FELIX MUTUMA MURINDA

M.Sc. Applied Geophysics

SCP325 – 0024/2025
Geophysical Instrumentation Assignment

A terrameter is a geophysical instrument primarily used to measure the apparent resistivity of

subsurface materials. It works based on Ohm’s Law and principles of current flow in the Earth.

Working Principle
The terrameter operates by injecting an electrical current into the ground through two electrodes
and measuring the resulting potential difference between two other electrodes. This setup helps
determine the resistivity of subsurface materials.

In the diagram above:

• The terrameter is connected to four electrodes placed in the ground.
• The outer electrodes (C1 and C2) introduce current, while the inner electrodes (P1 and P2)
measure the potential difference.
• The measured data helps in calculating the apparent resistivity of the subsurface materials.
This method, known as Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), is commonly used to investigate
subsurface resistivity variations with depth. By varying the spacing between these electrodes, the
terrameter can probe different depths, allowing for the construction of a resistivity profile of the
subsurface.
The core principle of its working is Ohm’s Law (Ndlovu et al., 2010):
V=IR
Where:
• V = potential difference (volts) measured between P1 and P2
• I = current (amperes) injected through C1 and C2
• R = resistance of the subsurface

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From this, we can derive apparent resistivity:
𝑉
ρa =K⋅
𝐼
Where:
• ρa= apparent resistivity (ohm·meters)
• K = geometric factor (depends on electrode arrangement) (Ndlovu et al., 2010)
In a Wenner array, where all electrodes are equally spaced at a distance a, the geometric factor is:
K=2πa
Thus:
𝑉
ρa =2πa⋅
𝐼
This formula allows the terrameter to compute apparent resistivity directly from measured V and
I. A 1D or 2D resistivity profile is built by plotting apparent resistivity against depth or position.

Deployment Procedure
In the field, deploying a terrameter involves setting up a standard four-electrode configuration—
most commonly the Wenner or Schlumberger array. Four metal electrodes are inserted into the
ground in a straight line at specified intervals. The outer pair of electrodes (called current
electrodes) inject a known current into the earth, while the inner pair (called potential electrodes)
measure the resulting voltage difference. The terrameter then calculates the apparent resistivity of
the ground based on Ohm’s law.
To probe different depths, the electrode spacing is increased systematically during the survey. This
method is known as Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). The data collected is logged and later
interpreted to infer the geological structure beneath the surface.

Key Considerations When Using a Terrameter

1. Good Electrode Contact: - Electrodes must have firm contact with the ground. Use water or
saltwater to improve contact in dry or sandy soils.
2. Proper Electrode Spacing: - Spacing affects the depth of investigation. Maintain consistent and
accurate electrode placement (e.g., in Schlumberger or Wenner arrays).
3. Ground Conditions: - Moist, conductive soils are ideal. Very dry, frozen, or rocky soils may
yield poor data.
4. Cultural Noise: - Avoid metallic structures, buried pipes, fences, or power lines. These can
distort the resistivity readings.

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5. Cable Layout: - Keep cables untangled and away from interference. Also, use correct polarity
connections.
6. Weather Conditions: Wet weather improves contact but may introduce noise. Avoid operation
during thunderstorms (safety risk).
7. Instrument Calibration and Battery Level: - Ensure the terrameter is calibrated and has
sufficient battery power before the survey.

Things to Avoid:
• Loose or corroded electrode connections.
• Measuring near electric poles, transformers, or active infrastructure.
• Conducting surveys during heavy rain or lightning storms.
• Stepping on or dragging electrode cables (damages signal integrity).

Factors Affecting Terrameter Operation:

• Soil resistivity variations (due to moisture, mineral content).
• Electromagnetic interference (from nearby electronics or power lines).
• Topography (steep slopes complicate electrode layout).
• Temperature extremes (affect ground conductivity and equipment function).

Accuracy in Terrameter Use:

1. Instrument Accuracy: - Modern terrameters (e.g., ABEM Terrameter SAS series) have
internal measurement accuracy as high as 0.2% to 1%, depending on signal strength and
noise. Typically, they can detect voltage differences in the microvolt range with great
precision.
2. Electrode Positioning Accuracy: - Errors in electrode spacing or placement can result in
wrong depth or resistivity values. GPS or tape measures help ensure accuracy in layout.
3. Contact Resistance: - Poor contact increases measurement noise, reducing accuracy (Cheng
et al., 2023). Contact resistance should ideally be below 5 kΩ per electrode.
4. Noise and Signal Strength: - Low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), especially in dry or resistive
soils, reduces measurement reliability (Olsson et al., 2015). Measurements below 5 mV are
often considered noisy.
5. Terrain and Surface Irregularities: - Undulating ground can distort current flow paths,
affecting resistivity calculation accuracy.

