GEOGRAPHY

WITH HLONGWANE
STUDY GUIDE
N
 Chapter (2
Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the study of the If you know and
landforms found on the Earth's understand these definitions
surface and the processes that of Fluvial geomorphology, then you
will be able to answer most of the
create them. In this chapter, fluvial questions in the Geomorphology
geomorphology is covered. section of the final e
exam.
Use mobile notes to learn these
The following table of key concepts key concepts. They are
covers fluvial geomorphology. easy marks!

Key concepts
Concept Definition
Base flow The flow of groundwater in the same direction as the river.

Base level The lowest level to which a river can erode.

Condensation When water vapour reaches dew point temperature and changes into
water droplets.

Deposition When a river deposits (lays down) the sediment it is carrying on the river
bed.

Drainage basin An area drained by a river system.

Erosion The removal of soil and wearing away of rocks by wind, water or ice.
Evaporation When water in the liquid form is converted (changed) into water vapour
(gas).

Fluvial hydrographs Show runoff of a river at particular time at a point on a river.

Groundwater Water stored below the ground in soil and rock.

Headward erosion When a river cuts back towards its source.

Infiltration/percolation process whereby water seeps into the soil or rock.

Interception The process by which raindrops are prevented from falling to the ground
by plant leaves, stems and branches.
2 Chapter

Concept Definition

Perennial river/permanent river River that flows throughout the year.

Precipitation Any form of water faling from the sky (e.g. rain, hail, snow).
Rejuvenation The renewal of erosion activity in a river.

River/channel flow Water that flows within a river channel.

River discharge The volume of water that flows past a point in a river in a given time.
River meander Aseries of bends in a river as it moves along the floodplain.
River source This is where a river starts; normally high up in mountainous areas.

River mouth This is where a river ends; normally when it reaches the sea or ocean.
Runoft/overland flow Rainwater which runs overland towards a river, lake or the sea.

Seasonal/periodic/non-perennial River that only flows during the rainfall season.

river

Stream capture/piracy When one river 'robs' another of its water.

Stream channel Where the water flows in a river (river bed).

Throughfiow The movement of groundwater through the soil due to gravity.

Transpiration Water vapour is released from leaves in trees and plants.

Tributary Asmaller river which flows into (joins) a larger river.

Watershed/Drainage divide High-ying land separating drainage basins.

Water table The level below which the ground is saturated (it can hold no more
water).
Chapter

2.1 Groundwater
Groundwater is water stored beneath the Earth's surface. When
precipitation (rain) falls to the surface of the Earth, it either flows over the
surface (runoff) or it is absorbed (infiltrates) into the groundwater supply.
This section studies how the infiltration, runoff and groundwater systems
work and lead to the formation of rivers. Refer to Figure 2.1A below of the
water cycle (this was studied in Grade 10).

Precipitation Sondensation g
Transport

Surface
runoff Evaporation
Infiltration

Stream
flow Ocean
Water table River discharge
Groundwater

Bedrock
Figure 2.1A: The water cycle
Groundwater supplies are replenished (filled up) when water infiltrates
into the ground. For water to infiltrate into the soil, three important aspects
should be present:
1. Enough porous soil or rock to alow the water to infiltrate through it.
2. Time for the surface water to be absorbed into the ground. This
is
affected by the steepness of the slope and the nature of the rain.
3. Vegetation (plants) to sow down the speed of runoff, making it
easier for infiltration to happen.
 Chapter
To see how these three aspects affect runoff and infiltration
study Table 2.1 below.
Factor Impact on groundwater
Porous rock More infiltration, less runoff and more groundwater Run-off and infitration factors
are the same as drainage
Rock is not porous Less infiltration, more runoff and less groundwater density factors.
More time (gentle More infiltration, less runoff and more groundwater
slope)
Less time (steep Less infiltration, more runoff and less groundwater
slope)
More vegetation More infiltration, less runoff and more groundwater
Less vegetation Less infiltration, more runoff and less groundwater
Table 2.1: Factors affecting runoff and infiltration

Figure 2.1B below shows the impact of rock type, time and vegetation on
groundwater. From the diagram we can see how the amount of groundwater
affects the height of the water table. This is the level below which the
ground is saturated (when it can hold no more water).

