. 7 KIDNEY Bolivia, China, England, Germany,
DAMAGE Greece and Japan. Generally, people
A buildup aren’t exposed to arsenopyrite in
of lead can everyday life. But those involved in gold
damage cells mining are likely to find themselves in
8 DIGESTIVE ISSUES in the kidneys environments where the harmful rock is
Lead poisoning can that are needed deposited. If it’s broken into dust it can
cause constipation, to filter waste
enter the body through inhalation, while
nausea and low out of the body.
appetite. there’s danger of arsenic leaching into
soil and water near mining sites.

LEAD
SULPHIDE
Galena is the primary ore of lead. How
9 REPRODUCTIVE ISSUES
In males, lead lowers sperm
does this element affect the body? count, and in females lead can
© Alamy / Shutterstock

cause spontaneous miscarriage.

67
 SCIENCE

cluster
Each vine
lds arou nd 100
ho
l grapes
individua

1
2 EXTRACTING JUICE
From grape to glass, the Typically, after separating
the grapes from their
ancient process of making 1 HARVEST
stems, the fruit is
crushed by machinery or

one of the world’s most Grapes are

gathered by
by barefoot stamping to
squeeze out the juice.
handpicking or
popular beverages trawling through
vineyards with
WORDS SCOTT DUTFIELD specialised
machinery. 9 BOTTLING
ine has been made for around 8,000 years, After maturing, wine is pumped

W
into sterilised bottles and sealed
ever since the ancient Georgians realised that
by inserting a cork or screw cap.
grape juice left underground during the winter
would transform into a head-spinning elixir.
Now, around 22 billion litres of wine are consumed each
year across the globe. There are 60 different grapevines
that grow the fruit for wine, the majority coming from a 9
single species called Vitis vinifera. Although most wine –
Did
red and white – comes from this species, genetic variations you know?
in the plant can produce different flavours and colours of Grapes have been
wine. There are around 1,500 variations of Vitis vinifera around for 66
grown around the world. Many of the world’s wines are million years
named after these grape variations. For example, Cabernet “There are
Sauvignon was created by crossbreeding Cabernet Franc
and Sauvignon Blanc grapes. around 1,500
The colour of the grapes depends largely on specific
pigments in their skin called anthocyanins. White grapes variations
lack the pigment, but red grapes are packed with it. Different
concentrations of the pigment in the fruit will determine grown around
its hue, along with the pH of the plant’s soil. For example,
the more acidic (low pH) the soil, the more red the grape, CONSUMPTION the world”
while alkaline (high pH) soil produces fruit with more blue
colouring. It takes around three years for a grapevine to
mature before it bears wine-making fruit. The plant will then
continue to bear around 40 clusters of fruit each year for
up to around 30 years before its grape production begins
to decline. One grapevine’s yearly bounty is enough to SHIELDED FROM THE SUN
produce ten bottles of wine, equal to around 4,000 grapes. Why does red wine always come in dark glass bottles, while white
To transform the juice of the grapes into a boozy wine and rosé are often served from clear bottles? Using a dark
beverage, the grapes must undergo a process known as bottle protects the wine within from ultraviolet (UV) radiation
vinification, where the grapes are pressed, fermented and in the Sun’s light. When exposed to UV rays, the light-sensitive
the juices filtered. During the fermentation process, added compounds in wine, such as tannins, can alter the wine’s flavour.
yeast converts sugar into an alcohol called ethanol. Wine It can also increase oxidation within the wine, which converts
ethanol into a compound called acetaldehyde, which can make
is often exposed to a secondary fermentation, called
it taste more like vinegar over time. Red wine is typically stored
malolactic fermentation, which uses bacteria to convert
outside a refrigerator, where sunlight might find it. White wine,
harsh-tasting malic acid into softer lactic acid. By the end
on the other hand, is often stored in a fridge, which does the
of the process, the final wine is made up of around 98 per
same job as dark glass.
cent water and ethanol, with just two per cent attributed to
compounds that supply the wine’s flavour, scent and colour.

68
 Many vineya
DID YOU KNOW? There’s around 28,200 square miles of land used for vineyards around the world hand pressi
rds use
ng to
crush grapes

4 SKINS OFF OR ON?

PRESSING GRAPES
From vineyard to vino, follow the steps of bottling
The grapes of red and rosé wines are
fermented with their skins to develop
flavour and colour. White grapes are
one of the world’s favourite beverages usually fermented without their skins.

3
5

3 FERMENTATION 5 PRESSING
Wine is popular Grape juice is After fermenting, the
at mealtimes combined with wine is pressed to
sugar and yeast separate the liquid
and left to from the skins.
ferment, creating
alcohol in the
process. 6 CLARIFICATION
Sediment is removed by spinning
the wine at high speeds or
combining it with refining agents,
which cause the particles to settle
at the bottom of large steel drums.

8 AGEING
Oak barrels, stainless-steel
drums or traditional terracotta
jugs are used to store and 6
mature the wine for as little as
a few months to several years.
7

8
7 FILTRATION
Wine is passed through a variety of filters, such as
thin porous membranes, to collect unwanted solids.

Soaking white grapes in

their own skins can produce
this amber-coloured wine
RED, WHITE OR ORANGE?
Also known as skin-contact or macerate wine, orange wine is
made by using the grapes that make white wine, but treating
them like they were red. In particular, it includes a stage called
maceration, which is used to make red wine, but not white wine.
During the maceration process, grapes are left to soak in their
skins after being pressed. This helps impart flavour and colour to
the final wine. When white wine grapes are macerated, chemical
compounds such as tannins and anthocyanins produce the wine’s
orange blush. Grapes can be left to macerate for anywhere
© Shutterstock

between 24 hours and many months.

69
 SCIENCE

WHAT IS BLOOD CELL

BREAKDOWN
JAUNDICE?
How bilirubin hops around the body’s organs
before it eventually finds its way into a toilet

This condition, common LIVER SPLEEN

in newborns, can turn skin RED BLOOD CELLS

and eyes a shade of yellow 2 1

WORDS SCOTT DUTFIELD 2 LIVER

The spleen’s macrophages also
f you’ve noticed that your skin and the release bilirubin from broken-down

I whites of your eyes have started to develop

a yellow hue, there’s a chance you might be
suffering from a condition called jaundice.
3 GALLBLADDER
The water-soluble
red blood cells, which is taken up
by liver cells. Once in the liver, the
bilirubin is bound to glucuronic acid,
which makes it water soluble.
Also known as hyperbilirubinemia, the name jaundice bilirubin, also RECYC 3
comes from the French word ‘jaune’, meaning yellow. called conjugated
LING
The cause of this sudden shift in skin tone is due to bilirubin, is then GALLBLADDER 1 SPLEEN
the buildup of a substance called bilirubin in the blood. passed to the As the body’s blood
As a naturally occurring waste product, bilirubin gets gallbladder, where sorting office, the
it’s stored in a spleen detects changes
left behind when red blood cells are broken down
digestive fluid in the structure of old red
and recycled for iron and other compounds.
called bile. 4 blood cells. Cells called
Normally, bilirubin is passed through the body’s macrophages digest
filtration system and excreted. However, for jaundice these cells and cycle
sufferers, the levels of bilirubin in the blood are much 5 KIDNEYS iron back into the
too high. High concentrations of bilirubin’s yellow- Some urobilinogen bloodstream.
orange pigment can seep into the skin, eyes and passes into the INTESTINES
mucous membranes, such as the inside of your kidneys, where
mouth and nose, turning them yellow. it’s oxidised and
removed in urine.
There are many different reasons why an adult might
It also gives urine 4 INTESTINES
develop jaundice, including gallstones, autoimmune The bile and bilirubin pass
its yellow hue. COLON
diseases, cancer or liver damage. Newborns are the KIDNEYS through the intestines,
most likely group to develop the condition though, where intestinal bacteria
because at birth the liver isn’t fully developed. The break down the bilirubin
liver is a vital organ in the processing of
5 further into a compound
bilirubin, especially in converting it into called urobilinogen.
Did 6
a water-soluble substance for waste
removal. The tiny, underdeveloped you know? 6 COLON
Some urobilinogen passes
livers of newborns aren’t as efficient Bilirubin is the through the colon and converts
as recycling blood, but typically reason poo into stercobilin, which is passed
reverse the symptoms of jaundice is brown out of the body in faeces.
within days as the liver matures.

