Metal Cutting

Introduction

Components are made of metals in different shapes, sizes and dimensions

Metals are shaped into required forms by various process
Cutting process(Chip removal process)
Non cutting process(Chipless process)

In cutting operation the required shape of metal is obtained by removing

unwanted material from the workpiece in the form of chips
Ex: Turning, Boring, Milling, Drilling..etc.
Operations like Forging, Spinning, Rolling, Extruding.. etc., metals are shaped
under the action of heat, pressure or both. Here there is no chip formation
Metal cutting

A metal cutting process involves work piece, tool, chips

and cutting fluid
In order to cut the material from blank, the cutting tool
should be harder than material to be cut, tool should be
penetrate the blank and tool should be strong enough to
withstand the forces developed in cutting
For removing the metal, a wedge shaped tool
considered stationary and the work piece moves to right.
The area of metal in front of tools get compressed
causing high temperature shear. The stress in work piece
just ahead of cutting tool reaches ultimate strength and
particles shear to form chip elements.
Classification Of Cutting Tools
• Based on number of cutting edges
Single point cutting Tools
Multi point cutting Tools
Classification Of Cutting Tools
Single point cutting Tools
Cutting tool has an effective cutting edge and removes excess
material from the work piece along cutting edge
Ground Type
Forged type
Tipped type
Bit type
A tool is said to be right/left hand type ,if the cutting edge is
on the right or left side when viewing tool from the point
end.
Ex: Tool used in Lathe, Shaper, Planer, Slotter etc.
Classification Of Cutting Tools
Multi point cutting Tools
They have more than one effective cutting edge to remove
the excess material from the work piece.
Ex: Milling cutter, Drills, Grinding Wheels etc.
Terminology
Shank
Main body of the tool at one end of which the
cutting portion is formed
Face
The face is the surface over which the chip flows
Flank
The surface of the tool which is facing the work
Cutting edge
The cutting edge carries out the cutting
Nose
Corner, arc or chamfer at the junction of the major
and minor cutting edge
Heel
Horizontal Surface at the end of base in neck portion
which do not participate in cutting process.
 Tool angles
The various angles influence tool
performance to a considerable
extent and therefore their values
should be selected with great
care and consideration.
Back rake angle
Side rake angle
End relief angle
Side relief angle
End cutting edge angle
Side cutting edge angle
Rake angle
It measures the downward slope of the top surface of the tool
from the nose to rear along the longitudinal axis
Its purpose is to guide the direction of chip flow
Reduces cutting force and helps to increase tool life and reduce
power consumption
Improve surface finish
The size of the angle depends on the material to be machined, the
softer the material the greater should be the positive rake angle.
Aluminum requires more back rake angle than cast iron steel
Higher the depth of cut lower should be rake angle. Smaller depth
of cut have high rake angle tools
Positive rake angle
When machining low strength ferrous and non ferrous
metals
When using small machine tools with low horse power
It is necessary to machine below recommended cutting
speeds
Negative angle
When machining high strength alloys
Cemented carbide cutting tools are normally given
negative rake because cemented carbide possess very
high compressive strength and comparatively very low
tensile and shear strength
Can work at higher speed
Zero rake angle
Face of tool has no slope and in the same plane or
parallel to upper surface of shank. Turning brass
usually have zero rake tools.
Zero rake increases strength of tool and prevents
cutting edge from digging into work
Side rake angle

It measure the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction
perpendicular to longitudinal axis
It also guides the direction of the chip away from the job. The amount that a
chip is bent depends upon this angle
Larger side rake angle produces smooth surface finish
It varies between 0-22 degree
 Relief Angle

End Relief Angle

Provided on the tool to provide clearance between the
workpiece and the tool so as to prevent the rubbing of
workpiece with end flake of the tool
It is the angle between the surface of the flank
immediately below the point and a line drawn from
the point perpendicular to the base.
Varies from 6-10 degree
Side Relief Angle
It is the angle made by the flank of the tool and a plane
perpendicular to base just under the side cutting edge.
This angle permits the tool to be fed side way into the
job so that it can cut without rubbing
 Cutting edge angle

