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Handbook of Smart Materials,
Technologies, and Devices
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain • Paolo Di Sia
Editors

Handbook of Smart
Materials, Technologies,
and Devices
Applications of Industry 4.0
With 999 Figures and 216 Tables
Editors
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain Paolo Di Sia
Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science School of Science
New Jersey Institute of Technology University of Padova
Newark, NJ, USA Padova, Italy

School of Medicine
Department of Neurosciences
University of Padova
Padova, Italy

ISBN 978-3-030-84204-8 ISBN 978-3-030-84205-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84205-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Industry 4.0 is a digital revolution, concentrated on all digital technologies able to

increase the general interconnection and cooperation of resources (people and IT
systems), with changes affecting the industrial sector and the society in all aspects.
Data assume a primary role in this process, because they are the basis of
any operation. The pillars of this revolution are data, analytics, human-machine
interaction and manufacturing. The common factor is the interconnection between
multiple elements of a system, high levels of communication and the optimal
exploitation of all connected services.
The related enabling technologies concern the set of technologies and services
closest to IT and the operational level.
Industry 4.0 is a revolution that gradually affected a growing number of sectors
(medicine, industry, education, etc.), increasing their digitization level through the
use of modern technologies, and creating an environment in which the processes
will be completely automated.
Global revolutions like this one tend to a general improvement of the conditions
of man and the environment. The ultimate goal should always remain the good of
people and the improvement of everyone’s daily life.
Technology in its essence is neutral, is the way in which we use it that makes the
difference, protecting people by possible general bad uses and by possible further
deterioration of the environment and discrimination of the social conditions.
This book provides and discusses relevant topics and details related to the
Industry 4.0 revolution. It is both an excellent general introduction, and focuses on
important aspects related to smart technologies, robotics, the world of nanotechnolo-
gies, defense, environment, IoT, medicine, smart devices, green and smart materials,
smart farming, sustainability, circular economy.
It is a great effort, one of the most complete works on the subject dealt with, that
can be also seen as the starting point for discussions and insights and can be used
for further developments. The book is dedicated to and helpful for everyone, both
experts in the sector and curious and interested people.

Verona, Italy Paolo Di Sia

September 2022

v
Contents

Volume 1

Part I Industry 4.0: Concepts, Themes, and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Industry 4.0 Revolution: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Paolo Di Sia
2 Industry 4.0 Perspectives: Global Trends and Future
Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Antonella Petrillo and Fabio De Felice
3 Changing Manufacturing Landscape: From a Factory to a
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Karl-Erik Michelsen, Mikael Collan, Jyrki Savolainen,
and Paavo Ritala
4 Karakuri Solutions and Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Mariusz Kostrzewski and Wojciech Jerzy Nowak
5 Use of Smart Technologies on Textile Industry Workers to
Evaluate the Effect of Work Posture on Lower Extremity
Distress in Southern Region of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
S. Shankar, R. Naveenkumar, J. Karthick, P. Mohan Kumar, and
R. Nithyaprakash
6 Monitoring and Modeling of Cylindricity Error Using
Vibration Signals in Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
J. Susai Mary, D. Dinakaran, M. A. Sai Balaji, S. Satishkumar,
and Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss
7 Logic Based Path Planning (LBPP) Algorithm for Robotic
Library System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Sagar Ajanalkar and Harshadeep Joshi
8 Design, Control, and Data Management for Cleaning-in-Place
(CIP) Test Rig Used in Process Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A. S. Patil, M. N. Dhavalikar, and S. A. Chavan
vii
viii Contents

9 Control and Informatics for Demand Response and

Renewables Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Michael Short

Part II Industry 4.0: Mode of Materials, Technology,

and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

10 From Industry 4.0 to Pharma 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Reza Ebrahimi Hariry, Reza Vatankhah Barenji,
and Anant Paradkar
11 OHS-Related Risks in an Industry 4.0 Manufacturing Plant . . . . . 237
Mohamed Naceur Ben Aziza, Adel Badri, and Foued Chihi
12 Open-Source Framework Based on LoRaWAN IoT
Technology for Building Monitoring and Its Integration into
BIM Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
A. Martín-Garín, J. A. Millán-García, R. J. Hernández-
Minguillón, M. M. Prieto, N. Alilat, and A. Baïri
13 Metal Additive Manufacturing Technology Applications in
Defense Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Panagiotis Stavropoulos
14 Mechanical Properties of Additive Manufactured Part Using
Fused Deposition Modeling: Influence of Process Parameters . . . . 321
Ramu Murugan, T. Mohanraj, and Lovin K. John
15 Product Lifecycle Management (PLM): A Key Enabler in
Implementation of Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Vinayak N. Kulkarni, V. N. Gaitonde, and B. B. Kotturshettar
16 Zero Waste as an Approach to Develop a Clean and
Sustainable Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Nazia Tarannum, Nikhil Kumar, and Km Pooja
17 Role of Industry 4.0 in Maintaining Sustainable Production
and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Muhammad Usman Tariq
18 Biomass as Sustainable Material for Bioethanol Production . . . . . 453
Rozina, Mushtaq Ahmad, and Muhammad Zafar
19 Machine Learning–Enhanced Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Nikodem Rybak and Maureen Hassall
Contents ix

20 Industry 4.0: Cloud–Assisted Internet of Things Applications

and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Atslands Rego da Rocha, Igor Leão dos Santos, Letícia Ali
Figueiredo Ferreira, and Augusto da Cunha Reis
21 Anticancer Natural Alkaloids as Drug Bank Targeting
Biomolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Kakali Bhadra
22 Mode of Materials, Technology, and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Shivani Jakhar, Surender Duhan, Supriya Sehrawat, Atul Kumar,
Sunita Devi, and Sonia Nain
23 IoT-Based Medication Reminder Devices: Design and
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Alivelu Manga N. and Sathish P.
24 Ionic Liquids: The Smart Materials in Process Industry . . . . . . . . 647
Kailas L. Wasewar
25 Microstructure Analysis and Multi-objective Optimization of
Pulsed TIG Welding of 316/316L Austenite Stainless Steel . . . . . . . 675
Asif Ahmad
26 Role of IoT in Universal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Ravindra Singh, Sumedha Seniaray, and Partha Pratim Das
27 Nanobiomaterials Administration in Modernization of
Biological Science: Current Status and Future Potential . . . . . . . . 729
Ashish Singla and Sreedevi Upadhyayula
28 Adoption of Dematerialization Practices in Knowledge
Societies in Order to Achieve Sustainable Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Fernanda E. D. Palandi and Jamile Sabatini-Marques
29 A Perspective on the Frictional Properties of Soft Materials
as Smart Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Vinit Gupta, Arun K. Singh, Nitish Sinha, and Kailas L. Wasewar
30 Butterflies: A New Source of Inspiration for Futuristic Aerial
Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Chakravarthi Jada, U. Ashok, B. Pavan, and P. Vinod Babu
31 Significance of Bracing Accessories for Improved
Workability: An EMG Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
S. Shankar, J. Karthick, R. NaveenKumar, and R. Nithyaprakash
x Contents

32 Design, Implementation, and Experimental Study on 3-RPS

Parallel Manipulator-Based Cervical Collar Therapy Device
for Elderly Patients Suffering from Cervical Spine Injuries . . . . . 847
Pavan Kalyan Lingampally and Arockia Selvakumar
Arockia Doss
33 Performance Comparison of Two-Stage LED Driver for Tube
Light Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
Vandavasi Harikrishna and Ramachandiran Gunabalan
34 Design and Development of Automated Vertical
Farming Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
Karthik Warrier, Mukundhan Rajendiran, Shrawan Kumaar
Kannan, and R. Ranjith Pillai
35 Research Methodology for Augmenting a Gait Cycle of
Lower-Body Exoskeleton, by Using a Data of Mathematical
Modeling and Motion Study of a Specific User While
Obtaining a Customized Gait for Joint Actuation
of Exoskeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
S. S. Ohol, K. D. Kalantri, Y. M. Pirjade, A. U. Kotkar,
N. M. Patwardhan, D. R. Londhe, and T. P. Shelke
36 Intelligent, Automated, and Web Application-Based Cradle
Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
Priyanka J. Nair and V. Ravi
37 Review on Deep Learning Algorithms in Medical Devices . . . . . . . 967
G. Ananthi and Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss
38 Kinematic Modeling and Analysis of Wheeled In-Pipe
Inspection Mobile Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Rajendran Sugin Elankavi, D. Dinakaran, R. M. Kuppan Chetty,
M. M. Ramya, and Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss

Volume 2

Part III Industry 4.0: Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011

39 Cloud Hadoop for Enterprise Collaboration System . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

Hsiao Kang Lin and Tzu-Jou Liao
40 Smart Devices in Healthcare Sector: Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Kanika Sharma, Payal Kesharwani, Shiv Kumar Prajapati,
Ankit Jain, Neha Mittal, Rahul Kaushik, and Nishi Mody
Contents xi