BABIES UNDER BLUE LIGHT

According to the UK’s National Health commonly used. Phototherapy uses a
Service, it’s estimated that six out of every particular wavelength of blue light over
ten newborn babies develop jaundice. Among the skin. The light changes the structure of
premature babies born before 37 weeks, that bilirubin, making it more water-soluble and
figure increases to eight out of ten. If the easier for the body to process and remove.
© Shutterstock / Getty

jaundice doesn’t correct itself on its own and Alternatively, an exchange transfusion may
doctors detect very high levels of bilirubin in be done, where the baby’s blood is removed ing blue-light
A newborn baby receiv
the baby’s blood, one of two treatments is and replaced with a donor’s. erapy to treat jaundice
phototh

70
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 SPACE

WORDS ANDREW MAY

Asteroid 2024 YR4 may not be

the serious threat it was once
thought to be, but scientists are
still concerned about the possibility
of future asteroid collisions

72
DID YOU KNOW? In 1989, the large asteroid 4581 Asclepius, 300 metres across, came within 425,000 miles of hitting Earth

s Earth travels through space, there’s the possibility of an asteroid big

A it’s constantly colliding with

anything that crosses its path.
This ranges from extremely small
enough to destroy a town or city, and that’s
something astronomers are taking
increasingly seriously. At the same time,
objects to much larger ones, with far more of it’s important to keep things in perspective,
the former than the latter. At the small end of because nothing of this kind is known to
the spectrum are tiny particles of cosmic have happened in human history. There
dust, much too small to be seen without a have, however, been several close calls.
microscope, that end up in gutters and Perhaps the most famous of these was the
drains. At a larger scale are the rock-like Tunguska event of 1908, when a 30-metre-
meteorites sometimes seen in museums – diameter asteroid exploded above Russia.
small chunks of asteroids that have survived Fortunately this happened in a remote area
the journey through Earth’s atmosphere. This of forest, and the only casualties were the
journey slows them down to relatively millions of trees that were knocked
modest speeds, so even if they hit
Did down by the blast. However, with a
a car or building when they reach
the ground, they rarely do much
you know? thousand times as much energy as
an atomic bomb, the effects would
damage. Their main significance Bits of the be disastrous if the same thing were
is scientific in what they can tell us Chelyabinsk to happen over a populated area.
meteor are now
about the nature and composition Another close call occurred in
in museums
of interplanetary material. 2013, when a scaled-down version
Of course, people often focus on of the Tunguska event played out in a
much larger impact events, such as the different part of Russia. This involved an
Chicxulub asteroid that caused the extinction asteroid about 20 metres across, which
of the dinosaurs. That was around six miles exploded above the city of Chelyabinsk.
across – so big that the atmosphere barely Fortunately, the explosion occurred way
slowed it down at all. It still had as much up in the atmosphere, at an altitude of 18.6
energy as a billion atomic bombs when it miles. As a result, there was little damage
smashed into Earth’s surface. Fortunately, at ground level beyond a lot of broken
such occurrences are extremely few and far windows – and minor injuries to people
between. The Chicxulub event was 66 million who were close enough to those windows
years ago, and nothing remotely comparable to be struck by flying glass.
has happened to Earth since then. The Chelyabinsk event helped bring
If ordinary meteorites cause so little the dangers of an asteroid impact home
damage, and asteroids large enough to to astronomers, who now put considerable
trigger a global catastrophe are so rare, is effort into locating potentially hazardous
there any cause for worry at all? The answer objects before they become a serious
is maybe. Between those two extremes, collision risk.

THE TORINO SCALE

Thousands of asteroids travel around the Sun
on orbits that periodically bring them close to
Earth. While astronomers refer to these as
‘potentially hazardous asteroids’, the emphasis
is on ‘potentially’. In most cases, there is zero
chance of a collision with our planet in the
foreseeable future. For the small number of
exceptions, the International Astronomical
Union employs a classification system called
the Torino scale, after the Italian name for
Turin where it originated. The scale runs
from zero to ten, where zero means there’s
no chance of an asteroid colliding for at least a
century. To score one or higher, an asteroid
must be at least 20 metres across, with a
chance of hitting Earth in the next hundred
© AdobeStock / Shutterstock / ESA

years of at least one in a hundred million. The

higher the chance, or the larger the asteroid,
the higher up the scale it appears.
The Torino scale can be visualised
as a two-dimensional chart

73
 SPACE

se quarters
as seen from clo
Asteroid Bennu, ecraf t
S-REx spac
by NASA’s OSIRI

1 INITIAL DETECTION
This may come from a
spacecraft or ground-
based observatory, or
even from an amateur
astronomer.

2 COMBINING DATA WHAT’S

THE RISK?
All new asteroid
data goes into a
central repository
at the International 2 Asteroid threat assessment is
Astronomical Union’s the process astronomers use
Minor Planet Center. to decide how dangerous a
newly discovered asteroid is
3 RISK ANALYSIS
Two independent
groups do this: NASA’s
Center for Near-Earth
Object Studies and 3
the European Space
Agency’s Near-Earth
Object Coordination
Centre in Italy.
4
4 COMPUTER
PREDICTIONS
The risk assessment
centres around
computer modelling
of the asteroid’s orbit
and its likelihood of
colliding with Earth.

5 COMPARE RESULTS 5
When the two risk
assessments have CROSS-VALIDATE IMPACT RISKS
been completed, the
results are compared
to check they agree 6
with each other.

6 WARNING
If a collision is Did
imminent, which has you know?
never happened so far, Comets pose
then warnings will be collision risks as
passed to appropriate well as asteroids
authorities.