End cutting edge angle

It is the angle between face of the tool and a plane perpendicular to the side of the shank. It
allows only a small section of the end cutting edge to contact the machined surface and
prevents chatter and vibration. It also responsible for turning the chip away from finished
surface. Its value varies between 0-30 degree.
Side cutting edge angle
It is the angle between the side cutting edge and longitudinal axis of the tool. It control
direction of chip flow and distributes the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting
edge.
 Lip angle

It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of flank. It is usually
between 60-90 degrees
Tool Signature
• Tool signature is a numerical method of identification of tool standardized
by ASA
• 7 elements in Tool signature
Activity-1
• Sketch the top view ,front view and end view of a 25
mm Square bit having tool signature of
7-14-6-6-18-16-0.8

Time-5 Minute
Mechanism of Metal Cutting

During machining, the cutting tool exerts a

compressive force on the work piece. The material
of the work piece is stressed beyond its yield point
under this compressive force. It causes the material
to deform plastically and shear off
The plastic flow takes place in a localized region
called shear plane as shown in Figure. This shear
plane extends from the cutting up to the uncut
where ahead of the tool. The sheared material
begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the
form of small pieces called chips. The Compressive
force applied to form the chip is called cutting force
 Types of chips

The nature of chips produced depends on the properties of work material, cutting
tool geometry, cutting speed, feed and depth of cut and quality of cutting
In most machining process the following types of chips are formed
Continuous Chips
Continuous chips with BUE
Discontinuous chips
Continuous chips

Continuous chips are formed when machining ductile materials (low-carbon steel, copper,
aluminium etc.) with a cutting tool of large rake angle and sharp cutting edge. Such a chip
flows off the tool face in the form of a ribbon. The other favourable conditions which give
rise to this type of chip are
High cutting force
Small feeds and depth of cut
Low friction
Continuous chips with BUE
Continuous chips with BUE are formed when machining ductile metals with a cutting tool
of smaller rake angle at lower cutting speed. The other conditions which give rise to BUE
are
Higher values of feed and depth of cut
Higher co-efficient of friction
Poor lubrication
High cutting pressure and temperature in shear zone

Built up edge is caused by small particles of cut chip adheres, under the action of pressure
and temperature, to the face of the tool.
These BUE eventually swept from the tool and remain attached to the machined surface
Discontinuous Chips
This type of chip is produced when machining brittle material, such as cast
iron and bronze, with a cutting tool having low rake angle. The following
factors favours the formation of discontinuous chips.
Low cutting speed
Large feeds and depth of cut
Absence of cutting fluid

In this case the chips are broken up into small segments instead of plastic
flow of chip along tool face
The most of the heat generated is carried by the chip and hence the tool is
heated to a lower temperature. Thus, the tool life is longer.
Chip Breakers

Chip breakers are important components of tool design particularly when tool has to
cut ductile materials like low carbon steels, copper, aluminium, low zinc brasses etc.
These materials produce long continuous chips which are difficult to handle and
occupy large volumes
These chips are to be broken into small pieces for ease of handling and to prevent it
from becoming hazardous
Hence chip breakers are used to break this continuous chips into small pieces. The
general types of chip
 Chip Breakers

Step type
Groove type
Clamp type

In step type a step is ground on the tool face behind the cutting edge. This will break the
chip

In groove type, a groove on the tool face behind the cutting edge will break the chip

In clamp type, a thin chip breakers is clamped or screwed on the face of the tool
Types of metal cutting process

• Orthogonal cutting process

• Oblique cutting process
❑ In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the
cutting velocity vector
❑ In oblique cutting the cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle with
normal to the cutting velocity vector
 Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting process

1 The cutting angle of tool make right The cutting angle of tool does not make right angle
angle to the direction of motion to the direction of motion