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 6. Array Configuration: - Some configurations (like Schlumberger) are more sensitive to
vertical changes, others (like Wenner) to lateral changes. Choosing the wrong array can
reduce interpretive accuracy.

Practical tips to minimize errors

1. Ensure Good Electrode Contact - Use sufficient water or saltwater in dry soils to improve
ground contact. Drive electrodes deep enough—especially current electrodes (C1, C2)—to
reduce contact resistance. Check resistance readings: values below 5 kΩ are generally
acceptable.
2. Choose the Right Array Configuration - Use an array suited to your target (e.g., Wenner for
horizontal layers, Schlumberger for vertical changes, Dipole-Dipole for 2D structures). Avoid
arrays that give weak signals in your terrain.
3. Avoid Noisy Environments - Stay away from power lines, electric fences, roads with vehicles,
and other sources of electromagnetic noise. Use signal stacking and filtering options on the
terrameter to reduce noise effects.
4. Use Proper Electrode Spacing - Double-check spacing consistency using measuring tapes or
marked ropes. Incorrect spacing leads to wrong depth calculations and distorted resistivity
values.
5. Calibrate the Instrument - Regular calibration (as per manufacturer instructions) ensures the
readings remain accurate. Perform a self-test or loop test if the terrameter has the option.
6. Maintain Straight Survey Lines - Lay out the profile line as straight as possible to maintain
symmetry in the subsurface model. Use markers or string to keep alignment consistent.
7. Take Multiple Readings - Use stacking (averaging multiple measurements) to reduce random
error. Repeat measurements in key areas to confirm consistency.

Error Equations
- Error Propagation in Apparent Resistivity
If V and I are measured with uncertainties ΔV and ΔI, the error in ρa denoted Δρa, can be
approximated using error propagation:
Δρa ΔV ΔI
= √( V )2 + ( I )2
ρa

This shows how instrumental noise or poor signal quality (leading to large ΔV) and current
instability (large ΔI) directly increase error in resistivity.

- Geometric Factor Errors

The geometric factor K is given by formula:
1 1 1 1
K= 2π (𝐴𝑀 − − + ) −1
𝐵𝑀 𝐴𝑁 𝐵𝑁

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For a Schlumberger or Wenner array, this depends on the distances between electrodes (e.g., AB,
MN). Errors in electrode positioning will introduce errors in K, which then propagate to ρa.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a terrameter refers to its ability to detect small changes or variations in subsurface
electrical resistivity. This sensitivity determines how accurately it can resolve geological features
or material contrasts. While a terrameter is a highly sensitive instrument for detecting subsurface
resistivity variations, its effectiveness depends on site conditions, electrode contact, array design,
and instrument settings.

Uses
1. Groundwater Exploration – It is used to locate aquifers, determine depth to the water table, and
estimate water quality. It is used because water-bearing zones have lower resistivity compared
to dry or rocky layers.
2. Geological and Geotechnical Investigations – It is used to identify subsurface layers, detect
faults, fractures, and bedrock depth. It is used because soil and rock resistivity can indicate
mechanical properties important for civil engineering.
3. Environmental and Pollution Studies – It is used to detect leachate plumes, landfills, saltwater
intrusion, or contamination zones. It is used because contaminated zones often show distinct
resistivity contrasts from clean ground.
4. Mineral Prospecting- It is used to identify zones with metallic or non-metallic mineral deposits.
It is used because ores, especially those containing sulfides or conductive minerals, affect
resistivity readings.
5. Archaeological Surveys – It is used to detect buried walls, foundations, or artifacts. It is used
because buried structures often cause measurable resistivity anomalies.
6. Landslide and Slope Stability Assessments – It is used to map weak zones, water-saturated
layers, and clay-rich zones in slopes. It is used because waterlogged zones and clays have
different resistivity than stable rock or dry soils.

References
Cheng, J., Zhao, L., Zhou, X., Ren, T., Jin, S., Xie, T., ... & Wang, Q. (2023). Research on the
characteristic of the electrical contact resistance of strap contacts used in high voltage
bushings. Energies, 16(12), 4702.
Ndlovu, S., Munjeri, K., Munyaradzi, M., Magombe, E., Nyakotyo, H., & Magama, M. T. (2009).
Introducing exploration geophysics to students using Ohm’s law: A case study of
prospecting for groundwater by Hlangabeza high school students in Nkayi rural district of
Zimbabwe. International Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, 1(2), 77-85.
Olsson, P. I., Dahlin, T., Fiandaca, G., & Auken, E. (2015). Measuring time-domain spectral
induced polarization in the on-time: decreasing acquisition time and increasing signal-to-
noise ratio. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 123, 316-321.