74
DID YOU KNOW? 2024 YR4 was discovered by the dramatically named Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS)

NEO SURVEYOR OBSERVING

The Near-Earth Object Surveyor is an
upcoming NASA mission designed to
search for potentially hazardous ASTEROID
asteroids. Scheduled for launch in
2027, it will consist of an infrared
space telescope located part way
between Earth and the Sun. This
2024 YR4
Earlier this year, astronomer Olivier
vantage point will allow it to observe
asteroids on the Sun side of Earth –
Hainaut gave his thoughts on this
something that has proven difficult potentially high-risk asteroid

© European Southern Observatory

for ground-based or Earth-orbiting
telescopes. Originally proposed How is the risk of collision calculated,
as long ago as 2006, the mission and could it change?
repeatedly failed to secure funding You measure the position of the asteroid in Dr Olivier Hainaut is a Belgian
from NASA’s science budget due to front of the background stars over as many astronomer working at the European
competition from other proposed nights as possible, then solve for the orbit, Southern Observatory in Chile
projects. In the end, because of the which is the 3D trajectory of the asteroid in
wider importance of the mission, it space. The longer you can measure, the
was decided to fund it as a matter better you know the orbit. Currently, we of disasters. Keep in mind that if the asteroid
of national security instead. could observe YR4 for a little less than two does impact, it’s not a large one – possibly a
months over its four-year orbit, so we need to few times larger than the one that blasted
extrapolate a lot, hence the large above Chelyabinsk in 2013.
uncertainty. As we observe
more, the orbit will be refined, “The longer If 2024 YR4 was on a collision
and we will know better where course with Earth, what could
the asteroid will be in 2032. you measure, we do to stop it or prepare for
[Although the chances of 2024 its impact?
YR4 hitting Earth in 2032 have the better First, refine the orbit to determine
now been calculated to be whether it will hit or not. If it will,
negligible, there’s a stronger you know then nudge it to slightly change its
possibility that it will hit the orbit so that it misses Earth. The
Moon in the same year.] the orbit” sooner the better, as a later nudge
will need to be larger. To nudge it,
How worrying was this? refer to NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection
Artist’s impression of the NEO Surveyor It’s typical to start preparing for disaster relief Test, which did this as a test on an asteroid
spacecraft in its operational configuration when the probability goes above one per cent. about twice the size of YR4. But don’t break
Astronomers did not make that number up the asteroid up, as you would end up with
– it’s what is customarily used for all kinds many more fragments to deal with.

DANGEROUS SPACE ROCKS

It’s not likely, but one of these may hit Earth

1 2 3 4 5
2024 YR4 APOPHIS BENNU 2023 TL4 1950 DA
CHANCE TO HIT: CHANCE TO HIT: CHANCE TO HIT: CHANCE TO HIT: CHANCE TO HIT:
3.1% 2.7%
This asteroid briefly peaked Almost 500 metres across
0.037% 0.003%
This is another large Briefly given a Torino score
0.33%
The chance of collision has
at three on the Torino scale – around ten times as big as asteroid that might pose a of one, this has now been now been reduced to
before being downgraded 2024 YR4 – this was once threat in the future – but downgraded to zero. The 0.0029%, and even then
© Illustration: ESA / NASA

to zero. It now has a chance rated at four on the Torino not for more than a century. asteroid’s chance of hitting not until 2880 – much too
of just 0.00082% of hitting scale, but fortunately this As such, it hasn’t been Earth in 2119 is now just far in the future to register
Earth in 2032. has now dropped to zero. given a Torino rating. 0.00055%. on the Torino scale.

75
 SPACE

SPACE RADIATION
Space is full of lethal energies we’re
not exposed to on Earth. How can
The aurora borealis
forms when radiat
solar flares reacts ion in
with Earth’s atmosp
here
astronauts protect themselves?
WORDS AILSA HARVEY

adiation is all around us – it’s a form of

R energy that travels in electromagnetic

waves or particles. Visible light, for
example, is a form of electromagnetic
radiation. This is less energetic and almost completely
harmless to your body compared to ultraviolet (UV)
light. But in space there are forms of radiation that are
different to what we come into contact with on Earth.
Cosmic radiation comes in three varieties: particles that
are trapped in Earth’s magnetic field, particles emitted
from the Sun during solar flares and galactic cosmic
rays – high-energy protons and heavy ions from outside PARTICLE
the Solar System. Space radiation is classified as
ionising radiation. This means it has enough energy PATHS
How dangerous radiation is
to alter any atom it comes into contact with by
breaking an electron away from it.
deflected around Earth 1
On Earth, people are protected from much of
this harmful radiation as our planet’s atmosphere
absorbs some of the most harmful wavelengths
and its magnetic field deflects charged particles
away from Earth. But astronauts travelling through
space outside Earth’s protective bubble need to be
protected from much more intense levels of radiation. 1 SOLAR FLARE
The International Space Station (ISS) is built to block Huge eruptions from the
much of this harmful radiation, but it isn’t radiation- Sun, called solar flares,
proof. On the ISS, astronauts are exposed to radiation release intense bursts of
radiation that span the
doses between 80 and 160 millisieverts – a unit of
electromagnetic spectrum.
measurement for radiation absorbed by the body –
over the course of six months. For comparison, one
millisievert is the amount of ionising radiation the
body is exposed to during three chest x-rays.

HYDROGEL SHIELDS
Scientists have discovered that a super-absorbent polymer
material called hydrogel could be used in space to protect
against radiation. Hydrogels are three-dimensional
structures made up of crosslinked polymer chains that can
absorb large volumes of water. They’re used in existing
products such as contact lenses and wound dressings.
The water in hydrogels works to slow down radiation
particles as the high concentration of hydrogen atoms in
water absorbs their damaging energy. Hydrogels absorb
water evenly across the material, meaning that water is
distributed equally, so the material can even be used for
These shapes were 3D radiation shielding. By 3D printing this material, hydrogels
© ESA

printed using hydrogels can be made into any shape to fit within space equipment.

76
DID YOU KNOW? A day of radiation exposure in space can be the equivalent of one year’s worth on Earth

Did
you know?
4 MAGNETOPAUSE 3 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD On Mars, astronauts
Most of the solar When charged particles in radiation reach will receive 0.7
radiation is deflected Earth’s magnetic field, the electric and millisieverts
where the solar magnetic forces react to curve the path every day
wind meets Earth’s of the particles away from the planet.
magnetic field.

5
2

2 SOLAR WIND
Charged particles
emitted by the Sun reach 5 POLAR RADIATION
speeds over a million Earth’s poles experience higher levels of
miles per hour. cosmic radiation. Charged particles
follow the magnetic field lines to these
areas, which can trigger aurorae.

VAN ALLEN BELTS

Surrounding our planet, there are zones of risk of health problems such as cancer, as well The Van Allen belts are most
exceptionally high energy called the Van Allen as a negative impact on their central nervous intense over the equator
radiation belts. These are formed of electrons systems. After the Apollo missions to the Moon
and protons that are caught in Earth’s magnetic in the 1960s and 1970s, astronauts experienced
field, keeping them held in one position around flashes of light when their eyes were shut. This
Earth, beyond low-Earth orbit. When orbiting is believed to be from radiation exposure after
© Alamy / Shutterstock

Earth, astronauts on board the ISS pass through cosmic rays passed through their eyes, affecting
the inner Van Allen belt. As they pass this point, the nerves of the retinae. The term for these
the trapped particles multiply their radiation nerve-related effects of radiation is anomalous
exposure level by 30. When exposed to too long-term effects on astronauts’ central nervous
much radiation, astronauts are at a greater system, or ALTEA.