Precipitation

Moisture loss
by transpiration In the exam, you may be
and given a diagram and asked to
evaporation
identify which aspect or factor
has affected the runoff or
Infiltration infiltration.
Runoff loss
by overland W! Soil layer Stream
flow runoff
Water table

Groundwater
Base fiow

Figure 2.1B: Factors that affect groundwater and movement of water on the
surface
 2.2 Rivers
When there is less infiltration, more runoff takes place. This starts as sheet
flow but very soon the water flows in a path called channel flow.
When we study rivers we look at them in different ways:
Types of rivers
River discharge
Drainage basins
Stages and profiles of rivers

2.2.1Types of rivers
The water table refers to the surface of the water-saturated part of the
ground. The height of the water table changes each season. This gives rise
In paper 2 you may be asked different types of rivers. Rivers are classified depending on when (or if)
to identify the types of rivers. the river valley cuts into the water table.
There are three types of rivers:
Permanent rivers flow all year round and are always in contact with
the water table.
Periodic rivers only flow during the rainy season. They are in contact
with the water table only in the rainy season.
" Episodic rivers only fiow after heavy rainfall when runoff flows into
the river. They do not come into contact with the water table.
Permanent river Periodic river Episodic river

In the exam, you may be

given a diagram of a cross
section of a river and asked
to identifty the type of river. KEY:
Learn to identify the different Water table (raiy season) .ese**.*..
river types by redrawing and Water table (dry season)
labeling Figure 2.2.1A.
Figure 2.2.1A: Cross section of the three different types of rivers
 Chapter 2)
River discharge This section
The amount of water flowing out of a river shows many aspects of a river. River discharge, is from
Grade 10. However it
One way to study this discharge or runoff is by looking at a flow hydrograph. may be examinable in
When runoff enters a river, the amount of water flowing in the river Grade 12.
increases. A hydrograph records how quickly the water level increases
(time) and how high the water level reaches (peak flow discharge).
Aflow hydrograph combines two graphs:
Abar graph showing the amount of precipitation
Aline graph showing how the water level increases and decreases
Over time

Figure 2.2.1B below shows an example of a flow hydrograph. Study the

graph and then read the explanation alongside.

Explanation of the elements in Figure 2.2.2B(left):

1. The line graph shows the volume of the river over
time. The horizontal axis shows time in hours and
the vertical axis shows runoff in cubic metres per
second (ma/sec).
2. The rising segment shows the rate at which
the water in the river is increasing. It is steep if
infitration is rapid. Iit is gentle if infiltration is slow
|5 as water takes longer to reach the river.
Urban areas have a rapid rising segment as
the water reaches the river quickly.

second)
’

2
Naturally vegetated areas allow for
infitration and the rising segment is less
steep.
3. The falling segment shows the rate at which the
per water in the river is decreasing. It may be less
metres 3
steep than the rising segment.
In urban areas the segment falls rapidly as

(cubic less water has been added as base flow due

to lower infiltration.

Runof
7
50 mm
(Rmialnetfrsl) Natural areas show a slower decrease due to
added base flow from infiltrated water.
4. The bar graph shows the amount of rainfall
(precipitation) that occurs in the drainage basin
over time. This is shown on the vertical axis in
40 mm
millimetres (mm).
4
30 mmE 5. Time lag (also called lag time) is the time that
it takes from the heaviest rainfall to the fullest
6 20 mm amount of water in the river (peak fiow). It is
calculated by establishing the time difference
10 mm between the heaviest rainfall and the peak flow of
the river.
Time (hours/days) ’ 6. Base flow is the groundwater contribution to the
discharge of a river.
Figure 2.2.1B: The different parts of a flow hydrograph 7. The highest point on the line graph is the peak
flow discharge. This is when the river reaches its
highest volume.
2 Chapter
The flow hydrograph in Figure 2.2.1B can be interpreted as follows:
The slope of the line graph indicates the increase in the river's volume
(discharge). If the slope of the line graph is steep, there is more runoff
than infitration. If the slope is gentle, there is more infiltration than runoff.
The graph in Figure 2.2.1B has a steep slope, so there is more runoff than
infiltration.
The highest point on the line graph is the peak flow discharge. This is when
the river reaches its highest volume. The difference in time between when i
rains and when the peak flow discharge occurs is called the time lag. The time
lag is affected by the amount of runoff and infiltration that occurs. More runoff
causes a shorter time lag and more infiltration causes a longer time lag.
The following factors influence the time lag:
NB Amount of vegetation (increased vegetation reduces runoff and
causes a longer time lag)
Steepness of slope (a steeper slope increases runoff and causes a
In the exam, you may be shorter time lag)
asked to determine the Amount of rainfall (lots of rainfall increases runoff and causes a
impact on time lag if an area shorter time lag)
that has a lot of vegetation Nature of rainfall (heavy rainfall increases runoff and causes a
(natural catchment) becomes shorter time lag)
urbanised (is covered bya
city) Figure 2.2.1C below shows the difference in the time lag between a natural
catchment and an urbanised catchment.