2 The chip flow in the direction The chips make an angle with the normal to the
normal to the cutting edge cutting edge

3 In orthogonal cutting only two In oblique cutting three component of force are
components of force considered considered, cutting force, thrust force and radial
cutting force and thrust force which force which cannot represent by 2D coordinate. It
can be represent by 2D coordinate used 3D coordinate to represent the forces acting
system. during cutting, so it is known as 3D cutting

4 This tool has lesser cutting life This tool has higher cutting life
compare to oblique cutting
 Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting process

5 Cutting edge clears the width of the Cutting edge may or may not clears the width of
workpiece on either sides workpiece
6 Maximum chip thickness occurs at Maximum chip thickness may not occur at middle.
the middle
7 The shear force acts on a smaller Shear force acts on a larger area, hence shear force
area, so shear force per unit area is per unit area is smaller.
more
Thermal Aspects of Machining

Power consumed in machining is converted into heat near the cutting edge
of the tool
This causes the temperature of the tool, chip and workpiece to rise
This can influence the properties of the work material and effective life of
the cutting tool
The temperature at the tool chip interface can be measured using tool-work
thermocouple, radiation pyrometer, temperature sensitive paints, embedded
thermos couples
Thermal Aspects of Machining

Primary zone
Also known as shear zone
Heat is generated due to plastic deformation
of metal
The process is continuous and rapid
80-85% heat is generated from this zone
Secondary zone
It is called a friction zone
As the chip moves along the tool face under
great pressure being resisted by the friction
Heat is generated due to friction between
moving chip on rake face of tool
15-20% heat is generated in this zone
Thermal Aspects of Machining

Tertiary zone
It is the work tool contact zone
Burnishing action is the cause of heat generation
1-3% of heat generation occurs in this zone
 Geometry of chip formation

In an orthogonal cutting process , there

are three velocities; these are:
Cutting velocity (V) – velocity of tool
relative to the workpiece
Velocity of chip (Vc) – velocity with
which the chip moves over the rake
face of the cutting tool
Velocity of shear (Vs) – velocity with
which metal of the workpiece shears
along the shear plane
Geometry of chip formation

The cutting velocity Vc and rake angle α are known, the value of Vc and Vs can be
calculated
Geometry of chip formation

The cutting velocity Vc and rake angle α are known, the value of Vc and Vs can be
calculated
The chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio is defined as the ratio of depth of cut to
chip thickness

The term is termed as chip reduction coefficient or chip compression factor

Force analysis in metal cutting
 Merchant Theory &Merchant circle

• From a fixed geometry of cutting tool, there exists a definite relationship among
above mentioned forces
• Merchnat represented these forces in a circle called merchant circle
Assumptions
Tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face
The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge
The cutting edge is a straight line
The chip does not flow to either side
The depth of cut is constant
Width of tool is grater than that of workpiece
A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge
 Forces exerted by tool on the chip

Forces acting on a tool

Forces exerted by workpiece on chip
 Procedure to draw Merchnat circle

The cutting force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the tangential

force (Ft) is drawn vertically
Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If
done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this
circle
Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant, taking
care to draw the correct rake angle from the vertical axis
Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same
rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the friction vector
(F).
A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to
the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives the normal vector
(N). Also add a friction angle between vectors R and N.
Draw a feed thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip
thickness line (t2)parallel to the tool cutting face
Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two chip
lines, stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force vector (Fs) Also
measure the shear force angle between Fs and Fc
Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of R
Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces) and angles
Q-1
• During a metal cutting test under orthogonal conditions it was
found that cutting force is 700 kg and feed force 400 kg when
cutting at 165 m/mint. Rake angle of tool is 10 degrees and
shear plane angle was found to be 19 degree. Determine
frictional force, shear force.
Fc
Fc
Shear force system
Frictional force system
Condition for maximum cutting force
Ernst- merchant theory

Experimental verification revealed that the above equation is an over estimate. Merchant
modified the equation and gave another equation.