77
 SPACE

WORDS DAVID BODDINGTON

Might our universe – as vast as it is – be simply one

of many? We look at the growing evidence that
there’s more than one cosmos out there

78
DID YOU KNOW? The ‘many-worlds interpretation’ of quantum mechanics suggests an infinite number of alternative universes

“It might just be that

there are countless other
universes, each slightly
different from the rest”

FIVE
IMPLICATIONS
OF THE
MULTIVERSE
An infinite sea of universes
would have some very
odd features

1 COSMIC WASTELAND
Multiverse theory predicts an
infinite number of universes, with
every imaginable law of physics
existing somewhere. Sadly, this
means the overwhelming majority
of universes would be dark, barren
places where no stars, galaxies or
life would ever form.

n 1543, Prussian astronomer years, atoms were created, and some 480
2 GOLDILOCKS BUBBLES
Some bubbles will feature laws

I
of nature that are ‘just right’ for the
Nicolaus Copernicus lay dying. million years later these coalesced to form formation of large structures, and
His life’s work, On the Revolutions stars, planets and entire galaxies. planets will form. Some will be wildly
of the Heavenly Spheres, had just But the Big Bang theory, the theory about different from those in our own
universe, but others will look familiar.
been sent off to be printed. This book, which how the whole process got started, tells us
Some universes would even contain
explained that Earth rotates around the Sun, nothing about the ‘bang’ itself. For that we a copy of Earth itself.
and not the other way around as had been need to look to another idea, called cosmic
believed, would forever change how humanity
viewed its place in space. We were no longer
inflation. This theory says that in the first tiny
fraction of a second after the Big Bang, the 3 CARBON COPIES
Many universes would be almost
identical to our own, containing not
the centre of the universe. universe must have expanded faster than just alternate Earths but alternate
Nearly 500 years on, we’re facing the speed of light. versions of you. In one, Copernicus
a similar revolution. The observable universe Cosmic inflation theory was first proposed never published and we still live in an
now stretches 46 billion light years in every by American particle physicist Professor Alan unenlightened age; in another, our
understanding of science may be
direction, but physicists have compelling Guth. In 1979, while working on equations to way ahead of what we know today.
ideas about what may lie beyond. describe the early universe, Guth hit
Did
It might just be that there are
countless other universes, each
upon something astonishing: the
you know? false vacuum. This is unlike what we 4 LINKS ACROSS UNIVERSES
Other civilisations across the
multiverse may be many millions of
one slightly different from the rest. The early universe think of as a vacuum in that it’s not years more advanced than we are,
Indeed, the results of a recent was hot and dense empty. Rather, it’s a material, and a so they may even find ways of
study of the cosmic microwave powerful force in its own right – a communicating between universes
background – the thermal radiation force great enough to ignite an – something which at our level of
left over from the Big Bang – make entire universe. understanding seems impossible.

5
this seemingly outlandish proposition Imagine a solid wheel of cheese. This COLLIDING BUBBLES
look increasingly likely. is our false vacuum before the Big Bang. It has Though we cannot communicate
Our universe began 13.8 billion years the remarkable property of ‘repulsive gravity’, between universes, we may be able to
ago. A great exploding fireball of matter and a force so powerful that the false vacuum observe another bubble. There’s no
reason in cosmic inflation theory that
radiation produced a hot plasma that quickly expands from the size of an atom to the size two bubbles can’t collide, which
© AdobeStock

cooled, allowing subatomic particles to form of a galaxy in a fraction of a second. But this would leave an impression on the
within a few seconds. Over the next million false vacuum decays, like radioactive material, cosmic microwave background.

79
 SPACE

Our universe probably

contains billions of worlds,
but our universe itself
may be just one of many

and when part of it does so, it produces a Astronomers say the fact that the gravity
bubble within the ever-growing substrate, waves are so pronounced indicates that
much like the holes found in Swiss cheese. cosmic inflation took place.
This bubble contains the product of false There are other phenomena in our own
vacuum decay – incredibly hot and densely universe that support the idea of multiple
packed particles. These then explode, giving universes. There are basic properties of the
us the Big Bang that formed our universe. world around us, such as the mass of an
But, crucially, as was realised by physicist electron or the gravitational force, that if
Alexander Vilenkin in the early 1980s, not all changed would have dire consequences. String theory posits 11 different dimensions that
of the false vacuum undergoes this decay. There’s no reason that these constants of can be folded together in many different ways
“The bubbles expand very fast,” Vilenkin says, nature should take on the form we see, yet they
“but the space between them expands even seem to be fine-tuned to allow our existence.
faster, making room for more bubbles.” This For example, if you were to decrease the mass cosmic synthesiser to make the constants of
means that once cosmic inflation has of a proton by just one per cent, then atoms nature perfect for life. But if there are multiple
started, it never stops, and each new would never have been able to form; universes, there’s no ‘problem’ of fine-tuning at
bubble contains the raw materials Did increase that mass by one per cent all. There will be other universes with different
for its own Big Bang. So our you know? and you’d have a universe made natural constants that don’t lead to the
universe could be just one of an String theory entirely of hydrogen. formation of galaxies, planets or us.
infinite number that have come first emerged in The apparent ‘tuning’ of our There’s another area of research that points
into existence within the eternally the 1960s universe doesn’t stop there. Dark towards the existence of the ‘multiverse’, and
inflating false vacuum. In other energy is a force that permeates that’s string theory. This is an attempt to
words, there could well be multiple space and has driven the expansion of reconcile two mutually incompatible sets of
universes out there. it since the Big Bang. At around 10 to 27 rules: Einstein’s theory of general relativity,
Although cosmic inflation theories have kilograms per cubic metre, this force is which describes the behaviour of everything
been growing in acceptance for many years, incredibly small. Retune this by a couple of from an atom up to a galaxy, and quantum
definitive proof of inflation having occurred decimal points and the universe would either mechanics, which describes the very different
had proven elusive. However, in March 2014, collapse in on itself straight after the Big Bang, behaviour of subatomic particles.
a team of scientists studying data from the or accelerate away without giving matter a String theory states that all particles and
Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic chance to condense into structures. The forms of energy are made of vibrating strings
Polarization (BICEP2) telescope in Antarctica probability of dark energy having precisely that exist not in the four dimensions we
announced that they had found signs of this force is incredibly low. see around us – three-dimensional space
‘B-mode polarisation’ within the cosmic Proponents of ‘intelligent design’ – the idea and time – but in 11 dimensions which are
microwave background. This phenomenon that the universe we observe could not have folded in on themselves. It’s the way in which
reveals the presence of the gravity waves that come about by chance – say that this is these dimensions are folded that’s important,
Einstein’s theories suggest should be there. evidence of a creator twisting the dials of a because their structure determines the

80
DID YOU KNOW? Over 68 per cent of our universe is dark energy, 27 per cent is dark matter and only 5 per cent is ordinary matter

Q&A: PROFESSOR
ALEXANDER VILENKIN
Director of the Institute of Cosmology
at Tufts University, Massachusetts

You were one of the

original proponents
of eternal inflation.
How did inflation
theory lead you to the
idea that ‘big bangs’
According to Vilenkin’s
could be happening
theories, ‘big bangs’ may be
© Alexander Vilenkin

all the time? creating new universes all the time

The end of inflation is
triggered by quantum
processes, and it asked what caused it to decay at that
doesn’t happen everywhere at once. It
happens in isolated pockets, or bubbles,
particular moment, there was no cause.
“Life might be
while inflation continues elsewhere,
forming more bubbles.
How does the realisation that everything
that can happen will happen or has
very rare in
What actually causes a new ‘big bang’
happened in another universe make
you feel?
the universe.
event to occur in a specific part of the
ever-expanding multiverse?
When I first had this realisation, I did feel
it was rather depressing that our civilisation
We might be the
There is no cause. It’s a quantum process
which has a certain probability, but you
is not unique. But many of my friends had
no problem with this idea at all. Later on,
only intelligent
cannot predict exactly when and where there
is going to be a bubble. This is similar to what
I realised that life might be very rare in
our universe, so we might be the only
life in the entire
we see in radioactive decay. A radioactive
atom has some probability to decay, say, per
intelligent life in the entire observable
region. In that case, our species is far
observable region”
hour, and eventually it will decay. But if you from being insignificant.

physical laws of our universe. Physicists cite

over 10,500 ways in which they could be folded,
each another way of configuring a universe.
Just as we see with the apparent fine-tuning of
the constants of nature, there’s no reason why
one type of folding should exist over another –
all forms are equally likely. And if there are
multiple universes, it becomes possible for all
of string theory’s predicted realities to occur.
Bring together string theory, fine-tuning and
the mounting body of evidence supporting
cosmic inflation, and multiverse theory
becomes very compelling. But what does
this mean for humanity? That question
brings us back to Copernicus. Once his new
model of the heavens was finally accepted,
© AdobeStock / Shutterstock / Getty

our understanding of the universe took a great

leap forward. So it would be if multiverse
theory proves accurate. It would be easy to
be disheartened and view humanity as
insignificant – but the very fact that we Dark energy is distributed throughout the
continue to seek answers to these questions universe, though we can’t actually see it
is what makes us special.