41 Oil and Gas Upstream Sector: The use of IEC-61499

and OPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
Carlos A. Garcia, Gustavo Caiza, and Marcelo V. Garcia
42 Lower Extremity Exoskeleton Device for Motion Assistance
and Gait Rehabilitation: Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
Jyotindra Narayan, Aditya Kalani, and Santosha K. Dwivedy
43 Fuzzy Membership Functions in ANFIS for Kinematic
Modeling of 3R Manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
Jyotindra Narayan, Sashwata Banerjee, Durgarao Kamireddy, and
Santosha K. Dwivedy
44 Mobile Robot for Gas Leakage Detection System in Pipelines . . . . 1121
Gnana K. Sheela
45 Improved Security Models in Mobile Wireless Vehicle
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
Gnana K. Sheela
46 Machine Learning: An Expert Thinking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
T. Mohanraj, Jayanthi Yerchuru, R. S. Nithin Aravind,
and R. Yameni
47 The Adoption of Industry 4.0 Technologies Through the
Implementation of Continuous Improvement Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
Maria Rosaria Sessa, Ornella Malandrino, Giuseppe Fenza,
Gianfranco Caminale, and Claudio Risso
48 IIOT Applications for Sustainable Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
S. Kamalakkannan and A. K. Kulatunga
49 Nano-biomaterials as a Potential Tool for Futuristic
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
Anuron Deka, Pritam Bardhan, Manabendra Mandal,
and Rupam Kataki
50 Industry 4.0: Applications and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
Rafael Kunst, Gabriel Ramos, Rodrigo Righi,
Cristiano André da Costa, Edison Pignaton, Alecio Binotto,
Jose Favilla, Ricardo Ohta, and Rob High
51 4.0 Technology for Port Digitalization and Automation . . . . . . . . . 1307
Chalermpong Senarak and Orawan Mokkhavas
52 Textile and Apparel Industry: Industry 4.0 Applications . . . . . . . . 1321
Sanjeev Swami, Debabrata Ghosh, Charu Swami,
and Sonali Upadhyaya
xii Contents

53 Construction Sector: IR 4.0 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1341

Wesam Salah Alaloul, Syed Saad, and Abdul Hannan Qureshi
54 Design of Low-Cost Soft Ankle Exoskeleton Using Soft
Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391
Kathan Rajesh Sonar, S. Sai Sudeep Reddy, Daniel Schilberg,
and Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss
55 Robotic Arm for Biomedical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss, Birupakshya Mishra,
Safal Mohammed, Pavan Kalyan Lingampally, and Michael Short
56 Progresses on Green and Smart Materials for Multifaceted
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
S. O. Oyedepo, Joseph O. Dirisu, N. E. Udoye, and O. S. I.
Fayomi
57 Determining Technologies Trends and Evolution of
Smart Building Technologies by Bibliometric Analysis
from 1984 to 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467
Nadia Karina Gamboa-Rosales, Luis Daniel López-Robles,
Leonardo B. Furstenau, Michele Kremer Sott, Manuel Jesús Cobo,
and José Ricardo López-Robles
58 Managing Process Safety and Operational Risks with
Industry 4.0 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1501
John Lee, Ian Cameron, and Maureen Hassall
59 Lignin: A Renewable Chemical Feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529
Uroosa Ejaz and Muhammad Sohail
60 Emerging Technologies in Diagnostic Virology and Antiviral
Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
Goutam Patra and Sumi Mukhopadhyay
61 GTAW Application for Additive Manufacturing and Cladding
of Steel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
Vishvesh J. Badheka, Vijay S. Gadakh, V. B. Shinde, and G. Bhati
62 Using Smart Mesoporous Silica in Designing Drug Delivery
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581
Kayambu Kannan
63 IoT-Based Smart Farming System Using MQTT Protocol and
ML Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
Sathish P. and Alivelu Manga N.
64 Sustainability of Fusion and Solid-State Welding Process in
the Era of Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1637
Vijay S. Gadakh and Vishvesh J. Badheka
Contents xiii

65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655

Anil Kumar Singh
66 Smart Materials in Oil and Gas Industry: Application . . . . . . . . . . 1689
Alimorad Rashidi and Soheila Sharafinia
67 Food Industry: Applications of Digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
Vahid Mohammadpour Karizaki
68 Detection of Tuberculosis and Lung Cancer Using CNN . . . . . . . . 1751
S. N. Hankare and S. S. Shirguppikar
69 Covid-19 or Viral Pneumonia Detection Using AI Tools . . . . . . . . . 1763
M. V. Pachore and S. S. Shirguppikar

Volume 3

Part IV Industry 4.0: Concept of Smart, Intelligent, and

Sustainable Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775

70 Iranian Small and Medium-Sized Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777

S. Jithender Kumar Naik, Malek Hassanpour,
and Dragan Pamucar
71 Decentralized Privacy: A Distributed Ledger Approach . . . . . . . . . 1805
Pavlos Papadopoulos, Nikolaos Pitropakis, and
William J. Buchanan
72 Toward a Circular Economy in the Copper Mining
Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831
Ingrid Jamett, Ernesto D. R. Santibanez Gonzalez, Yecid Jiménez,
and Paulina Carrasco
73 Sustainability Index of Metalworking Fluids in the
Manufacturing Industry for Sustainable Manufacturing . . . . . . . . 1853
Muralidhar Vardhanapu and Phaneendra Kiran Chaganti
74 Wind Energy System: Data Analysis and Operational
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1881
Vikas Khare and Cheshta J. Khare
75 Biomedical Data Retrieval Using Enhanced Query
Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1921
Muhammad Qadeer, Chuadhery Ghazanfar Hussain, and
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain
76 Machine Learning Applications for The Tensile Property
Evaluation of Steel: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957
Hridayjit Kalita, Kaushik Kumar, and J. Paulo Davim
xiv Contents

77 Business Ecosystem Approach to Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975

Daniel Alejandro Rossit, Marisa Analía Sánchez,
Fernando Tohmé, and Mariano Frutos
78 Modeling the Dynamics of a Smart Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997
Marisa Analía Sánchez, Daniel Alejandro Rossit,
and Fernando Tohmé
79 Robotics in Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
Ashwin Misra, Anuj Agrawal, and Vihaan Misra
80 Fossil Fuel Combustion, Conversion to Near-Zero Waste
Through Organic Rankine Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2057
A. B. Fakeye, S. O. Oyedepo, O. S. I. Fayomi, Joseph O. Dirisu,
and N. E. Udoye
81 Flow Shop Scheduling Problems in Industry 4.0 Production
Environments: Missing Operation Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2077
Daniel Alejandro Rossit, Adrián Toncovich, Diego Gabriel Rossit,
and Sergio Nesmachnow
82 Smart Packaging: O2 Scavenger for Improving
Quality of Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2101
C. O. Mohan, S. Remya, K. R. Sreelakshmi, Anuj Kumar,
and C. N. Ravishankar
83 Social Responsibility Diagnostics as the Sustainable
Development Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2123
Iryna Moiseienko, Ivanna Dronyuk, and Igor Moyseyenko
84 Green Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications . . . . . . 2139
Aniruddha B. Patil, Sharwari K. Mengane, and Bhalchandra
M. Bhanage
85 From Agriculture to Sustainable Agriculture: Prospects for
Improving Pest Management in Industrial Revolution 4.0 . . . . . . . 2171
Farhan Mahmood Shah and Muhammad Razaq
86 Satellite-Based Environmental Impact Assessment of MSW
Dumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2189
Fiza Faizi, Khalid Mahmood, and Wajiha Iftikhar
87 Examining the Impact of Industry 4.0 on Labor Market in
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2207
Syed Jawad Ali Kazmi and Jawad Abbas
88 Recent Advances in the MXenes for Photocatalytic and
Hydrogen Production Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2219
Ikhtiar Gul, Murtaza Sayed, Maleeha Bushra, Faryal Gohar, and
Qaiser Khan
Contents xv

89 Big Data Analytics and Advanced Technologies for

Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2261
Rubab Zahra Naqvi, Muhammad Farooq, Syed Ali Asad Naqvi,
Hamid Anees Siddiqui, Imran Amin, Muhammad Asif, and
Shahid Mansoor
90 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in Industry 4.0:
Revolution for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2289
Syed Ali Asad Naqvi and Rubab Zahra Naqvi
91 Green Nanomaterials: Design, Synthesis, Properties, and
Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2317
Paulraj Mosae Selvakumar, Samiha Nuzhat,
Mahia Mohiuddin Quadrey, Sherin Monichan,
Rex Jeya Rajkumar Samdavid Thanapaul, and
M. S. A. Muthukumar Nadar
92 Green and Sustainable Battery Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2337
Andrew Ng Kay Lup
93 Circular Economy in Brazil Coupled with Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . 2367
Camila Callegari, Régis Rathmann, Alexandre Skzlo,
Sonia Regina Mudrovitsch de Bittencourt,
Antônio Marcos Mendonça, and Márcio Rojas da Cruz
94 Centrality Measures in Finding Influential Nodes for the
Big-Data Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393
Sathyanarayanan Gopalakrishnan, Supriya Sridharan, and
Swaminathan Venkatraman
95 A Novel Cluster-Based Routing Technique for Reliable Path
Selection in VANET V2V Communication in 5G Using Upper
Triangular Matrix Lie Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2411
Supriya Sridharan, Sathyanarayanan Gopalakrishnan, and
Swaminathan Venkatraman
96 Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes-Based Micro-fibrillar Polymer
Composite Fiber: A Sturctural Biomimetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2427
Neha Agrawal, Manu Aggarwal, Kingsuk Mukhopadhyay, and
Arup R. Bhattacharyya
97 Industry 4.0: Mode of Materials, Technology, and Devices . . . . . . . 2461
Sardul Singh Dhayal, Atul Kumar, and Surender Duhan
98 Intrinsic Insights of Nanoparticles via Anaerobic Digestion
for Enhanced Biogas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2481
Puneet Kumar Singh, Slipa Kanungo, Snehasish Mishra, and
Ritesh Pattnaik
xvi Contents

99 Green Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Characterization, and Their

Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2507
Atul Kumar, Surender Duhan, Sushma Kumari, Sunita Devi, and
Sardul Singh Dhayal
100 Advanced Materials in the Detection of Arsenic from Aquatic
Environment: Advancements in Electrochemical Sensors . . . . . . . 2527
Jongte Lalmalsawmi and Diwakar Tiwari
101 Green Bioenergy for Zero Waste: A Road Toward Clean and
Sustainable Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2559
P. Ujwal, K. Sandesh, and Vinayaka B. Shet
102 Industrial Innovation Through Sustainable Materials . . . . . . . . . . 2577
Gajanan B. Kunde and B. Sehgal
103 Low Energy/Low Carbon Eco-cementitious Binders as an
Alternative to Ordinary Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
Abhishek Srivastava, Rajesh Kumar, and Rajni Lakhani
104 Industry 4.0: Applications in Oil and Gas Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2641
Anil K. Saroha and Abhijit Bikas Pal
105 Performance of Blended Mortars Containing Industrial and
Agricultural By-Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2667
Navdeep Singh, Nitin Ankur, P. Ashik Yashi, and Sunny Gupta
106 Green Nanomaterials: Sustainable Approach for
Environmental Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2699
Satyajeet Arya, Alka Rathor, Rakhi Tyagi, and Vikas Chaudhary