where c is the machining constant

GATE 2023
KTU-2018
• In an orthogonal cutting, cutting force is 300 N and feed force is 120 N. If a
chip thickness is 0.6 and rake angle is 20 degree. Find shear force.
GATE EXAM
• An orthogonal cutting operation is performed using a single point cutting
tool with a rake angle of 12 degrees on a lathe. During turning, the cutting
force and the friction force are 1000 N and 600N respectively. If the chip
thickness and uncut thickness during turning are 1.5 mm and 0.75
respectively, then determine the shear force.
 KTU-2024
A bar of 75 mm diameter is reduced to 73 mm by a cutting tool while cutting orthogonally. If
the mean length of the cut chip is 73.5 mm, find the cutting ratio. If the rake angle is 15
degree, find the shear angle.
Power and workdone
required in cutting process

Workdone in cutting(W)=Fc X Vc

Vc=cutting velocity=ΠDN in m/min, Where N is cutting speed Fc=cutting force

Workdone in shear (Ws)=Fs X Vs

Vs= velocity of chip relative to work along shear palne Fs=shear force

Workdone in Friction (Wf)=F X Vt

Vt= velocity of chip relative to cutting tool Fs=Frictional force

Total workdone in cutting(W)= Workdone in shear(Ws)+ Workdone in Friction(Wf)

Horse power calculation

•
Tool Wear
Generally tools are made by hard and brittle material. It cuts material by plastic
deformation. When sharp edge tool rubs over the work piece, shear off some
material and give desire shape of work piece. Due to this rubbing and many other
mechanism tool also worn out, which is known as tool wear
Every tool has specified tool life which is depends on its material, work piece
material, cutting conditions etc.
Tool wear affects following items
Increased cutting forces
Increased cutting temperature
Decreased accuracy of produced parts
Decreased tool life
Poor surface finish
Economics of cutting operations
Tool wear
The main types of tool wear are
Flank Wear
Crater Wear
Rounding of the cutting edge-Nose wear
Chipping off the cutting edge
Flank wear

The wear at the side and end of flank of tool is called Flank wear
Flank wear is due to abrasive action of discontinuities like debris from
built up edge, shearing of micro welds between tool and workpiece
etc..
The worn-out region is called wear land
It is occur at tool work-piece interface
Remedies for Flank Wear
Reduce feed and depth of cut
Use hard grade of carbide if possible
Prevent formation of built-up edge, using chip breakers
Crater wear

Crater wear generally occur in machining ductile material due to abrasion

between chip and tool face, and due to high temperature in tool chip
interface. It is occur at face at a short distance from cutting edge. This wear
predominates at high speed
Remedies for Crater Wear
Use of proper lubricants, can decrease the abrasion process, and so
decrease in crater wear
Proper coolant for rapid heat dissipation from tool-chip interface
Reduced cutting speeds and feed rates
Use tougher and hot hardness materials for tools
Use positive rake tool
 Nose Wear
It wears out the tool corner. It is the matting part of flank and face which is combination
effect of crater wear and flank wear. It is considered as separate wear because the tool
corners are very important for proper cutting of work-piece.
Chipping off the cutting edge

It occurs due to following factors

Tool material is too brittle
As a result of crack that is already in tool
Excessive static or shock loading of the tool
Weak design of tool, such as high positive rake angle
Tool Wear Mechanisms

Diffusion Wear
Adhesive Wear
Abrasive Wear
Fatigue Wear
Oxidation effect
Chemical decomposition
Tool Wear Mechanisms

Diffusion Wear

◾Atomic transfer between contacting materials

◾Under high pressure and temperature
◾Diffuse into the chip and diffuse into the tool
◾Results in changes of the tool and work piece composition
Tool Wear Mechanisms

Adhesive wear
◾Due to high pressure and temperature at tool-chip interface
◾Hot chips get welded to the tool rake face.
◾Weld intermittently breaks away picking particles of cutting tool.
 Tool Wear Mechanisms