81
 TWO SMART SPEAKERS This month we’re giving you the chance to win a pair of Wonderboom 4 portable
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WORTH

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Diamonds are composed entirely of which element?
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82
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 BRAINDUMP
Amazing answers to your curious questions
HOWITWORKSMAG
[email protected]
@HOWITWORKSMAG

Is it true that all

HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

pandas belong
to China?
SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO:

Not quite. In the wild, giant pandas only live in China, but captive ones
have been sent to zoos around the world as gifts since the 1950s. None
of those pandas are still alive though, and since 1984, almost all pandas
have been given to zoos on a ten-year lease. They remain Chinese
property, and so do any cubs born in captivity from the leased pandas.
There are a few exceptions, however. In 2008 China gave – rather than
leased – a pair of pandas to Taiwan, and in August 2013 they were
successfully bred to produce a third Taiwanese panda called Yuan Zai.

84
 ROUGHLY HOW
MANY SEEDS DO
DANDELIONS
GENERATE?
The common dandelion originated
in Europe, but has spread to every
continent, from the Arctic to the
WHICH CAME tropics. Each plant produces a
FIRST: THE single seed head that bears 40
to 100 or more seeds. This plant
APPLE OR species and its relatives are quite
THE PEAR? variable in morphology, leading to
The cultivation of apples much disagreement about how
and pears dates back many species exist and how to
to prehistoric times, so distinguish among them. Some
it’s very difficult to say. taxonomists consider there to be
Apples and pears both 60 species in the Taraxacum
derive from the same genus, while others consider the
family of plants, known number to be closer to 2,000.
as Rosaceae, and both
fruits’ origins lie in
central Asia. They were
most likely cultivated ARE MICRO
over a long period in the
foothills of the Tian Shan
BLACK HOLES
mountain range, where AS POWERFUL
cross-pollination gave AS BIG ONES?
rise to the hundreds of
Yes, beyond the event horizon.
diverse varieties we
A micro black hole is a
know today.
superdense black hole that
contains a relatively small mass,
but is still dense enough for its
gravity to stop anything from
escaping. These theoretical
objects can only form under
huge pressure, either in artificial
environments such as particle
accelerators or in the violent
conditions of the Big Bang.
WHY DO
BAOBAB TREE
TRUNKS GET
THINNER IN THE
DRY SEASON? If my eyes saw at
It’s because they have
fat trunks that can store 1,000 fps, would the
as much as 100,000
litres of water at a time. world look like it was
Native to seasonally arid
areas such as Africa and in slow motion?
Australia, baobab trunks
can reach diameters
of around ten metres The world would seem much slower if the eyes captured
across. However, at light at this speed. Assuming no frames were ignored,
the height of the dry however, it would cause an increasing lag between the
season, their trunks pace of events and the speed at which our brains register
© Shutterstock / Alamy

get thinner as they use them. It isn’t clear at what rate the human eyes capture
up their water reserves and transmit light signals to the brain. Given that movies
to survive. shown at 24 frames per second don’t appear jerky, though,
we can apparently register fluid movement recorded at
speeds much lower than 1,000 frames per second.

85
 BRAINDUMP
COULD WE BUILD A GIANT ROBOT
LIKE YOU SEE IN THE MOVIES?
In principle it should be possible, but aside from being
extremely expensive, it would be technologically
challenging. A massive robot as tall as a skyscraper would
have to be structurally stable and strong. That means it
would require some kind of endo or exoskeleton that holds
it up. Together with the robot’s working parts, this would
need to be made of material that is robust enough that it
HOWITWORKSMAG

wouldn’t buckle under its own weight. Yet it would also have
to be light so that the robot can counter the forces of gravity
DO ANIMALS and move around easily – especially if it has to defend the
NEED TO CLEAN planet against alien monsters! There is also the issue of its
power requirements. Plugging into the mains is obviously
THEIR TEETH? not an option, so the robot would have to contain some
Wild animals don’t have kind of huge battery or fuel supply. That would further
enough starch or sugar add to the weight it has to carry around.
in their diet to breed the
[email protected]

mouth bacteria that

How long does it

cause dental decay,
so they don’t need to

take a bullet train

clean their teeth. Some
primates use sticks as

to ride around the

toothpicks, but stories
of the Egyptian plover

whole of Japan?
cleaning the crocodile’s
teeth by picking food
scraps are most likely
a myth.
With a top speed of 199 miles per hour, Japan’s
bullet train – the Shinkansen – takes just under
12 hours to complete a 1,206-mile journey from
@HOWITWORKSMAG

Aomori in the north to Kagoshima in the south. This

is assuming the train stops at all designated stops,
and you’d need to take multiple trains across the
route. You could do Japan in a day, though you
might be travelling too fast to take it all in. A new
WHERE IS high-speed train network is under construction
THE BIGGEST that uses magnetic levitation to keep the trains
OBELISK above the tracks, reducing friction, as a result
IN THE WORLD? granting speeds of over 310 miles per hour.
HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

The Washington
Monument in
Washington DC is the
largest obelisk. Built to
IS IT POSSIBLE TO SPLIT AN
commemorate the first ARROW WITH ANOTHER?
US president, George Although a rare occurrence, it is possible to split an
Washington, the giant arrow down the middle with another arrow, but this only
marble and granite occurs with arrows made of materials that can fracture
structure stands at lengthways, such as bamboo or carbon. There are no
169 metres, making it records of anyone ever achieving a true end-to-end split
not just the largest with traditional wood arrows, which would have been
SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO:

obelisk, but also the Robin Hood’s arrow of choice. Even the legendary archer
tallest stone structure. Howard Hill – who fired ‘the’ shot in the 1938 film The
Obelisks are tall, Adventures of Robin Hood, fired a modified arrow along a
four-sided columns that wire connected to split the first arrow completely down the
get narrower towards centre. Modern arrows are often made from carbon fibre
the top, with a pyramid- and are hollow down the middle. While unlikely to split end
like shape capping to end, archers have been known to occasionally fire
them off. what’s referred to as a ‘Robin Hood’.

86
Do grey
tree frogs
actually
live in
trees?
Grey tree frogs – including the Cope’s
grey tree frog – do frequent trees and
may live far from ponds and lakes.
These amphibians are camouflaged to
look like lichen-covered bark and
blend really well with arboreal
surroundings. There are several
reasons tree frogs branched out from
their terrestrial ancestors, such as
fewer competitors for insect prey and
perhaps fewer predators – larger frogs
and several snakes are known to eat
small frogs. Unlike many tropical
species, grey tree frogs return to the
ground each spring to lay eggs in
ponds and ditches, and they’re far
easier to find and catch at this time.