Part V Industry 4.0: Dangers/Warning Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2717

107 Environmental Side of Fourth Industrial Revolution:

The Positive and Negative Effects of I4.0 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 2719
Adele Parmentola, Ilaria Tutore, and Michele Costagliola Di Fiore
108 Single-Atom Photocatalysts for Energy and Environmental
Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2751
Akshat Khandelwal, Dileep Maarisetty, and Saroj Sundar Baral
109 Sustainable Development and Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789
Muhammad Waqar Akram, Khalil Rehman, Syed Mohsin bukhari,
Nida Akram, and Shahla Andleeb

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2813
About the Editors

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD, is an adjunct

professor and director of laboratories in the Department
of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at the New
Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New
Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications
of nanotechnology and advanced materials, environ-
mental management, analytical chemistry, smart mate-
rials and technologies, and other various industries.
Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-
reviewed journals and is a prolific author and editor
of around hundred (100) books, including scientific
monographs and handbooks, in his research areas. He
has published with Elsevier, the American Chemical
Society, the Royal Society of Chemistry, Springer, John
Wiley & Sons, and CRC Press.

Paolo Di Sia is currently adjunct professor/senior

lecturer at the University of Padova (Italy). He holds a
bachelor’s degree along with a master’s degree and three
PhDs. His scientific interests span transdisciplinary
physics, classical and quantum-relativistic nanophysics,
nano-biotechnology, nano-neuroscience, theories of
everything, foundations of physics, history, and
philosophy of science.
He is author of more than 300 works to date (papers
in national and international journals, book chapters,
books, internal academic works, works on scientific
web pages, and popular papers), is reviewer of some
academic books, editor of some international academic
books, and reviewer of many international journals.

xvii
xviii About the Editors

He has obtained several international awards and is

member of many scientific societies as well as interna-
tional advisory/editorial boards.
Personal web page: www.paolodisia.com
Email address: [email protected]
Contributors

Jawad Abbas Department of Business Administration, Iqra University Islamabad,

Islamabad, Pakistan
Manu Aggarwal Directorate of Nanomaterials and Sciences, DMSRDE, DRDO,
Kanpur, India
Department of Textile Technology, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar NIT, Jalandhar, India
Anuj Agrawal Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India
Neha Agrawal Department of Neurobiology, DIPAS, DRDO, New Delhi, India
Directorate of Nanomaterials and Sciences, DMSRDE, DRDO, Kanpur, India
Centre for Research in Nanotechnology and Sciences, IIT-Bombay, Mumbai, India
Asif Ahmad Mechanical Engineering Department, PSIT-Kanpur, Kanpur, India
Mushtaq Ahmad Biofuel Lab, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam Uni-
versity, Islamabad, Pakistan
Sagar Ajanalkar Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere,
India
Muhammad Waqar Akram Ilama University, Sindh, Pakistan
Nida Akram Department of Management Science, Govt. College for Women
University, Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan
Wesam Salah Alaloul Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Uni-
versiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
N. Alilat Département Génie Thermique et Énergie (GTE), Université de Paris,
Laboratoire Thermique Interfaces Environnement (LTIE), Ville d’Avray, France
Imran Amin Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for Biotech-
nology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
G. Ananthi Department of ECE, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai,
Tamil Nadu, India

xix
xx Contributors

Shahla Andleeb Department of Environmental Science, Government College

Women University, Sialkot, Pakistan
Nitin Ankur Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute
of Technology, Jalandhar, India
R. S. Nithin Aravind Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of
Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
Arockia Selvakumar Arockia Doss Design and Automation Research Group,
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil
Nadu, India
Satyajeet Arya Faculty of Management Studies, Sri Sri University, Cuttack, India
P. Ashik Yashi Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National
Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
U. Ashok Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid, India
Muhammad Asif Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Vishvesh J. Badheka Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technol-
ogy, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Adel Badri Industrial Engineering Department, School of Engineering, UQTR,
Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
A. Baïri Département Génie Thermique et Énergie (GTE), Université de Paris,
Laboratoire Thermique Interfaces Environnement (LTIE), Ville d’Avray, France
Sashwata Banerjee Department of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
Saroj Sundar Baral Department of Chemical Engineering, BITS Pilani K K Birla
Goa Campus, Goa, India
Pritam Bardhan Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, Assam, India
Reza Vatankhah Barenji Department of Industrial Engineering, Hacettepe Univer-
sity, Ankara, Turkey
Mohamed Naceur Ben Aziza School of Management, Université du Québec à
Trois-Rivières (UQTR), Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
Kakali Bhadra Department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West
Bengal, India
Bhalchandra M. Bhanage Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Tech-
nology, Matunga, Mumbai, India
Contributors xxi

G. Bhati Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology, Pandit

Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Arup R. Bhattacharyya Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Material
Science, IIT-Bombay, Mumbai, India
Alecio Binotto IBM Consulting, München, Germany
William J. Buchanan Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh,
UK
Maleeha Bushra Radiation and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, National
Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar,
Pakistan
Gustavo Caiza Universidad Politecnica Salesiana, UPS, Quito, Ecuador
Camila Callegari Centre for Energy and Environmental Economics, Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ian Cameron School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Gianfranco Caminale CTO Cyber Security Division, LEONARDO Company,
Genoa, Italy
Paulina Carrasco Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Facultad de Ingeniería,
Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
Phaneendra Kiran Chaganti Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Insti-
tute of Technology & Science, Pilani Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, India
Vikas Chaudhary CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIO),
Chandigarh, India
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
S. A. Chavan Analogic Automation Pvt. Ltd, Pune, India
Foued Chihi Department of Finance and Economics, School of Management,
UQTR, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada
Manuel Jesús Cobo Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University
of Cadiz, Cadiz, Spain
Mikael Collan School of Business and Management, Lappeenranta-Lahti Univer-
sity of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland
VATT Institute for Economic Research, Helsinki, Finland
Cristiano André da Costa University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), São
Leopoldo, Brazil
xxii Contributors

Márcio Rojas da Cruz Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovations (MCTI),

Brasília, Brazil
Michele Costagliola Di Fiore Department of Management and Quantitative Stud-
ies, University of Naples “Parthenope”, Naples, Italy
Partha Pratim Das Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
J. Paulo Davim Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro,
Aveiro, Portugal
Sonia Regina Mudrovitsch de Bittencourt Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Innovations (MCTI), Brasília, Brazil
Fabio De Felice Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Università degli
Studi di Cassino e del Lazio Meridionale, Cassino, Italy
Anuron Deka Department of Energy, Tezpur University,Tezpur, Assam, India
Sunita Devi Organic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
M.K.J.K. Collage, Rohtak, India
M. N. Dhavalikar MIT School of Engineering, MIT ADT University, Pune, India
Sardul Singh Dhayal Department of ECE, Guru Jambheshwar University of
Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India
D. Dinakaran Centre for Automation and Robotics (ANRO), School of Mechanical
Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, TN, India
Joseph O. Dirisu Mechanical Engineering Department, Covenant University, Ota,
Ogun State, Nigeria
Paolo Di Sia School of Science, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
School of Medicine, Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova,
Italy
Ivanna Dronyuk ACS Department, LPNU, Lviv, Ukraine
Surender Duhan Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics,
Deen Bandhu Chhoturam University of Science and Technology, Murthal Sonepat,
Haryana, India
Santosha K. Dwivedy Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
Uroosa Ejaz Department of Microbiology, University of Karachi, Karachi,
Pakistan
Rajendran Sugin Elankavi Centre for Automation and Robotics (ANRO), School
of Mechanical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai,
TN, India
Contributors xxiii

Fiza Faizi Remote Sensing, GIS and Climatic Research Lab (National Centre for
GIS and Space Application), Centre for Remote Sensing, University of the Punjab,
Lahore, Pakistan
A. B. Fakeye Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro,
Nigeria
Muhammad Farooq Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Jose Favilla IBM Global Markets, Coppell, TX, USA
O. S. I. Fayomi Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, Bells
University of Technology, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
Giuseppe Fenza Department of Management & Innovation Systems, University of
Salerno, Fisciano, SA, Italy
Letícia Ali Figueiredo Ferreira Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso
Suckow da Fonseca, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
Mariano Frutos Departamento de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS),
Bahía Blanca, Argentina
Leonardo B. Furstenau Department of Industrial Engineering, Federal University
of Rio Grande do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
Vijay S. Gadakh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrutvahini College of
Engineering, Ahmednagar, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
V. N. Gaitonde School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University,
Hubballi, India
Nadia Karina Gamboa-Rosales CONACYT – Autonomous University of Zacate-
cas, Zacatecas, Mexico
Carlos A. Garcia Universidad Tecnica de Ambato, UTA,Ambato, Ecuador
Marcelo V. Garcia University of Basque Country, UPV/EHU,Bilbao, Spain
Debabrata Ghosh Operations and Supply Chain Management Area, MIT Global
Scale Network – Malaysia Institute for Supply Chain Innovation, Shah Alam,
Malaysia
Faryal Gohar Radiation and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, National Cen-
tre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
Sathyanarayanan Gopalakrishnan Department of Mathematics, School of Arts,
Science, Humanities and Education, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur,
India
Ikhtiar Gul Radiation and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, National Centre
of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
xxiv Contributors