Abrasive wear

◾Caused by the impurities within the work piece material

◾Carbon nitride and oxide compounds, built-up edge fragments, etc.
◾At low cutting speeds
Fatigue wear
When two surfaces that of chip and cutting tool face slide on contact with each other
under pressure, projections on one surface interlock with those of the other, resulting
in frictional stress. This frictional stress results in compressive shades on one side of
under loading and tensile stress on another side. As the chip slides over further, there
are stresses are relieved. This causes a cyclic stress and leads to surface cracks and
crumbing of the hard material
 Tool Wear Mechanisms

Chemical decomposing
Due to high temperature and pressure there is change in chemical composition of tool
which reduces its life.
Oxidation Effect
Grooves and notches are formed at rake face and flank due to the reaction of sliding
portion of chip and machined surface with atmospheric oxygen to form abrasive oxides
causing wear.
Tool life

The total cutting time accumulated before tool failure occur is termed as tool life
It is the time a tool will operate satisfactorily until it is dulled
Tool life is measured in following ways
Number of pieces machined between tool sharpening
The time the tool in contact with the job
Total time of operation
Volume of material removed between tool sharpening
Factors affecting Tool life

Cutting parameters
Speed, feed, depth of cut
Tool geometry
Tool material
Cutting fluid
Work material
Nature of cutting
Rigidity of machine
Cutting parameters

Speed - Cutting speed has the greatest influence on tool life. As the cutting speed increases
the temperature also rises.

Tool life is related to cutting speed as per Taylors equation

T is tool life in minutes
V is cutting speed m/min
n is the exponent depends upon tool and workpiece
n = 0.15 to 0.2 for HSS
0.3 to 0.49 for Carbide
0.40 to 0.55 for Ceramic tool
C is Taylors Constant.
• Feed and depth of cut
The tool life is influenced by the feed rate and depth of cut. For a given
cutting speed the feed or depth of cut is increased the rate of metal removal
will reduce the tool life. We have to use correct cutting speed, feed and depth
of cut to increase tool life
• Tool Geometry
Large rake angle reduces the tool cross section. Area of the tool which will
absorb heat is reduced. So the tool will become weak. So correct rake angle
must be used for long tool life.
Increase in nose radius improves tool life. If the cutting angle increases,
more power will be required for cutting.
Clearance angle will improve tool life at first. Then tool life decreases
because of decreased strength. The correct clearance angle is 10° to 15°

• Tool material
Tool life depends upon the tool material. High speed steel tool has more life
than steel tools. Carbide tools have more life than high speed tools.
 • Cutting fluid
It reduces the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface and increases tool life
• Work material
Physical and chemical properties of workpiece affect the tool life. Tool life will be more
when machining soft metals than hard metals like cast iron and bronze
• Nature of cutting
Tool life is better with continuous cutting. Tool life is reduced due to regular jerks developed
due to intermittent cutting
• Rigidity of work, tool and machine
A strongly supported tool on a rigid machine will have more life than a tool machining under
vibrating conditions. Loose holding of the workpiece will decrease tool life
 KTU-Jan 2024

During turning a metallic rod at a given condition, tool life was found to increase
from 25 min to 50 min when cutting speed reduced from 100 m/min to 80 m/min.
How much will be the life of that tool if machined at 90 m/min
KTU-Jun 2022
GATE 2024

Ans:
Economics of machining

Total cost = 𝐂𝐦 + 𝐂𝐢 + 𝐂𝐭

Cm – machining cost
Cutting cost or operating cost
Ci – idle cost
Non-productive cost
Ct – tool cost
Cost of tool and tool changing cost
Economics of machining

The line labelled “machining cost” (made up of

labour and overhead cost of time per piece)
reduces with increasing speed by reducing
operating (cycle) times
The cost for tools, on the other hand, increases
with increasing speed. This is because tool life
decreases with increasing speed
Since machining cost and tool costs vary with
the speed of operation, a minimum total cost
occurs at a definite set of conditions for
material, tooling and operating speed
Economics of machining