dRisclhvareg
Natural Icatchment
o
Urbanised catchment
Time

Figure 2.2.1C: Flow hydrographs and the impact of the type of surface of the
area surrounding the river

We can interpret the flow hydrograph in Figure 2.2.1C as follows:

NB The line graph for the urbanised catchment area is much steeper
than the line graph for the natural catchment as there is more runoff
and less infiltration in the urbanised catchment.
Study Table 2.2 This is because the urbanised catchment has less vegetation which
(right) and make sure you results in more runoff.
know the difference between
Natural catchment Urbanised catchment
a natural catchment and
(more vegetation) (less vegetation)
an urbanised catchment so
More infiltration Less infiltration
that you can interpret flow
hydrographs in the exam. Less runoff More runoff
Remember, the catchment Longer time lag Shorter time lag
area refers to the area from
which rainfall flows into a Lower peak discharge Higher peak discharge
river, lake or reservoir. Table 2.2: The difference between natural catchment and urbanised catchment

The amount of runoff on the surface leads to the development of rivers,

which together form a river system within a drainage basin.
 Chapter 2
Flow characteristics
The nature of the landscape over which the rivers flow will determine how
the water moves in the river systems. Figure 2.2.1D (right) shows the two
types of flow, namely laminar and turbulent flow.
A smooth channel causes laminar flow of water and is more efficient. land
Less of the available energy is used to overcome friction (found on the lower Laminar
course of a river).
A rough channel causes a turbulent flow of water. An uneven rocky bed
causes an uneven flow of water. This increases the surface area for friction.
This type of flow is very inefficient (found on the upper course of a river).

2.2.2 Drainage basins land

Adrainage basin is an area Turbulant
drained by a river system. Source Figure 2.2.1D Turbulent and
You need to know the Laminar flow
different parts of a drainage Tributaries
basin to understand the
other aspects of rivers,
such asS a river's Source, NB
river mouth, watershed and
tributaries. Figure 2.2.2A Learn Figure 2.2.2A in order
(right) shows the different to label a similar diagram in
parts of a drainage basin. an exam question.
River mouth
A river does not flow by Watershed
itself but is part of a river
system (a main river and all
its tributaries). Figure 2.2.2A:
The different parts ofa drainage basin
We will now look at two
aspects of river systems: drainage density and drainage patterns.
Drainage density
Drainage density describes how many streams there are in a drainage
basin. Drainage density is affected by the same factors that affect runoff You may be asked in an exam
and infiltration: to give reasons for an area
More infiltration willcause fewer rivers to occur, causing a low having a high or low drainage
drainage density. density.
More runoff will cause more rivers to occur, causing a high drainage
density.
(0) (ü)
Figure 2.2.2B (i) (right) shows a low drainage density and Figure 2.2.2B ()
(right) shows a high drainage density.
Interpretation of Figure 2.2.2B (0):
Drainage basin (i) has fewer tributaries so it has a low drainage density.
Some reasons for low drainage density are:
Soft rainfall causing more infiltration
Gentle slopes causing more infitration
Lots of vegetation causing more infiltration
Figure 2.2.28: Low drainage
Very little rain so the ground can still hold more water causing more density () and high drainage
infiltration
density (ii)
 Chapter 2
Figures
Drainage patterns 2.2.2 D, E and F
Summarise the main
In a river system, individual streams flow over the surface in stream things you need to
channels. These channels will cut into the rock surface where it is easiest learnabout drainage
to erode the rock. These channels form patterns known as drainage patterns.
patterns. Figure 2.2.2D, E, Fbelow show three types of drainage patterns.