Ramachandiran Gunabalan School of Electrical Engineering, VIT Chennai,

Chennai, India
Sunny Gupta Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National
Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
Vinit Gupta Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.B. Jain Institute of Tech-
nology, Management and Research, Nagpur, India
S. N. Hankare Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajararambapu Institute of
Technology, Rajaramnagar, India
Vandavasi Harikrishna IgrenEnergi Services Pvt Ltd, Bengaluru, India
Reza Ebrahimi Hariry Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
Maureen Hassall School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Malek Hassanpour Department of Environmental science, UCS, Osmania Univer-
sity, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
R. J. Hernández-Minguillón CAVIAR Research Group, Department of Architec-
ture, Higher Technical School of Architecture, University of the Basque Country
UPV/EHU, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Rob High IBM Cloud and Cognitive Software, Durham, NC, USA
Chuadhery Ghazanfar Hussain Department of Education, Computer science and
Technology, Punjab, Pakistan
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain Department of Chemistry and Environmental
Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
Wajiha Iftikhar Remote Sensing, GIS and Climatic Research Lab (National Centre
for GIS and Space Application), Centre for Remote Sensing and Department of
Space Science, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Chakravarthi Jada Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid,
India
Ankit Jain Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Shivani Jakhar Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics,
D.C.R. University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, D. C. R.
University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Ingrid Jamett Departamento de Ingeniería Industrial, Facultad de Ingeniería,
Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
Contributors xxv

Yecid Jiménez Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Procesos de Minerales,

Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
S. Jithender Kumar Naik University College of Science, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
Lovin K. John Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engi-
neering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
Harshadeep Joshi Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere,
India
Aditya Kalani Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technol-
ogy, Guwahati, Assam, India
K. D. Kalantri Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering
Pune (COEP), Pune, India
Hridayjit Kalita Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Tech-
nology, Ranchi, India
S. Kamalakkannan Department of Manufacturing & Industrial Engineering, Fac-
ulty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Durgarao Kamireddy Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology,Guwahati, Assam, India
Kayambu Kannan PG and Research Department of Chemistry, Raja Doraisingam
Government Arts College, Sivagangai, Tamil Nadu, India
Shrawan Kumaar Kannan Department of Mechatronics Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Slipa Kanungo School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technol-
ogy (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Vahid Mohammadpour Karizaki Chemical Engineering Department, Quchan
University of Technology, Quchan, Iran
J. Karthick Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering Col-
lege, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Rupam Kataki Department of Energy, Tezpur University,Tezpur, Assam, India
Rahul Kaushik Department of Pharmacy, Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and
Technical Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Andrew Ng Kay Lup School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen
University Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Fujian, China
xxvi Contributors

Syed Jawad Ali Kazmi Department of Business Administration, Iqra University

Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
Payal Kesharwani Department of Pharmacy, Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and
Technical Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Khalil Rehman Department of Environmental Science, Government College
Women University, Sialkot, Pakistan
Qaiser Khan Radiation and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, National Centre
of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
Akshat Khandelwal Department of Chemical Engineering, BITS Pilani K K Birla
Goa Campus, Goa, India
Cheshta J. Khare SGSITS, Indore, India
Vikas Khare STME, NMIMS, Indore, India
Mariusz Kostrzewski Faculty of Transport, Division of Construction Fundamen-
tals of Transport Equipment, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
A. U. Kotkar Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Pune
(COEP), Pune, India
B. B. Kotturshettar School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological Uni-
versity, Hubballi, India
A. K. Kulatunga Department of Manufacturing & Industrial Engineering, Faculty
of Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Vinayak N. Kulkarni School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological
University, Hubballi, India
Anuj Kumar ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India
Atul Kumar Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Deen
Bandhu Chhoturam University of Science and Technology, Murthal Sonepat,
Haryana, India
Kaushik Kumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute of Tech-
nology, Ranchi, India
Nikhil Kumar Department of Chemistry, Chaudhary Charan Singh University,
Meerut, India
P. Mohan Kumar Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering
College, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Rajesh Kumar CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand,
India
Sushma Kumari Department of Physics, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Contributors xxvii

Gajanan B. Kunde Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,

Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India
Rafael Kunst University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), São Leopoldo,
Brazil
R. M. Kuppan Chetty Centre for Automation and Robotics (ANRO), School of
Mechanical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, TN,
India
Rajni Lakhani CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand,
India
Jongte Lalmalsawmi Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences,
Mizoram University, Aizawl, India
John Lee School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Bris-
bane, QLD, Australia
Tzu-Jou Liao Department of Industrial Management, I-Shou University, Kaohsi-
ung City, Taiwan
Hsiao Kang Lin Department of Industrial Management, I-Shou University, Kaoh-
siung City, Taiwan
Pavan Kalyan Lingampally School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute
of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
D. R. Londhe Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering
Pune (COEP), Pune, India
José Ricardo López-Robles Academic Unit of Accounting and Management,
Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Mexico
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Cadiz, Cadiz,
Spain
Luis Daniel López-Robles Academic Unit of Accounting and Management,
Autonomous University of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Mexico
Dileep Maarisetty Department of Chemical Engineering, BITS Pilani K K Birla
Goa Campus, Goa, India
Khalid Mahmood Remote Sensing, GIS and Climatic Research Lab (National
Centre for GIS and Space Application), Centre for Remote Sensing and Department
of Space Science, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Ornella Malandrino Department of Management & Innovation Systems, Univer-
sity of Salerno, Fisciano, SA, Italy
Manabendra Mandal Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology,
Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India
xxviii Contributors

Shahid Mansoor Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for

Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Martín-Garín ENEDI Research Group, Department of Thermal Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering of Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU,
Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Antônio Marcos Mendonça Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovations
(MCTI), Brasília, Brazil
Sharwari K. Mengane Department of Botany, M. H. Shinde Mahavidyalaya,
Tisangi, Kolhapur, India
Karl-Erik Michelsen School of Business and Management, Lappeenranta-Lahti
University of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland
J. A. Millán-García ENEDI Research Group, Department of Thermal Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering of Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU,
Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
Birupakshya Mishra School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Snehasish Mishra Bioenergy Lab and BDTC, Kalinga Institute of Industrial
Technology (Deemed University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Ashwin Misra Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA
Vihaan Misra Netaji Subhas University of Technology, New Delhi, India
Neha Mittal Department of Pharmacy, Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and
Technical Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Nishi Mody Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central
University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India
Safal Mohammed School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technol-
ogy, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
C. O. Mohan ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India
T. Mohanraj Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engineer-
ing, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
Syed Mohsin bukhari Department of Wildlife and Ecology, Faculty of Fisheries &
Wildlife, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
Iryna Moiseienko Financial Department, Lviv State University of Internal Affairs,
Lviv, Ukraine
Orawan Mokkhavas Maritime Transportation Program, Department of Nautical
Science and Maritime Logistics, Faculty of International Maritime Studies, Kaset-
sart University, Sri Racha, Thailand
Contributors xxix

Sherin Monichan Panaiyaanmai (Palmyraculture), The Centre for Self-Reliance

and Sustainable Development, Munnetram Green Industry, Tenkasi, Tamil Nadu,
India
Igor Moyseyenko Department of Theoretical Economics, Lviv Trade and Eco-
nomic University, Lviv, Ukraine
Kingsuk Mukhopadhyay Directorate of Nanomaterials and Technology, DMSRDE,
DRDO, Kanpur, India
Sumi Mukhopadhyay Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Tropical
Medicine, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Ramu Murugan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engi-
neering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
M. S. A. Muthukumar Nadar Department of Biotechnology, Karunya Institute of
Technology and Sciences (Deemed to be University), Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Alivelu Manga N. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Osmania University,
Hyderabad, India
Sonia Nain Inorganic Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
D. C. R. University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Priyanka J. Nair Mercedes-Benz Research and Development, Bengaluru, India
Rubab Zahra Naqvi Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Syed Ali Asad Naqvi Department of Geography, Government College University,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Jyotindra Narayan Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India
R. NaveenKumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kongu Engineering
College, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Sergio Nesmachnow Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la República, Monte-
video, Uruguay
R. Nithyaprakash Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering
College, Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Wojciech Jerzy Nowak Faculty of Humanities, Institute of Literary Studies,
Department of Oriental Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
Samiha Nuzhat Science and Math Program, Asian University for Women, Chit-
tagong, Bangladesh
S. S. Ohol Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Pune
(COEP), Pune, India
xxx Contributors

Ricardo Ohta IBM Research, São Paulo, Brazil

S. O. Oyedepo Mechanical Engineering Department, Covenant University, Ota,
Ogun State, Nigeria
Sathish P. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Osmania University, Hyder-
abad, India
M. V. Pachore Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajararambapu Institute of
Technology, Rajaramnagar, India
Abhijit Bikas Pal Honeywell UOP, Unitech Trade Centre, Gurugram, India
Fernanda E. D. Palandi Engineering and Knowledge Management, Federal Uni-
versity of Santa Catarina, Trindade, Florianópolis, Brazil
Dragan Pamucar Department of logistics, Military Academy, University of
Defence, Belgrade, Serbia
Pavlos Papadopoulos Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh,
UK
Anant Paradkar Centre for Pharmaceutical Engineering Science, University of
Bradford, Bradford, UK
Adele Parmentola Department of Management and Quantitative Studies, Univer-
sity of Naples “Parthenope”, Naples, Italy
A. S. Patil MIT School of Engineering, MIT ADT University, Pune, India
Aniruddha B. Patil Department of Chemistry, Maharshi Dayanand College, Parel,
Mumbai, India
Goutam Patra Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Tropical Medicine,
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Ritesh Pattnaik School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technol-
ogy (Deemed to be University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
N. M. Patwardhan Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineer-
ing Pune (COEP), Pune, India
B. Pavan Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid, India
Antonella Petrillo Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope”,
Naples, Italy
Edison Pignaton Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre,
Brazil
Y. M. Pirjade Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering
Pune (COEP), Pune, India
Contributors xxxi

Nikolaos Pitropakis Blockpass ID Lab, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh,