Higher speeds permit quicker operating

sequences, reducing time per piece; but higher
speeds reduce tool life and increases tool
changing time
Plotting both Total Cost per Piece and Total
Time per Piece as curves shows that the high
efficiency range exists between the two
curve’s minima.
Minimum time per piece usually occurs at
higher speeds than minimum cost per piece
The range between the two optimum speeds is
known as high efficiency machining range
Machinability

It is the ease or difficulty with which a metal can be machined to an acceptable

surface finish
The machinability of a material is usually defined in terms of four factors:
❑ Surface finish and surface integrity of the machined part
❑ Tool life
❑ Force and power requirements
❑ The level of difficulty in chip control after it is generated
Good machinability indicates good surface finish and surface integrity, a long tool life, and
low force and power requirements.
Machinability

In machining practice, tool life and surface roughness generally are considered to
be the most important factors in machinability.
Approximate machinability ratings (indexes) have been available for many years for
each type of material and its condition; however, they are not particularly useful or
reliable because of their qualitative nature
The machinability of different metals to be machined may be compared by using
the machinability index of each material which may be defined as
Cutting fluids

Cutting fluids sometimes referred to as lubricants or coolants are liquids and gases applied
to the tool and workpiece to assist in cutting operation.
Purpose of cutting fluids
To cool the tool
To cool the workpiece
To lubricate and reduce friction
To improve surface finish
To protect the finished surface from corrosion
To cause chips break up into small parts
To wash the chips away from the tool
Properties of cutting fluids

• Good lubricating qualities

• High heat absorbing capacity
• Rust resistance
• High flash point
• Low viscosity
• Non toxic
• Chemically stable
• Non flammable
• Odour less
• Low cost
• No skin irritation
 Types of cutting fluids

Water
Water has high specific heat but is poor in lubrication. Also, it encourages rusting.
Soluble oils
Soluble oils are emulsions composed of around 80 % or more water, soap and mineral oil. The
water increase the cooling effect and the oil provide the best lubricating properties and ensures
freedom from rust
Mineral Oils
Mineral oils are used for heavier cutting operations because of their good lubricating properties.
They are commonly found in production machines where high metal removal rates are employed.
They are most suitable for steels but should not be used on copper or its alloys since it has a
corrosive effect.
 Types of cutting fluids

Straight Oils (Petroleum or Vegetable Oils)

Straight oil is a petroleum or vegetable oil that is used without dilution with water. Paraffin oils,
naphthenic oils, vegetable oils are some examples of straight oils. It provide excellent lubrication.

Synthetic Fluids

They are water based fluids and contain no mineral oil. They have a typical particulate size of 0.003
mm. Water provides excellent cooling properties. But creates a problem of corrosion. Also, not
effective as lubricant. To prevent rust formation rust inhibitors are added.

Semi-Synthetic Fluids
They are mixture of soluble oils (Emulsions) and synthetics fluids (water based fluids). About 5 to 20%
mineral oil is emulsified with water to produce a micro emulsion. These types of fluids are used largely
due to their advantages of both soluble oils and synthetics
Application of cutting fluids

Cutting fluids are applied to the cutting zone through

1-Backside of chip
2-Space between the chip and rake face of the tool
3-Space between the finished work surface and flank face of the tool
Application of cutting fluids

Cutting fluids can be applied by any of the following methods

Flooding
Jet application
Mist Application
Application of cutting fluids

Flooding
Cutting fluid is applied to the backside of chip as a high volume flow. The flooding fluid
flushes the entire machining area and most of the heat generated, is taken away.
Jet application
Cutting fluid is applied in the form of a fine jet under pressure. Here, the cutting fluid
penetrates into the chip-tool interface and better surface finish and machining
performance are observed.
Mist application
A gaseous medium like air is-used to which small droplets of cutting fluid are dispersed.
The mixture is applied through the space between tool flank and the machined surface.
This method is advantages over the others and lead to better surface finish even at
higher feed rates.
Cutting Tool
The characteristics of an ideal material are

• Hot hardness. -The material must remain harder than the work material at elevated
operating temperatures.