NB
You may be asked in an exam to identify the drainage pattern,
describe the pattern (what it looks like) or explain what caused the
pattern to ocCur. When you are asked to explain the cause of the drainage patterm, you
may be required to name the underlying rock structure in the area.

Name: Dendritic
Description: Looks like the branches of a tree with tributaries joining the
main river at acute angles
Explanation: Occurs where the underlying rock is of homogenous (equal)
resistance, namely either horizontal (flat) sedimentary rock, massive
igneous or metamorphic rock

Figure 2.2.2D: Dendritic pattern

Name: Trellis
Description: Paralel streams with short tributaries joining at right angles
(90)
Explanation: Occurs where the surface rock is of alternate resistance
(strong and weak rock), or where sedimentary rock is folded

Figure 2.2.2E: Trelis pattern

Name: Radial
Description: Streams flow outwards from one raised central point (dome or
volcano)
Explanation: Rivers flow downhill and away from the highest central point.

Figure 2.2.2F: Radial pattern

2.2.3 Stages of a river
Asa river flows from the mountains (source) to the sea (mouth), the amount
of erosion and deposition changes. This changes what the river looks like
from its source to its mouth:
In its upper course, a river erodes vertically (downwards) creating
steep valleys.
In the middle course, lateral erosion and a little bit of deposition
occur. The lateral erosion occurs unequally (unevenly) on the sides
of the river. This causes the river to start meandering (flowing or
bending from side to side).
By the time the river reaches its lower course, the eroded material
(sediment) carried by the river begins to be deposited onto the
floodplains. Afloodplain is a wide, flat area alongside a river.
Floodplains are formed by the river eroding lateraly (sideways). In
the lower course the meanders may be cut off when the river flows
straight, forming an ox-bow (Ushaped) lake.
Figure 2.2.3A (see page 33) shows the stages of a river in plan
view.

Figure 2.2.3B (see page 33) shows the stages of a river in oblique
view.
Table 2.3 (see page 33) summarises the features of a river at
each stage.

NB You may be asked in an exam to identify the stage of a river

from a plan view, an oblique view or a cross section diagram. You
may also be asked to draw a river in a plan view or a cross section diagram of a river
at a particular stage. To do this, learn the characteristic features of each stage. This is
also useful for identifying the stage of a river on a topographic map.
 Chapter

Upper course Middle course Lower cOurse

Ox-bow lake

Meander

Floodplajh

Figure 2.2.3A: Plan view of upper course, middle course and lower course

Figure 2.2.3B: Oblique view of upper course, middle course and lower course

Typical features at each stage

Steep, V-shaped valey " Open, gentle sloping valley with Wide, flat floodplain
Narrow channel floodplain Wide valey
" Waterfalls " Wider channel Very wide channel
" Gorges (steep, narrow valley) " Meanders (slip off and undercut Oxbow lakes
slopes)

Table 2.3: Typical features of a river at each stage

See the next

2.2.4 River profiles section on river
When we look at a river from the side (profile view) we can study it from profiles for a cross
section of each
two sides: stage.
Longitudinal profile: The profile from the river's source to its mouth.
Cross profile: The profile from one side of the river valley to the other
side, through the river channel (depth and width).
Figures 2.2.4A and 2.2.4B (i) to (ii) on the next page show the profiles of
a river. These figures are drawn as cross-sectional views. Across section
can be drawn as a longitudinal profile and asa cross profile.
2 Chapter