UK
Km Pooja Department of Chemistry, Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut,
India
Shiv Kumar Prajapati Department of Pharmacy, Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational
and Technical Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
M. M. Prieto Energy Department, Campus de Viesques, University of Oviedo,
Gijón, Spain
Muhammad Qadeer Department of Education, Computer science and Technology,
Punjab, Pakistan
Mahia Mohiuddin Quadrey Science and Math Program, Asian University for
Women, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Abdul Hannan Qureshi Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
Mukundhan Rajendiran Department of Mechatronics Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Gabriel Ramos University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), São Leopoldo,
Brazil
M. M. Ramya Centre for Automation and Robotics (ANRO), School of Mechanical
Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai, TN, India
R. Ranjith Pillai Department of Mechatronics Engineering, College of Engineering
and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
India
Alimorad Rashidi Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Institute of
Petroleum Industry, Tehran, Iran
Régis Rathmann Centre for Energy and Environmental Economics, Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Alka Rathor Institute of Environmental Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kuruk-
shetra, India
V. Ravi School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chen-
nai, India
C. N. Ravishankar ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India
Muhammad Razaq Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences
& Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
xxxii Contributors

S. Sai Sudeep Reddy School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of

Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Augusto da Cunha Reis Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow
da Fonseca, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
S. Remya ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India
Rodrigo Righi University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS), São Leopoldo,
Brazil
Claudio Risso Critical Infrastructures, EPC & Large Enterprise – Cyber Security
Division, LEONARDO Company, Genoa, Italy
Paavo Ritala School of Business and Management, Lappeenranta-Lahti University
of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland
Atslands Rego da Rocha Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Brasil
Daniel Alejandro Rossit Department of Engineering, Universidad Nacional del Sur
(UNS), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
Diego Gabriel Rossit Departamento de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional del Sur,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
INMABB UNS CONICET, Departamento de Matemática, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Rozina Biofuel Lab, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University,
Islamabad, Pakistan
Nikodem Rybak School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland,
St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Syed Saad Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
Jamile Sabatini-Marques Engineering and Knowledge Management, Federal Uni-
versity of Santa Catarina, Trindade, Florianópolis, Brazil
M. A. Sai Balaji Department of Mechanical Engineering, B.S.A Crescent Institute
of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Rex Jeya Rajkumar Samdavid Thanapaul Department of Surgery, Boston Uni-
versity School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
Marisa Analía Sánchez Departamento de Ciencias de la Administración, Univer-
sidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
K. Sandesh Department of Biotechnology Engineering, N.M.A.M. Institute of
Technology (Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi), Udupi District,
Karnataka, India
Ernesto D. R. Santibanez Gonzalez CES 4.0, Department of Industrial Engineer-
ing, Faculty of Engineering, University of Talca, Curicó, Chile
Contributors xxxiii

Igor Leão dos Santos Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica Celso Suckow da
Fonseca, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
Anil K. Saroha Chemical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, India
S. Satishkumar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Velammal Engineering
College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Jyrki Savolainen School of Business and Management, Lappeenranta-Lahti Uni-
versity of Technology, Lappeenranta, Finland
Murtaza Sayed Radiation and Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, National
Centre of Excellence in Physical Chemistry, University of Peshawar, Peshawar,
Pakistan
Daniel Schilberg University of Applied Sciences, Bochum, Germany
B. Sehgal Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Technology and Engineer-
ing, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, India
Supriya Sehrawat Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics,
D.C.R. University of Science and Technology, Murthal, India
Paulraj Mosae Selvakumar Science and Math Program, Asian University for
Women, Chittagong, Bangladesh
Panaiyaanmai (Palmyraculture), The Centre for Self-Reliance and Sustainable
Development, Munnetram Green Industry, Tenkasi, Tamil Nadu, India
Chalermpong Senarak Maritime Transportation Program, Department of Nautical
Science and Maritime Logistics, Faculty of International Maritime Studies, Kaset-
sart University, Sri Racha, Thailand
Sumedha Seniaray Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
Maria Rosaria Sessa Department of Management & Innovation Systems, Univer-
sity of Salerno, Fisciano, SA, Italy
Farhan Mahmood Shah Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural
Sciences & Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
S. Shankar Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kongu Engineering College,
Perundurai, Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
Soheila Sharafinia Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Chamran
University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Kanika Sharma Department of Pharmacy, Ram-Eesh Institute of Vocational and
Technical Education, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Gnana K. Sheela APJ Abdul Technological University, Trivandrum, India
xxxiv Contributors

T. P. Shelke Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering Pune

(COEP), Pune, India
Vinayaka B. Shet Department of Biotechnology Engineering, N.M.A.M. Institute
of Technology (Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi), Udupi District,
Karnataka, India
V. B. Shinde Department of Production Engineering, Amrutvahini College of
Engineering, Ahmednagar, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, India
S. S. Shirguppikar Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rajararambapu Insti-
tute of Technology, Rajaramnagar, India
Michael Short School of Computing, Engineering and Digital Technologies,
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
Hamid Anees Siddiqui Agricultural Biotechnology Division, National Institute for
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Anil Kumar Singh Department of Life Sciences, Sant Baba Bhag Singh University,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Arun K. Singh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Visvesvaraya National
Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India
Navdeep Singh Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B R Ambedkar National
Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
Puneet Kumar Singh Bioenergy Lab and BDTC, Kalinga Institute of Industrial
Technology (Deemed University), Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Ravindra Singh Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
Ashish Singla Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, New Delhi, India
Nitish Sinha Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.H. Raisoni Institute of
Business Management, Jalgaon, India
Alexandre Skzlo Centre for Energy and Environmental Economics, Universidade
Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Muhammad Sohail Department of Microbiology, University of Karachi, Karachi,
Pakistan
Kathan Rajesh Sonar School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Michele Kremer Sott Business School, Unisinos University, Porto Alegre, Brazil
K. R. Sreelakshmi ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Kochi, India
Supriya Sridharan Department of Mathematics, School of Arts, Science, Human-
ities and Education, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
Contributors xxxv

Abhishek Srivastava CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarak-

hand, India
Panagiotis Stavropoulos Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems and Automation
(LMS), Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of
Patras, Patras, Greece
J. Susai Mary Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Charu Swami Department of Home Science, Faculty of Arts, Dayalbagh Educa-
tional Institute, Agra, India
Sanjeev Swami Department of Management, Dayalbagh Educational Institute,
Agra, India
Nazia Tarannum Department of Chemistry, Chaudhary Charan Singh University,
Meerut, India
Muhammad Usman Tariq Abu Dhabi School of Management, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Diwakar Tiwari Department of Chemistry, School of Physical Sciences, Mizoram
University, Aizawl, India
Fernando Tohmé Departamento de Economía, Universidad Nacional del Sur
(UNS), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
Adrián Toncovich Departamento de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional del Sur,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Ilaria Tutore Department of Management and Quantitative Studies, University of
Naples “Parthenope”, Naples, Italy
Rakhi Tyagi Institute of Environmental Studies, Kurukshetra University, Kuruk-
shetra, India
N. E. Udoye Mechanical Engineering Department, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun
State, Nigeria
P. Ujwal Department of Biotechnology Engineering, N.M.A.M. Institute of Tech-
nology (Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi), Udupi District, Kar-
nataka, India
Sonali Upadhyaya Department of Management, Dayalbagh Educational Institute,
Agra, India
Sreedevi Upadhyayula Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Muralidhar Vardhanapu Department of Mechanical Engineering, Birla Institute
of Technology & Science, Pilani Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, India
Swaminathan Venkatraman Department of Mathematics, School of Arts, Science,
Humanities and Education, SASTRA Deemed to be University, Thanjavur, India
xxxvi Contributors

P. Vinod Babu Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid, India

Karthik Warrier Department of Mechatronics Engineering, College of Engineer-
ing and Technology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil
Nadu, India
Kailas L. Wasewar Advance Separation and Analytical Laboratory (ASAL),
Department of Chemical Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of
Technology (VNIT), Nagpur, India
R. Yameni Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
Jayanthi Yerchuru Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amrita School of
Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, India
Muhammad Zafar Biofuel Lab, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam
University, Islamabad, Pakistan
Smart Farming: Applications of IoT
in Agriculture 65
Anil Kumar Singh

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1656
Evolution of Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659
SMART Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1660
Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1663
Major Equipment and Technologies Enabling IoT-Based Smart Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
Wireless Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
IoT-Based Tractors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668
Harvesting Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668
Communication in Smart Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1669
Smartphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1672
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Smart Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1673
Application of IoT in Smart Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1675
Crop Disease and Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676
Yield Monitoring, Forecasting, and Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677
Protected Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1678
Livestock Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1680
Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1680
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683
Some Important Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1687

A. K. Singh ()
Department of Life Sciences, Sant Baba Bhag Singh University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1655
C. M. Hussain, P. Di Sia (eds.), Handbook of Smart Materials, Technologies, and
Devices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84205-5_114
1656 A. K. Singh

Abstract

The fourth industrial revolution also known as Industry 4.0 has significantly
transformed traditional manufacturing and industrial practices by use of contem-
porary smart technologies. In the same line, agriculture sector has also evolved
to become data-centered, precise, and smarter to face the future challenges. The
employment of recent advance technologies like Internet of Things (IoT), Cloud
Computing (CC), Remote Sensing (RS), Machine Learning (ML), Artificial
intelligence (AI), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), and Big Data Analytics
(BDA) has modernized several traditional agricultural practices. The modern
agriculturist aims to increase agriculture efficiency by enhancing food production
with reduced cost and minimum environmental impact. The IoT has potential
to offer diverse means of modernizing agriculture sector. Recent advances in
IoT-based technologies have empowered agriculture on the path of precise and
smart farming. Research institutions as well as the industries are racing to
develop farmer friendly and efficient IoT-based agriculture technologies. Efforts
by scientific groups, research institutions, and industries are likely to make IoT
an imperative technology for agriculture in near future. The present chapter
discusses basics of smart agriculture and IoT as well as evolution of agriculture
from traditional Agriculture 1.0 to modern Agriculture 4.0. The chapter also
includes major equipment and technologies enabling IoT-based smart farming
and application of IoT in smart agriculture. Current trends and future challenges
of IoT in agriculture have also been highlighted in the chapter.