WHAT IS PLASMA?
A plasma is a gas whose atoms have separated into
positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons.
Plasma is the fourth state of matter. Plasma occurs when
a gas is heated up to extreme temperatures, freeing
electrons from their atoms. Free electrons and ions make
© Alamy / AdobeStock / Shutterstock

plasmas excellent electrical conductors. Plasma is the

most common form of matter in the universe, making up
around 99 per cent of all visible matter, including the Sun.
Relatively rare on Earth, it can be found in neon lights,
lightning strikes and aurorae.

87
 BRAINDUMP
What caused
the ice ages?
It’s likely that a combination of changes to
atmospheric composition, Earth’s orbit and
ocean currents are responsible for these
HOWITWORKSMAG

periods of low temperatures. Many experts

link the onset of ice ages to falling levels of
greenhouse gases. Variations in Earth’s orbit
around the Sun also play a role, controlling how
much solar energy the planet receives and
affecting temperatures. Finally, the shifting of
tectonic plates has a knock-on effect on ocean
and wind currents, which have an important
influence on our planet’s climate.
[email protected]
@HOWITWORKSMAG
HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE A TENNIS PLAYER’S

SERVE TO REACH 100 MILES PER HOUR?
A tennis ball reaches its maximum ball are gravity and drag. Even if the
speed the moment it leaves the racquet ball has a downward trajectory, drag is
SEND YOUR QUESTIONS TO:

– about five milliseconds after contact. likely to outweigh any acceleration caused
During a professional player’s serve, the by gravity, meaning that from this point
racquet tip is travelling at about 100 miles onwards, the ball slows down.
per hour when it makes contact, passing British tennis player Andy Murray’s
on its kinetic energy. The racquet’s fastest serves clocked in at a blistering
strings stretch, conferring additional 145 miles per hour – but by the time it
energy to the ball. Upon leaving the reached his opponent, the ball had usually
strings, the only forces acting on the slowed to half that speed.

88
 WHAT IS THE FASTEST
SPEED REACHED BY
A SPACECRAFT?
It depends on how you measure it. The
fastest moving spacecraft at launch
was the New Horizons probe, currently
hurtling past the icy worlds of the Kuiper
Belt. Launched in 2006, it achieved an
initial velocity of ten miles per second on a
trajectory that will one day allow it to
escape the Solar System completely, and
it picked up even more speed in a
gravity-assisted manoeuvre as it swung
past Jupiter in 2007. However, the fastest
moving space probe of all time is the
Parker Solar Probe, launched towards
the Sun in 2018. It reached a staggering
IS PISA’S TOWER speed of 435,000 miles per hour in
FALLING OVER? December 2024.
It’s actually leaning less
than it did. Towers
should stand upright,
so it makes sense to WHAT CAUSES SINUS PAIN?
measure how far the
Colds and other infections are the most
misaligned monument at
common causes of sinus pain, triggering
Pisa diverges from 90
swelling which blocks the sinus passages – a
degrees to the ground.
condition known as sinusitis. Sinuses are hollow
From that line – called
spaces in the bones between your eyes, behind
the vertical – the tower is
your cheekbones and in your forehead. They are
currently tilting at an
lined with a thin membrane that produces
angle of about four
mucus to keep your nose moist. When
degrees – 1.5 degrees
inflammation prevents the sinuses from
less than it did at the
draining, this mucus builds up, causing pressure
start of the 20th century
and pain. This also makes the sinuses prone to
– as a result of modern
infection. Allergies, cigarette smoke or changes
restoration work.
in air pressure, commonly encountered when
flying, can also trigger sinus pain.

Are coyotes
IS DATA ON
BROKEN HARD really as vicious
DRIVES LOST? as depicted?
Not always. Specialised
software can often
salvage a drive from Vicious isn’t really the right word. Their name
logical failure caused by comes from the Aztec word for trickster, and
corrupt files. Mechanical it’s fair to say that coyotes are cunning and
failure, resulting from adaptable. They are a major predator of
physical damage, is livestock in the US, killing more sheep and
more serious. Those in cattle than wolves. But that’s simply because
© AdobeStock / Shutterstock / NASA

the know can sometimes they’re a lot more common. Any given wolf
recover data by kills 20 times more livestock than a coyote.
replacing faulty parts Urban coyotes scavenge through bins and kill
or by retrieving any domestic cats, but the rare attacks on humans
readable information. are more likely to be from coydogs, which
are dog-coyote hybrids that have lost some
of their instinctive fear of humans.

89
 THE LIBRARY
The latest book releases for curious minds

CUTE ANIMALS
THAT COULD
BENEATH KILL YOU DEAD
DON’T BE FOOLED BY
THEIR BRIGHT EYES

OUR FEET
AND BUSHY TAILS…
THESE CREATURES ARE
DEADLY PREDATORS

A TREASURE TROVE OF AUTHOR BROOKE HARTMAN

INCREDIBLE AMATEUR ILLUSTRATOR MARÍA GARCÍA
PUBLISHER SOURCEBOOKS
DISCOVERIES IN BRITAIN
PRICE £6.99 / $14.99
RELEASE OUT NOW
AUTHOR MICHAEL LEWIS AND
IAN RICHARDSON
The world is filled with animals
PUBLISHER THAMES & HUDSON
that seem too cute to be killers.
PRICE £30 / $40
However, Brooke Hartman has
RELEASE 15 MAY
dispelled cuteness in the wild,
turning ‘awws’ into ‘ahhs’ in this
t seems like almost every

I
witty children’s book. From
other week that another
ladybirds to sea otters, the
pot full of ancient Roman
predatory truths about some of
coins or a priceless hoard
nature’s cutest residents are
of golden Viking artefacts is pulled out
revealed – and some might
of a field somewhere in the UK by a
shock you. While honey badgers
stunned rambler taking their morning
and bottlenose dolphins have a
constitutional. Are there really so many
reputation for being fearsome
treasures for the taking under just a
hunters, don’t be fooled by the
few inches of British topsoil? The
wide-eyed slow loris, the world’s
answer to that is, yes… and no. The
only venomous primate, or the
colourful history of cultures that have England and Wales, from Stone Age
northern pygmy owl, which
lived in the British Isles means that an weapons to pre-World War II gold coins.
pegs its prey on thorns until it’s
incalculable number of valuable items The authors talk in detail about the
ready to eat them. Along with
with huge historical significance have provisions of the 1996 Treasure Act that
some fun and interesting facts,
been lost, buried or forgotten over the allow both the state and detectorists
the Jekyll-and-Hyde-style
last few thousand years. But Britain to benefit from stunning finds like the
illustrations are sure to give you a
is one of relatively few countries Boleyn family signet ring or the Chew
chuckle. Especially the seemingly
around the world that has robust laws Valley Hoard, and how and why you
innocent sea bunny, which turns
in place that protects its historic should record historic non-treasure
into a poisonous villain with the
artefacts from being stolen by an items you find with PAS.
help of sea sponge toxins.
individual, yet allows responsible The stories of how ordinary people
detectorists and other kinds of amateur came across these finds, the process
treasure hunters to both pursue their of how they were reported and
hobby and reap financial rewards subsequent valuations – many of which
from any valuable finds. saw the finders being awarded life-
Coauthored by the British Museum’s changing sums of money – are as
head of the Portable Antiquities compelling as the history behind
Scheme (PAS) and senior treasure the treasures themselves. They’re
registrar, with forewords from actor aspirational, similar to reading a lottery
Mackenzie Crook – who wrote and winner’s story but much more
starred in The Detectorists – and interesting. With museum-quality
television historian Alice Roberts, photographs of the artefacts and the
Beneath Our Feet is ostensibly a sites they were found in, as well as the
reference book for historians and finders, Beneath Our Feet could equally
detectorists. It details where and how be a coffee table book as a library
dozens of treasures were found across reference or bedside read.