Source

Mouth

Figure 2.2.4A: Cross sectional view of a longitudinal profle

() Cross profile of (i) Cross profile of (ii) Cross profile of

upper COurse middle course lower course

Figure 2.2.4B: Cross-sectional views of a cross profile at different stages in a

river

Activity 2.4
1. Drawa longitudinal profile of ariver (from source to mouth)
and show the upper, middle and lower courses. (1 x 4 = 4)
2. List two features of the upper course of a river. (2 × 2=4)
3. Describe a river in its lower course. (2 x2=4)
4. Describe one difference between the river channel in the
upper course and the lower course. (2 x2 =4)
[16]

|Answers to activity 2.4

1.
Source

Upper
COurse

Middle
course
/ Lower
COurse
Mouth (4)
2. Steep V-shaped valley / /
Narrow channel / /
Interlocking spurs /
Waterfalls / /
Gorges / (any 2) (4)
3. Wide flat floodplain /
Wide valley //
Very wide channel /
Ox-bow lakes / / (any 2) (4)
4. Narrow channel in the upper course /
Wide channel in the lower course I (4)
[16]
 Chapter 2

2.2.5 River capture and rejuvenation

The longitudinal profile of a river has a concave shape. Changes can occur
to a river's longitudinal profile because of two processes:
Rejuvenation: We will focus on the causes of rejuvenation and the
changes to the cross profiles of each stage in a river.
River capture: We will focus on the features that occur as a result of
river capture.

Rejuvenation
When a river gets more energy it is said to be rejuvenated. It has more
energy to erode downwards and laterally (sideways).
The causes of river rejuvenation are:
An increase in the volume of the river, giving the river more energy.
Adrop in sea level due to uplift of land makes the longitudinal profile
steeper, giving the river more energy.
Let us now look at the changes in the cross profiles of a river due to
rejuvenation:
Upper course: The valley becomes steeper and more V-shaped. This
is shown in Figure 2.2.5B (below right).

Figure 2.2.5A: An oblique view of a Figure 2.2.5B: An oblique view of a

river valley in the upper Course before river valley in the upper course after
river rejuvenation has occurred river rejuvenation has occurred

Oldest floodplain

Terrace Second oldest floodplain

River

Floodplain terrace
North covered with silt
South
Figure 2.2.5C: Across profile of a
river valley in the middle course after Figure 2.2.5D: Across profile of a river valley in the lower course after
rejuvenation has occurred rejuvenation has Occurred

Middle course: Downward erosion Lower course: Downward and lateral (sideways) erosion cause a
results in a second U-shaped valley second valley to form. Because floodplains occur in this stage of
forming. This results in a valley a river, the valleys have a step-like (terraced) appearance. This is
within a valley. This is shown in shown in Figure 2.2.5D (above). If meanders occur, they will be
Figure 2.2.5C (above). eroded downwards (incised) forming steep-sided meanders.
 Chapter
Source Let us now look at the changes in the
longitudinal profile of a river due to
rejuvenation:
The concave shape of a longitudinal
profile is called a graded profile. When
rejuvenation occurs, there is a sudden drop
in the profile, causing the profile to no longer
Mouth be concave. The profile is now an ungraded
Figure 2.2.6E: Graded longitudinal profile of a river before profile. The sudden drop in the profile is
rejuvenation called a knickpoint. Rejuvenation can occur
more than once along a river's profile forming
Source knickpoints along the way. Figure 2.2.5E
Knickpoint (left) shows a graded (concave) longitudinal
profile of a river before rejuvenation. Figure
Knickpoint 2.2.5F (left) shows an ungraded (not
Concave) longitudinal profile of a river after
Knickpoints and incised valley
sections retreat upstream rejuvenation.
Figure 2.2.5F: Ungraded longitudinal profile of a river after The river wants to regain its concave profile
rejuvenation so it will erode the knickpoints, making them
less visible over time.

A graded
profile has no You may be asked in an exam to identify if rejuvenation has
kickpoint, it is a occurred. Knickpoints occur during rejuvenation. After rejuvenation,
Smooth concave slope.
An ungraded profile knickpoints wear away, making the profile smooth once again (graded).
has one or more
kickpoints
River capture
A river is rejuvenated when it gets more energy. A river which has more
energy can lead to more erosion, especialy headward erosion. Headward
erosion is when the source of a rier erodes backwards towards the
watershed. The headward erosion eventually leads to the river capturing
the water of another river. River capture is sometimes called river piracy.
This is because one river 'robs' another river of its water.