Keywords

Agriculture robotics · Sensors · Cloud computing · Agriculture 4.0

Introduction

Agriculture is a broad term referring to occupations concerned with the cultivation

of soil for producing crop and raising livestock to provide food, wool, and many
other products. Human civilization has been significantly influenced by the advance-
ments in agricultural practices. Shift from foraging to farming during Neolithic
era improved nutrition, increased life-span, and decreased workload of human.
History suggests that most powerful civilizations of world has well-developed and
established agriculture sector. Agriculture supports human society not only by
providing food and raw material for industries but also by providing employment.
In current scenario, agriculture embraces more prominence than earlier times due
to ever-increasing population and dwindling natural resources. According to Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO) the global population will reach nearly 9.6
billion people by 2050 (FAO 2009). Feeding such a huge population will require
an increase of about 70% in agriculture output worldwide (Zhang et al. 2018).
Last few decades have also seen decrease in total agricultural land. In 1991 total
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1657

cultivated agricultural land was around 19.5 million square miles which accounted
for about 39.47% of the earth surface. The cultivated land decreased to 18.6 million
square miles (nearly 37.73% of the earth surface) by 2013 (World Bank 2016).
Thus, agriculture sector is facing a formidable task of increasing production with
less available agricultural land. Additionally, future of agriculture sector is also
challenged by climate change. The change in climate is believed to adversely affect
crop production and health of livestock (Arora 2019). Change in global temperature,
water availability pattern, soil erosion, and frequent outbreak of disease and pest
is expected to decrease overall agriculture output in coming decades. Such an
extraordinary increase in the production under limited land resource and challenges
from climate changes can only be achieved by modernization and intensification
of agricultural practices. Intensification of agricultural practices with traditional
approaches has significantly increased the environmental footprint of agriculture.
Extensive use of water, fertilizers, weedicides, herbicides, pesticides, and changes
in land use practice has raised several environment-related concerns (Lampridi et al.
2019).
Current trend indicates that agriculture sector can achieve formidable target of
feeding rapidly increasing global population in sustainable manner by embarrassing
Industry 4.0 technologies, application, and solution. Industry 4.0 or fourth industrial
revolution helped in achieving higher level of operational efficiency and productivity
by use of contemporary smart technologies. Farms that choose to be technology-
driven in some way or other exhibited several advantages, such as saving money
and labor, having an increased production or a reduction of costs with minimal
effort and producing quality food with more environment friendly practices (Zhang
et al. 2018). Díez (2017) advocated that larger use of smart farming services is
vital not only for improving a financial condition of farmers but also to meet
the food needs of an expanding population. Smart farming encompasses modern
technologies like computer mapping, guidance, and variable-rate equipment during
cultivation, harvesting, and post-harvest processing. Smart agriculture technologies
apply input whenever and wherever required (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020).
This enables food production in a sustainable manner. Hence, smart agriculture is
seen as promising strategy to accomplish future demand on sustainable pathway.
Smart technologies have enabled precision agriculture feasible for progressive
farmers. Contrarily, traditional agriculture practice employs inputs throughout the
field in predetermined manner, thus resulting in wastage of resources and extra
expenditure. The United State Department of Agriculture (USDA) reported that corn
farm following precision agriculture incurred 163 dollars per hectare higher profit
than for non-adopters (Schimmelpfennig 2016).
The success of precision agriculture relies on systems that generate data in
farms. The information generated on farms is then transferred and processed in such
a way to make proper strategically and profitable operational decisions (Tzounis
et al. 2017). Internet of Things (IoT)-based technologies have aided agriculture to
generate, transfer, and process such a big amount of valuable information (Zhang
et al. 2018). The modern agriculture sector is expected to be highly influenced
1658 A. K. Singh

by the advances in IoT technologies (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020). The new
philosophy centered on agricultural data has been referred with several names like
Agriculture 4.0, Digital Farming, or Smart Farming.
Smart Farming was born when telematics and data management were combined
to the already known concept of Precision Agriculture, thus improving the accuracy
of operations (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020). Agriculture 4.0 is based on
precision agriculture principles with producers using systems that generate data in
their farms, which will be processed in such a way to make proper strategically and
operational decisions. Internet of Things (IoT) in an agricultural context refers to
the use of sensors and other devices to turn every element and action involved in
farming into data (Tzounis et al. 2017). According to estimation nearly 10–15%
of US farmers are using IoT solutions on the farm across 1200 million hectares
and 250,000 farms (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020). According to a research
report on smart agriculture market, it is expected to grow from USD 13.8 billion in
2020 to USD 22.0 billion by 2025 at compound annual growth rate of 9.8% (Smart
Agriculture Market 2020). As seen in Fig. 1, there is a continuous increase in the
number of publications with the term “Smart Agriculture” and “IoT” along with the
term “Agriculture” in the scientific literature. These highlight the importance and
growing interest of researchers in IoT-based technologies for empowering smart
agriculture.
In present scenario, the demand of IoT-based agriculture technologies has
increased significantly, particularly in developed countries. Research institutes and

Fig. 1 Increase in the number of publications related to “Smart Agriculture,” “IoT,” and
“Agriculture” as seen in Science Direct (www.sciencedirect.com)
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1659

industries are making efforts to satisfy the future needs of farmers through the
development of IoT-based agriculture technologies. The main purpose of this
chapter is to demonstrate how IoT-based technologies has modernized agriculture
sector. The present chapter introduces readers to the concept of IoT applications
in agriculture as well as discuses current trends and future challenges of IoT-based
agriculture technologies.

Evolution of Agriculture

Agriculture has evolved through ages with aim of increasing the agricultural yield
and reduces human labor. Beginning of agriculture can be dated back to about
22,000 years ago when man learned to collect wild fruits as food. Archaeological
evidences suggest that various crops were cultivated as earlier as 9500 BC (Hillman
1996; Walsh 2009). The demand for more foods to feed ever-increasing population
has propelled agriculture evolution from traditional to more sophisticated form.
During course of evolution agriculture has moved on from Agriculture 1.0 to
Agriculture 4.0 (Fig. 2). Traditional agriculture also referred as Agriculture 1.0
was entirely dependent on manpower and animal forces. Agriculture 1.0 was labor
intensive with low output and involved usage of simple tools (Zhai et al. 2020).
Invention and improvement of steam engine during nineteenth century not only
brought about progressive influence on various industries but also become force
for second agriculture revolution. Agriculture 2.0 involved usage of agriculture
machineries and synthetics agrochemicals. Agriculture output in terms of effi-
ciency and productivity increased tremendously in Agriculture 2.0 as compared
to Agriculture 1.0. However, improved agriculture output was also accompanied
by several harmful effects such as environment pollution, destruction of ecological
environment, wastage of natural resources, and excessive consumption of powers
(Zhai et al. 2020).
The twentieth century saw the rapid development in computer technology
and robotics resulting in third agriculture revolution. Agricultural machines with
robotics and computer programs became more efficient and intelligent. In Agri-
culture 3.0, precision and intelligence of agricultural machines reduced use of
agrochemicals and wastage of natural resources leading to more productive agri-
culture (Zhai et al. 2020).
Previous few years have seen integration of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) with traditional agriculture. This integration has resulted in fourth
agricultural revolution designated as Agriculture 4.0. Implementation of recent
technologies like Internet of Things (IoT), Cloud Computing (CC), Remote Sensing
(RS), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Big Data Analytics
(BDA) has brought about advances in agriculture through development of Smart
Farming practices (Zhai et al. 2020). Agriculture 4.0 is based on principles of
monitoring, recording, collecting, and processing on field data for making suitable
and strategically operational decisions. Traditional farming required farmers to
visit the fields, check the condition of their crops, and make decisions based
1660 A. K. Singh

Fig. 2 Evolution of agriculture from Agriculture 1.0 to Agriculture 4.0

on their experience or seek suggestion from experts. It is estimated that on an

average farmers spent 70% of farming time in monitoring and understanding the
crop status instead of doing actual field work (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020).
Traditional approach of manually monitoring and managing large farm is not
feasible, particularly under labor force limitations. Future agriculture must develop
and rely on technologies that can impart efficiency and sustainability under limited
workforce. IoT empowered smart farming technologies have potential to provide
practical solution to future needs.