90
 ALEXANDER VON
HUMBOLDT
EXPLORER OF THE
AMERICAS AND BEYOND

AUTHOR ROCÍO MARTÍNEZ

PUBLISHER PRESTEL
PRICE £14.99 / $19.99
RELEASE OUT NOW

THE BRAINIAC’S This vibrant book is a visual introduction

to a man who, at different stages in his

BOOK OF THE life, became an explorer, scientist,

naturalist, geographer, geologist and

INTERNET
TRAVERSE THE WORLD
inventor. Colourful maps show the
journeys of Alexander von Humboldt,
while the text provides background
WIDE WEB AND FIND OUT information and clear insight into the and bringing the reader into the mind
ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW explorer’s character and life story. of an explorer.
ABOUT THE INTERNET From a childhood filled with curiosity Accompanying tales from around the
to early explorations and extravagant globe, infographics and visual timelines
AUTHOR LARISSA SUZUKI expeditions, Alexander von Humboldt give intriguing snippets of Humboldt’s
ILLUSTRATOR reveals the makings of this renowned life at a glance and the scale of his many
HARRIET RUSSELL explorer. Each of Humboldt’s voyages. With six double pages and
PUBLISHER adventures is highlighted, while the large fold-out maps, Alexander von
THAMES & HUDSON man himself tells the reader more of his Humboldt is the perfect format for
PRICE £14.99 / $17.95 character, thoughts and discoveries, any future explorers to experience
RELEASE 5 JUNE providing a more personal account holding the world in their hands.

In a book about the internet,

you might be surprised to find
yourself starting inside a
Neanderthal cave: what The
Brainiac’s Book of the Internet
does is show the evolution of
ANGLERFISH
A CREEPY CREATURE
human communication and
FROM THE DEEP OCEAN
computer technology, from the
days of cave art paintings to an
AUTHOR TRUDY BECKER
interconnected world online.
PUBLISHER NORTH STAR EDITIONS
Guiding you through the history
PRICE £10.99 / $9.95
and mechanics of the internet
RELEASE OUT NOW
is Webby, the eight-legged
brainiac who’s full of interesting
You’re unlikely to have come face to face with an
facts and stats. Each vibrant
anglerfish, but this book gives readers a clear view of
page is packed with snippets of
this ugly mug of the deep. Clear, sharp photography
information about the internet,
reveals intricate details of the anglerfish’s anatomy,
intertwined with charming
and its hanging, bioluminescent extension almost
illustrations. At first glance,
holds the same alluring power on the page as it does
your eyes aren’t sure where to
to attract prey in the deep sea. Short, snappy facts
settle on the page before they
about this mesmerising creature include its diet, life
are pulled away by another fact
cycle and peculiar habits. Did you know that when
or illustration. From hyperlinks
mating, the male anglerfish bites onto the female’s
and data usage to building
body and sometimes never lets go. Instead their
websites and protecting against
bodies fuse together and the male feeds on the
hackers, Larissa Suzuki has left
female’s blood, while losing some of his body parts
few virtual stones unturned for
in the process. There are many more bizarre and “Short, snappy facts
this book’s young audience.
gruesome tales to uncover in the deep sea, and about this mesmerising
Anglerfish will leave you wanting to know about
the next animal in this Creepy Creatures series.
creature”

91
 BRAIN GYM
Give your brain a puzzle workout

Word search
Find the following words

Sudoku
Complete the grid so that
MONSTER
ASTEROID
TREASURE
EARTH
WINE
MAST
TOXIC
DIG
DEEP
each row, column and 3x3 box SPACE FIRE COAL
contains the numbers 1 to 9
F I M R E X O T C E R I F O L
EASY
N C O A L I S W J E B N K C D
5 1 3 8 6
6 2 1 3 8 9 S P N C E T M A S T R E A S I
9 8 2 4 1 5 U R S E B W J W N R F H M A G
3 8 7 6 5 S Q T X C I O Y V I E N W N E
9 8 6 3 1 Z U E O L N P L A R G I N R T
4 6 3 2
2 1 7 9 8 5 6
E A R F H E A S U T E R O I D
9 5 6 4 1 B R E A S U H S P A C E M O S
5 6 1 2 9 8 N T E R W I A N E M A Z J H T
MEDIUM P O L P I E N A J C I X O T F
7 1 4 2 5 3 E X V L R S P A K E R M L R A
2 1 3 9 7 8 E I D T U F I R A R T H G A K
5 6 9 1
D U M F G I B D E E M V O E L
6 5 7 3
1 2 6 8 A S R W Y N E M A U G I F O N
9 8 1 5 4 Q L I A S T E R O I D S U W B
9 3 5 4 2
1 4 7 8 9
2 6 8 5
HARD

9 7 6 2 4 1
6 4
5 3
1 3 7
8 2 What
6 1
2 7 8
8 7
4
9 is
Hint:
it?
9 7 4 6 2 Ring for its age
4 9 6 3 5
5 2 9 7 A
7 3 6 2 4

92
Spot the difference QUICKFIRE
See if you can find all six changes between the images below
QUESTIONS
Q1 What material did
cavemen commonly make
tools from?
Ice
Flint
Bronze
Plastic

Q2 The ISS orbits Earth at

what altitude?
62 miles
99 miles
248 miles
2,236 miles

Q3 What is the splitting of

an atomic nucleus called?
Fission
Mitosis
Fusion
Division

Q4 What is the ‘H’ in H20?

Helium
Hydrogen
Hexamine
Hafnium

Q6 How many gigabytes are

there in a terabyte?
10
100
1,000
10,000

Answers Find the solutions to last issue’s puzzle pages

Q6 Which of these cats
can’t purr?

What
Q1 5.9 TRILLION House cat
Q2 CLONING Tiger
difference

Q3 ALBERT EINSTEIN
is it? Mountain lion
Spot the

Q4 ECHOLOCATION
SNAIL SHELL Bobcat
© Shutterstock

Q5 SILVER
Q6 96 METRES

93
 HOW TO…
KIT LIST

A two-litre plastic bottle

Sharp knife or scissors
Practical projects to try at home Dirty water
Spoon
Measuring cup
Stopwatch

MAKE A WATER FILTER

Watch as these simple materials remove dirt from water
Pencil and paper
Coffee filter, old sock or cloth
A selection of the following: sand,
gravel, cotton balls, activated charcoal

1 2
HOWITWORKSMAG

GATHER YOUR CUT YOUR BOTTLE

MATERIALS Poke a knife into the bottle
You can either use muddy halfway up its length. Then cut
water from outside, if you around the bottle to separate
have a good source, or it into two halves.
you can make your own.
Add coffee grounds, soil
and cooking oil to tap
water to achieve this.
[email protected]
@HOWITWORKSMAG

3 INSERT
YOUR FILTER
Place the top of the
bottle upside down
into the other half.
Then place your
4 LAYER IT UP
Add your filter materials
into the coffee filter, one
coffee filter over layer at a time. You can try
HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

the funnel-shaped just one material or all of

opening. them at once.