• Wear resistance- The material must withstand excessive wear even though the
relative hardness of the tool-work materials changes.

• Toughness- The material must have sufficient toughness to withstand shocks and
vibrations and to prevent breakage.

• Cost and easiness in fabrication- The cost and easiness of fabrication should have
within reasonable limits.
Types of tool materials

Carbon steels
Medium alloy steels
High-speed steels
Stellites
Cemented carbides
Ceramics.
Diamonds.
Abrasive
Types of tool materials
Carbon steels
Carbon steels contain carbon in amounts ranging from 0.08 to 1.5 per cent. A
disadvantage of carbon tool steels is their comparatively low-heat and
wear-resistance. They lose their required hardness at temperatures from 200° C to
250°C. Therefore, they may only be used in the manufacture of tools operating at low
cutting speeds
Medium alloy steels
The high carbon medium alloy steels have a carbon content as in to plain carbon
steels, but in addition there is up to 5 % alloy content consisting of tungsten,
molybdenum chromium, vanadium of one or more of these elements improve the
performance of the carbon steels in respect of hot hardness, wear resistance, shock
and impact resistance and resistance to distortion during heat treatment.
 Types of tool materials
High-speed steel (H S S)
High-speed steel (H S S) is the general purpose metal for low and medium cutting speeds
owing to its superior hot hardness and resistance to wear. High-speed steels operate at
cutting speeds 2 to 3 times higher than for carbon steels and retain their hardness up to
about 900C.
The general type of high-speed steel is 18-4-1 H.S.S steel containing 18 % tungsten, 4 %
chromium and l% vanadium, is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels
Stellites
Stellite is the trade name of a nonferrous cast alloy composed of cobalt chromium and
tungsten. Stellites preserve hardness upto lOOOC and can be operated on steel at cutting
speeds 2 times higher than for high-speed steel. These materials are not widely used for
metal cutting since they are very brittle, however, they are used extensively in some
non-metal cutting application, such as in rubber, plastics..etc.
Types of tool materials
Cemented Carbides
The basic ingredient of most cemented carbides is tungsten carbide which is
extremely hard. Cemented carbides are designed chiefly for machining brittle
metals such as cast iron,bronze etc.
Ceramics
The latest development in the metal cutting tools uses aluminium oxide generally
referred to as ceramics. Ceramic tool materials are made in the form of tips that
are to be clamped on metal shanks. Other materials used to produce ceramic
tools include silicon carbide, boron carbide, titanium carbide and titanium boride.
They can withstand temperature upto 1200C and can be used at cutting speeds 4
times that of cemented carbides and upto about 40 times that of high speed
cutting tools.
 Diamond:
The diamond is the hardest known material and can be run at cutting speeds about 50
times greater than that for H S S. tool, and at temperatures up to 1650C. In addition to its
hardness the diamond is incompressible, is of a large grain structure, readily conducts
heat, and has a low coefficient of friction. Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard
materials such as glass, plastics, ceramics and other abrasive materials and for producing
fine finishes.
Abrasive:
They are mainly used for grinding harder materials and where a superior finish is desired
on hardened or unhardened materials. For most grinding operations there are two kinds
of abrasives in general use, namely aluminium oxide and silicon carbide. Aluminium
oxide used for grinding all high tensile material, whereas silicon carbide abrasives are
more suitable for low tensile strength material and non-ferrous metals.
 Cubic boron nitride(CBN)
It consisting atoms of boron and nitrogen, is considered as the hardest tool material
available next to diamond. It is having high hardness, high thermal conductivity and
tensile strength
Coated carbide tools
For coated carbide tools, a thin chemically stable, shock resistance refractory coatings
of TiC, Al2O3 are applied on tungsten carbide inserts using vapour deposition method.
This process makes the insert two to three times stronger for wear resistance