SMART Agriculture

Smart farming or Smart agriculture is promising concept of contemporary agricul-

ture sector that aim to minimize waste and enhance productivity by use of advance
supplementary technologies (Saiz-Rubio and Rovira-Más 2020). Present agricul-
turist and policy makers consider smart farming as a green technology approach
as it reduces ecological footprint in comparison to traditional farming practices
(Navarro et al. 2020). Implementation of advance information and communication
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1661

Sensing
Technologies

Data analytics Software

Solutions Applications

Smart
Farming
Hardware &
Communication
Software
System
systems

Telematics,
positioning
Technologies

Fig. 3 Important components of smart farming

technologies has improved the quantity and quality of agriculture products while
optimizing the human labor requirements and using fewer natural resources. Smart
farming monitors and analyzes environmental conditions (such as growth status,
soil status, irrigation water, pest, fertilizers, and weed management) for optimizing
various input processes (Doshi et al. 2019).
Smart farming uses hardware and software to record the data and give valuable
insights to handle all on-farm activities (Fig. 3). IoT are important hardware for
proper functioning of Smart farming. IoT-based smart farming enables real-time
monitoring, recording, diagnosis, decision making, and accordingly appropriate
activities in farms (Fig. 4).
Generally, IoT-based system consist of input and output interface for sensors,
interface for connecting to the Internet, interface for memory and storage, as well
as interface for audio or video. Demand for technology-driven smart farming has
increased in recent past particularly after wide acceptance and recognition by
progressive agriculturists. There are several commercially available IoT solutions
for smart agriculture (Table 1).
1662 A. K. Singh

Fig. 4 Important events in

IoT-based smart farming
cycle

Table 1 Some renowned IoT solutions used in agriculture

IoT
platform Services websites
Easyfarm Farm record-keeping http://www.easyfarm.com/
Farmx Impact of management on health of https://www.farmx.co/
canopy
Cropx Optimize input application, leading to https://www.cropx.com/
significant saving of resources like water,
fertilizer, energy, and labor
Farmlogs Farm management system software to https://farmlogs.com/
automatically record and analyze
day-to-day operation
MbeguChoice Suggest type of crop seed to farmers of http://www.mbeguchoice.com/
Kenya
KAA Connect and manage IoT devices via an https://www.kaaproject.org/
open cloud system
Phytech Determine water demand, growth, and https://www.phytech.com/
health of tree
Semios Assess and optimize response to insect, https://semios.com/
disease, and plant health in real time
OnFarm Automatically collect, analyze, and store https://www.onfarm.com/
data to provide real-time field situation in
user-friendly dashboard
Farmtrx Precision yield monitor system that can https://www.farmtrx.com/
be attached with any combine
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1663

Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is considered as one of the big technological revolution
of the present world. IoT-based technologies are expected to touch the life of entire
human race directly or indirectly (Doshi et al. 2019). The IoT allows things to
be controlled from distance via an existing network infrastructure, thus creating
possibility for direct amalgamation between the physical world and computer-based
systems. Utilization of IoT-based technologies in several sectors (like manufacturing
industry, healthcare, transportation, communications, homes, and agriculture) has
reduced inefficiencies and improved the performance. The phrase “Internet of
Things” (IoT) was first coined by British innovator Kevin Ashtonin in 1999
to describe the network of physical devises that are connected to Internet for
exchanging data (Ayaz et al. 2019; Tzounis et al. 2017). Since its conception, IoT
has improved a lot by embracing various empowering techniques such as wireless
sensor networks, cloud computing, big data embedded systems, security protocols
and architectures, communication protocols, and web services.
Basically, the IoT is assembly of three layers, namely, the perception layer,
the network layer, and the application layer (Fig. 5a). The three-layer architecture
defines the basic idea of IoT but it is not always sufficient in achieving desire results,
hence several researchers have included finer aspects and added more layers to
architecture of IoT (Kumar and Mallick 2018). The five-layer architecture of IoT
includes perception layer, transport layer, processing layer, application layer, and
business layer (Fig. 5b). The role of perception layer and application layer of five-
layer architecture is same as that of three-layer architecture (Tzounis et al. 2017).
The perception layer is physical layer consisting of sensors for sensing and
gathering information from environment (Chen and Yang 2019). This layer has
technologies such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Wireless Sensor
Network (WSN), and Near Field Communications (NFC). RFID technology is
considered as the first and the most suitable example of interconnected “Things.”
RIFD uses electromagnetic waves to automatically identify and track tags attached
to the objects. RFID tags hold data in the form of the Electronic Product Code
(EPC). The RFID readers triggers read and manipulate a large number of tags,
thus allowing object identification, tracking, and data storage on active or passive
tags. Active tags are powered by embedded power supply consisting of battery.
Passive tags do not require embedded power supply as it is powered by energy from
interrogating radio waves of RIFD readers (Welbourne et al. 2009).
A typical WSN is equipped with sensing and computing device, radio
transceivers, and power components for monitoring and recoding the physical
condition of the environments. Data collected by hundred thousands of sensors
are organized at central location. Sensor nodes of WSN communicate among
themselves using radio signals.
NFC is a set of communication protocols used for communicating between two
electronic devices over a very short distance of 4 cm or less. NFC enables a low-
speed connection with simple setup to bootstrap more-capable wireless connections.
NFC devices can act as electronic identity documents and keycards (Tzounis et al.
2017).
1664 A. K. Singh

Fig. 5 IoT solution architecture that includes (a) three layers and (b) five layers

The transport layer constitutes the second layer in five-layer IoT architecture.
This layer transfers the data collected by sensor from the perception layer to
the processing layer and vice versa. This layer uses network protocols to enable
communication between the perception layer and the processing layer. Network
protocols are employed to construct wireless communication between sensor nodes
and application layers. Each protocol has distinctive characters, such as the working
range, data exchange rate, and power consumption. Based on distinct features
network protocols can be grouped into short range, cellular networks, and long range
(Fernández-Ahumada et al. 2019). Short-range network protocols allow communi-
cation over short distances and hence are applied for the communication between
devices that are located close to each other. Bluetooth, ZigBee, and Wi-Fi are good
examples of short-range protocols. These protocols have high data transmission
rate and low power requirement. Cellular networks like GPRS and 3G enable long
distance communication with high transmission rate. However, licensing cost and
high power consumption sometimes creates hurdle for extensive application (Mekki
et al. 2019). Long-range network protocols allow communication over very long
distance. LoRaWAN and Sigfox are good examples of long-range network protocols
(Fernández-Ahumada et al. 2019). These protocols have a low power consumption
as well as low data transmission rate. Long-range network protocols are considered
suitable when a small amount of data has to be transferred over very long distances
(Navarro et al. 2020; Fernández-Ahumada et al. 2019).
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1665

The network layer constitutes the second layer in three-layer IoT architecture.
This layer is concerned with transmitting and processing of sensor data. Data
collected by wireless sensor nodes are communicated to neighboring nodes or
a gateway and further forwarded to remote infrastructure for storage, analysis,
processing, and dissemination through network layer (Gubbi et al. 2013). Com-
munication protocols formulate over wireless standards, such as 802.15.4, help
the device networking, and fill the gap between the Internet-enabled gateways
and the end-nodes. Such protocols include ZigBee, ONE-NET, Sigfox, Wire-
less HART, ISA100.11a, and 6LowPan. Recently, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE),
LoRa/LoRaWAN, DASH7, and low-power WiFi have also been reported to perform
efficiently in network layer (Suhonen et al. 2012; Tzounis et al. 2017).
The processing layer is also known as the middleware layer of five-layer IoT
architecture. It stores, analyzes, and processes enormous amount of data coming
from the transport layer. This layer can handle and provide a diverse set of services
to the lower layers. It utilizes numerous technologies such as databases, cloud
computing, and big data processing modules (Tzounis et al. 2017). Modeling
information by artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning for the development
of decision support systems and automation of agriculture process has brought about
true value of precision farming (Navarro et al. 2020).
The application layer is responsible for delivering application-specific services
to the user. This layer is regarded as the most important layer as it facilitates the
realization of the IoT-based smart farming (Tzounis et al. 2017; Navarro et al. 2020).
The business layer handle the whole IoT system, including applications, business
and profit models, and users’ privacy.

Major Equipment and Technologies Enabling IoT-Based Smart

Farming

IoT-based smart farming has been made possible by use of several equipment and
technologies. This section discusses some major equipment and technologies that
have contributed toward realization of smart farming.

Wireless Sensors

Wireless sensors are the most important part of smart farming equipment. Almost
every part of advance agricultural tools and heavy machineries contain wireless
sensors for gathering on site information. Depending upon the application require-
ments, there may be following major type of sensors, namely, acoustic sensors,
field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based sensors, optical sensors, ultrasonic
ranging sensors, optoelectronic sensors, airflow sensors, electrochemical sensors,
electromagnetic sensors, mechanical sensors, mass flow sensors, Eddy covariance-
based sensors, soft water level-based (SWLB) sensors, light detection and ranging
(LIDAR), telematics sensors, and remote sensing (Ayaz et al. 2019).
1666 A. K. Singh

Acoustic sensors function by quantifying the change in the noise intensity as

the tool containing these sensors interact with other materials such as seeds and
soil particles. It has been used successfully for monitoring and detection of pest
(Ayaz et al. 2019). Gasso-Tortajada et al. (2010) have used novel acoustic sensor
for classifying different seeds varieties using sound absorption spectra. Acoustic
sensors are preferred especially in portable equipment as it provides low-cost
solutions with fast response (Ayaz et al. 2019).
Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based sensors are being used in smart
agriculture due to their flexibility of reconfiguration. It has been employed for
measuring real-time plant transpiration, irrigation, and humidity (Millan-Almaraz
et al. 2010). FPGA-based sensors utilization for agricultural purposes is in infancy
stage primarily due to limitation issues such as size, cost, and power consumption.
These sensors are not suitable for continuous monitoring systems as they have
high operational power requirement (de la Piedra et al. 2012). FPGA-based sensors
have potential to offer satisfactory solutions in smart agriculture once it overcomes
aforementioned limitations.
Optical sensors use light reflectance phenomena for measuring various soil
parameters. These sensors test soil parameters such as organic content, moisture,
color, and mineral composition by reflecting light of different electromagnetic
spectrum on samples. The changes occurring in reflected wavelength help to
quantify various parameters. Molina et al. (2011) have reported use of integrated
optical sensors with microwave scattering for characterizing olive grove canopies.
Fluorescence-based optical sensors have been used for supervising the fruit matura-
tion (Pajares 2011).
Ultrasonic ranging sensors are often considered better than several other sensors.
These sensors have low cost, ease to use, and ability to become part of diverse
applications. It has been used for monitoring tank, crop canopy, and measuring spray
distance (Dvorak et al. 2016). Combination of camera and ultrasonic ranging sensors
has been employed for the detecting weeds in the crop field (Pajares et al. 2013).
Ultrasonic sensors detect height of plants while the camera determines the weed and
crop cover.
Optoelectronic sensors are known to distinguish between different plant types.
It helps to identify weeds, herbs, and other unwanted plants among crops. Andújar
et al. (2009) have used combination of optoelectronic sensor and location informa-
tion to map the weed distribution in maize crop field. Optoelectronic sensors can
also be employed for mapping vegetation area as it can differentiate between plant
cover and soil through reflection spectra.
Airflow sensors are capable of measuring various soil characteristics by pushing
a predetermined quantity of air into the ground at a prescribed depth. It has been
used to determine soil air permeability, soil moisture content, and soil types. It can
perform measurements at a singular fixed position or over long range in the mobile
mode (García-Ramos et al. 2012).
Electrochemical sensors are widely used in smart agriculture for soil test
automation. Standard chemical analysis of soil is expensive and time-consuming
process. However, application of electrochemical sensors can easily substitute these
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1667