6 SCOOP THE WATER

Stir your dirty water so
that the dirt doesn’t settle,
then scoop out a cupful.
SEND YOUR IDEAS TO:

5 TAKE NOTE
As you add the materials, write
down the order of the layers. The
filter materials with larger granules
have more space between them.

94
 NE
HOGA
SU

XT
W RC

ISS
TO RY
DON’T

UE
M ST
DRINK THE

AK AL
WATER

E S
While this experiment shows
the process of water filtration,
it does not include water
purification

7 PREPARE THE TIMER

Have your timer ready so that when you
pour the water in, you can press the start
button at the same time.
SUMMARY

The effectiveness of this filtration is all

down to the differences in space between
the materials in each layer. Larger grains of
filter material have bigger gaps between
them, meaning they can only trap larger
contaminants. The coffee filter is a
semipermeable membrane that allows
liquid containing dissolved molecules
through, but catches large solid particles
like coffee grounds. Activated charcoal
works by adsorbing impurities, trapping
them in its porous surface. Adsorption –

8
rather than absorption – is the process
FILTER TIME
by which molecules or atoms stick to the
Pour the dirty
surface of a liquid or solid. This works to
water into the top of
remove some of the dissolved chemicals.
the filter. Press start In this filtration experiment, you can try
on the timer at the out different orders of the layers. You’re
same time and likely to find that in the layers containing
watch as the water smaller granules, the filtration process is
starts to drip out of slower as water descends through them.
the funnel. Press It takes longer for water to pass through
stop when all the when the filter is working well because the
water has drained. water spends more time in contact with
the filtration material, meaning more
contaminants are removed.

Had a go? Let us know!

If you’ve tried out any of our experiments – or
conducted some of your own – let us know! Share
your photos or videos with us on social media.

9 EXAMINE THE LAYERS

Firstly, observe the water’s
colour. Then scoop the filters
DISCLAIMER
Neither Future Publishing nor its employees can accept any liability for any adverse
effects experienced during the course of carrying out these projects or at any time after.
Always take care when handling potentially hazardous equipment or when working with
out one by one and see what electronics, and follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
debris each layer caught.

95
 INBOX
Speak your mind

son
es & Hud
WIN!

© Tham
HOWITWORKSMAG

AN AMAZING PRIZE FOR

COMPOSTING LETTER OF THE MONTH

QUERY
Dear HIW,
BENEATH OUR FEET
These are the stories of over
50 astonishing buried treasures,
I want to start the people who found them and
composting at home. Digital eye strain doesn’t usually how they are reshaping
[email protected]

British history
Do you have any tips? cause long-term damage
Jonathan James

To make your compost

heap, you’ll need a
good mixture of equal
SIGHT AND SCREEN TIME
Dear HIW, screen, or engage in other close-range
parts green and brown
When I’m on my computer working for long activities such as reading, you blink half as
organic matter. Green
periods, my eyesight gets worse and seeing often. This dries the eyes out. In addition,
materials, like grass
in the distance is harder. It isn’t permanent the muscles need to work harder and
and leafy plants, are
and seems to be just after working days. Is become strained from long periods of
high in nitrogen, while
this caused by looking at a screen for too focusing on a screen at close range. To
brown materials, such
long? How can I help this? prevent the effects of digital eye
as twigs, paper and
Rachel Brooks strain, you should lower the
cardboard, provide

LETTER
brightness on your computer
carbon. You’ll need to
@HOWITWORKSMAG

It sounds like what you’re screen and make sure that

mix and turn over your
compost every few
experiencing could be digital
of the the screen is at least an arm’s
days so that oxygen
can enter the mixture.
Microorganisms such
eye strain caused by
prolonged periods looking
at the bright, blue light of a
MONTH distance at all times.
One method that has proven
beneficial in preventing eye
computer screen. These are the strain is the 20-20-20 method
as bacteria need this
temporary side effects of focusing while working. This involves taking
for the decomposition
the eyes on a digital screen, and you breaks every 20 minutes to look at
process. You should
should consider taking breaks during your something at least 20 feet away for a
use a thermometer to
working hours. As well as the blurry vision period of 20 seconds. This takes a small
HOW IT WORKS MAGAZINE

check the compost’s

you describe, digital eye strain can make period of time out of your working day but
temperature. The ideal
the eyes dry or excessively watery and can ensure that your eyes remain healthy.
is between 49 and 71
give you a headache. The best way to keep track of your eye
degrees Celsius. If it’s
Normally, you blink around 15 times a health is to get your eyes tested by a
too hot, add more
minute, but when you stare at a digital healthcare professional every year.
brown materials, and
if it’s too cold add
more greens. Keep
adding water to the
compost to keep its
moisture content
similar to a damp ELECTRIC DILEMMA
SEND YOUR QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS TO:

sponge and build your Dear HIW,

compost heap in a dry I’ve recently bought an electric car as I wanted to find a
and shady location. more environmentally friendly way to travel. But I’ve heard
that battery disposal is detrimental. Are electric cars
Food scraps and garden actually worse for the environment because of this?
waste can be composted Marcus Caldwell

Batteries have a life expectancy of around 20 years,

but this will likely increase as the technology evolves.
The batteries shouldn’t be thrown away in household
general waste or recycling bins; they should be handed
over to designated recycling points. This stops harmful
chemicals from entering the environment and means
that the battery materials can be recycled to build Electric car batteries contain lithium,
another electric battery. nickel, manganese, cobalt and graphite

96
 Future PLC Quay House, The Ambury, Bath, BA1 1UA

PLASTIC PLATE Editorial

Editor Ben Biggs
Senior Art Editor Duncan Crook
Dear HIW, Production Editor Nikole Robinson
Which foods have the most Senior Staff Writer Scott Dutfield
microplastics in them? Staff Writer Ailsa Harvey
Editor-in-Chief Tim Williamson
Today, 150 fewer stars can be seen by the Matt Bellamy
Contributors
human eye compared to 18 years ago Andrew May, Ben Turner, Kristina Killgrove, Rory Bathgate,
Highly processed foods Sascha Pare, Stephanie Pappas, K. R. Callaway, Emily Cooke,
Brian Koberlein, Skyler Ware, Tom Metcalfe, Samantha

SAVING THE STARS

generally contain more Mathewson, David Boddington, Graham Barlow, Duncan Geere

microplastics as the product Cover images

comes into contact with AdobeStock, Shutterstock
Dear HIW,
more plastic food-processing Photography
How much has city light pollution drowned Alamy, Getty Images, NASA, Shutterstock, Wikimedia
equipment. Food that needs All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected
out the night sky in recent years, and what
to be heated inside plastic Advertising
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packaging is also high-risk. In
Jason Simms Graduate Sales Executive Sophie Dickinson
nature, seafood poses a high [email protected]

microplastic risk, as the amount Advertising Sales Director Lara Jaggon

Every year, light pollution increases, making [email protected]
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97
 500 IN 2024,
FINLAND WAS
CALORIES CROWNED
THE HAPPIEST
COUNTRY
HORSEPOWER
Your brain uses around one-
fifth of your daily energy IN THE
requirements WORLD FOR
On average, horses can generate A SEVENTH
a lot more than one horsepower
YEAR IN A ROW

ANTS
ONE MILE HAVE
NO
Lake Baikal, Siberia, is
the world’s deepest and
oldest lake – it’s 25

LUNGS
million years old

15.5 MILLION MILES

Earth travels millions of miles around the Sun each day
9000