Headward erosion occurs because a river has more energy. Reasons for
the increased energy are:
A
river flowing over a steeper gradient will flow faster
A river with a larger volume will flow faster
A river fiowing over less resistant rock will flow faster
In Figures 2.2.5G and H(see page 37) you can see how river Aerodes back
(headward erosion) towards river B. River A 'captures' extra water from
river B. River A is rejuvenated.
Study Figures 2.2.51 and J (see page 37) of stream capture and note the
different features formed as a result of river capture.
 Chapter
Once river capture has occurred, various features are visible in the
drainage basin. NB
River B River B
You may be asked in an exam
to identify the features of river
capture on a diagram or you
may be asked to describe
River A River A
the features in detail. Use
mobile notes to help you learn
Figure 2.2.5G: Oblique view of the Figure 2.2.5H: Oblique of the area the features of river capture
area before river capture after river capture
provided in Table 2.4.

Captured river
Captured river River B 7 RiverB
Misfit
stream
Elbow of Wind gap
capture
Captor
Capto Headward river
rive River A erosion
River A

Figure 2.2.51: Plan view of the area Figure 2.2.5J: Plan view of the area
before iver capture after river capture

Study Figures 2.2.5 IandJ (above) and take note of the different features
formed as a result of river capture.

Feature Explanation
Captor river The energetic stream that cuts back and intercepts (takes) the water of the other river.
Captured river The river which has its water intercepted (taken) by the captor river.
Misfit stream The river that has lost its source water as a result of capture. It is also called the beheaded
stream.
Elbow of capture The point of capture where a change of flow direction occurs.
Wind gap The area between the elbow of capture and the misfit stream where water stops flowing
and dry deposited gravels are exposed.
Waterfall This may form at the point where the captured river flows into the captor river.
Table 2.4: Features of river capture

Example of a description of river NB

capture
You may be asked in an exam
River capture takes place when the energetic stream (captor stream) cuts back and to describe how river capture
intercepts (takes) the water from the other river (captured/beheaded river). The captured OCcurs. Learn the description
river turns into a misfit stream and a wind gap forms (where water stops flowing given in the box (left).
altogether). An elbow of capture is formed at the point of capture. Sometimes a watertall
may be formed at the elbow of capture. The captor stream is rejuvenated.
 2.2.6 Catchment area and river
management
exams
Importance of managing drainage basins
This may be and catchment areas
examined as a
case study. South Africa is not a water rich country.
Our river systems are a resource.
Like all other natural resources, rivers are shared.
Water is essential for our survival and wel-being, as well as for social
and economic development.
Water resources are used for agriculture, industry, domestic use,
hydro electric power and recreation.
River systems are part of the water cycle.
All water bodies are linked.
The way we use the land has a dramatic impact on the water cycle.
Our river systems are a habitat and function as ecosystems.
A river links together many ecosystems in a catchment.
 Chapter2
Impact of people ondrainage basins and
catchment areas
Landills, mining and agriculture pollute groundwater.
Industries and sewage works discharge water waste into rivers.
Agricultural run-off contains fertilizers and pesticides, which pollute
rivers.
Domestic use of rivers in informal settlements pollutes and litters
rivers.
Boreholes reduce the amount of groundwater that feeds rivers.
Alien vegetation consumes large quantities of water very quickly in
the river zone.
Overgrazing and removal of vegetation reduce groundwater and
increase run-off.
Dams change the flow of a river.
Draining of wetlands causes increased flooding.
Flood control methods restrict the path of a river.

Activity 2.6
Use the topographical map of Nelspruit 2530BD at the back of this study
guide to answer the following questions.
1. The contour interval of this topographical map is..
A. 1000 metres B. 50 O00 metres
C. 25 metres D. 20 metres
2. The Crocodile River is a/an...
A. Periodic river B. Exotic river
C. Permanent river D. Seasonal river
(2×2 =4)
(4]

|Answers to activity 2.6

1. D//
2. C/ [4]