tests by determining various chemical characteristic of soil such as salinity, pH, and
macro and micro-nutrients of the soil (Cocovi-Solberg et al. 2014).
Electromagnetic sensors record electrical conductivity and transient electromag-
netic response to adjust rate of applications in the authentic situation. These sensors
determine various properties of soil by measuring the capability of soil particles to
conduct or accumulate electrical charges. Yunus and Mukhopadhyay (2011) had
demonstrated that electromagnetic sensors can be applied to determine residual
nitrates and organic matter in the soil.
Mechanical sensors are widely used to determine soil mechanical compaction.
These sensors enter through the soil and record the force experienced by strain
gauges (Hemmat et al. 2013). Soil compaction knowledge aids farmers to determine
the tillage requirement.
Mass flow sensors have been used to determine the yield by measuring the
amount of grain flowing through combine harvester. Sensing mass flow for deter-
mining the crop yield has been used extensively in IoT-based smart farming.
Yield monitoring systems apart from mass flow sensors also contain several other
modules, like the grain moisture sensor, data storage device, and software to analyze
the recorded data (Ayaz et al. 2019).
Eddy covariance-based sensors measures exchange of gases, water vapors, and
energy between surface of the earth and atmosphere. The sensors based on this
technology can quantify exchanges of carbon dioxide, methane, or other gases, and
energy between agriculture field and atmosphere (Kumar et al. 2017). These sensors
are preferred over other sensors due to its ability to measure continuous flux over
large areas with high precision.
Soft water level-based (SWLB) sensors are used in agriculture sectors to describe
hydrological behaviors of catchment area. These sensors measure rainfall and
stream flows by determining water level and flow (Crabit et al. 2011). SWLB has
helped agriculture sector by enabling efficient and effective irrigation, thus reducing
the wastage of water.
Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is method used to measure distance. It
has been used in a range of agriculture applications, such as land mapping and
segmentation, determining soil type, monitoring soil erosion and soil loss, and yield
forecasting (Ayaz et al. 2019; Montagnoli et al. 2015). These sensors operate by
illuminating the target with laser light and then measure the reflection from targets.
Difference between laser return times and wavelength is used to make digital three-
dimensional representation of targeted site (Ayaz et al. 2019).
Telematics sensors help in telecommunication between two places. In
agriculture-based application telemetry sensors have been employed for communi-
cating between two vehicles. These sensors collect data from remote location and
inform farmers on how the components of machine are working. These sensors also
record location and travel routes of operating machines. Telematics sensors-based
technologies have enabled farmers to record and store all information related to
farm operations automatically (Ayaz et al. 2019).
Remote sensing-based technologies has enabled researcher and farmers to
monitor on field crop, forecast yield dates, model and forecast yield, identify
1668 A. K. Singh

weeds and pests, and map land degradation. These sensors capture and store
the geographic information. Information collected by remote sensors is further
analyzed, manipulated, managed, and presented as spatial or geographical data
(Ayaz et al. 2019). Argos-sensor is a well-known example of remote sensor-based
technology. It is a satellite-based sensor system for collecting, processing, and
distributing environmental data from fixed and mobile platforms worldwide (Rose
and Welsh 2010).

IoT-Based Tractors

Tractors are farm vehicles used for imparting power and traction to mechanized
agricultural task like tillage. Demand for tractors has increased with decrease in
rural labor resource. It has been reported that an average size tractor can work
40 times faster at less expenses than traditional farm labor (Ayaz et al. 2019).
Different agriculture equipment manufacturers are continuously adding advance
features to tractor for fulfilling the farm requirements. Several manufacturers
have added automatic-driven and Cloud-computing capabilities to advance tractors.
Manufacturers are working on to commercialize self-driving tractors. The main
benefit of self-driving tractors is their ability to make very precise turns without
the physical presence of driver. Self-driving tractors offer precision with reduced
errors that are mostly unavoidable when a human controls the machinery (Ayaz
et al. 2019).

Harvesting Robots

Harvesting is the last and most critical phase of crop cultivation. It has significant
influence on crop quality and quantity. Some crops are harvested once while
some others crops are picked several times after plants have reached a certain
stage. Harvesting crop at the correct time in a proper manner is very important
for obtaining optimum return from cultivated crops. Early or late harvesting
generally reduces quality and quantity of crops. Labor are predominantly required
for harvesting crops. However, labor shortage is hampering several agriculture
functions significantly. According to Ayaz et al. (2019), there is decline in crop
production annually due to labor shortage. United States Department of Agriculture
reported that costs of wages and labor may range something between 14% and 39%
of total cultivation cost (Ayaz et al. 2019). Considering the importance of this stage
and labor issues, farm experts and managers believe that use of agriculture robotics
will ease the labor pressure and provide the freedom to harvest as per desire (Ayaz
et al. 2019).
Recent decades have seen automation of harvesting process by use of sensitive
robots that can detect shape, size, color, and localization of fruits (Zujevs et al.
2015). Harvesting robots require sophisticated sensors capable of accumulating
accurate information of particular crop and fruit. In real field scenario, the task of
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1669

detecting the right target is not simple as most of the fruits are partially or fully
hidden among leaves and branches (Bac et al. 2017). The successful automation
of harvesting process employ computer vision, image processing, and machine
learning techniques. As different fruits vary in shapes, sizes, and colors, researchers
are designing and developing specific robots for specific crops (Zujevs et al. 2015).
SW 6010, Octinion, SWEEPER robot, and FFRobot are some of the leading
harvesting robots being used for crop harvesting. FFRobot is harvesting robots
employed for harvesting tree-based fruits like apples. It has capability to pick up
to 10,000 fruits per hour. SW 6010 and Octinion are able to collect strawberries.
SWEEPER robot is employed to harvest peppers. Another automated strawberry
harvester Tektu T-100 is an all-electric rechargeable harvester that can run silently
with zero emission inside the poly-tunnels (Ayaz et al. 2019; Defterli et al. 2016).

Communication in Smart Agriculture

Smart farming is heavily dependent on accurate and timely communication and

reporting the information to stakeholders. The real purpose of smart agriculture
can only be achieved by firm, reliable, and secure connection among various
participating objects. Successful implementation of IoT in agriculture sector on
a large scale can be achieved only after providing a suitably large architecture
for communication. Deciding upon the means of communication is influenced by
several factors like cost, coverage, energy consumption, and reliability. Currently
several communication modes and technologies are employed in smart agriculture,
depending on the availability, scalability, and application requirements. Cellular
communication through 2G, 3G, 4G, or 5G, ZigBee, LoRa, Bluetooth, and Sigfox
has been used successfully to communicate in smart agriculture.
Cellular communication modes from 2G to 5G have been used for communi-
cating information or data. However, availability of appropriate cellular network in
rural region is a major concern worldwide particularly in developing and under-
developed countries. Data transmission via satellite can overcome aforementioned
problem. The cost of communication via satellite is very high thus making it
unsuitable for small- and medium-sized farms.
The choice of communication mode is also determined by the application
requirements. Farms employing sensors that operate with low data rate but work
continuously for long periods require long battery life. Such farms often consider
relatively a new range of Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN). Several
research consider LPWAN a better solution for cellular connectivity, due to long
battery life and a wider connectivity range at reasonable rates (2 to 15 USD per year)
(Beecham Research 2016). Several short-range and medium-level communications
are also being used in mesh networks for communicating information (Zulkifli and
Noor 2017). In a mesh-network based communication system, sensor nodes collect
data and transmit it to the gateway located in the same area. The gateway then sends
collected data via WAN network to the farm management system.
1670 A. K. Singh

Fig. 6 Different topologies used for supporting the ZigBee networks: (a) Star, (b) Tree, (c) Mesh

The ZigBee technology has emerged as the new standard for superior wireless
technology in agriculture communication. The ZigBee hardware uses physical
devices to offer a low cost accomplishment. Depending on the application require-
ments the devices based on ZigBee protocol uses three logical device types,
namely, ZigBee coordinator, ZigBee Router, ZigBee End Devices (Oliveira et al.
2017). The ZigBee network uses three different topologies, namely, Star, Tree, and
Mesh (Fig. 6). Star topology is simplest of all topologies. It consists of a ZigBee
coordinator and few ZigBee End Devices. All end devices are connected directly
to coordinator (Fig. 6a). In the star topology, ZigBee coordinator is accountable
for initiating, maintaining, and controlling the entire end devices on the network.
Tree topology consists of coordinator, few routers, and end devices (Fig. 6b).
Router serves as extension for network coverage. End devices can be connected to
coordinator or router. Mesh topology consist of one coordinator and several router
and end devices (Fig. 6c). It is also referred as Peer-to-Peer network. This topology
has capability to find alternate path to destination, in case node fail to communicate,
hence also known as self-healing topology.
ZigBee can play vital role especially in the greenhouse environment where
usually short-range communications are required. Data collected by sensors enable
real-time monitoring of various parameters. Data collected by sensors is transferred
through ZigBee network to end server. For the applications like irrigation and
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1671

fertilization, ZigBee modules are networked for communication. For example, in

drip irrigation, soil content like moisture is monitored. Further, SMS is forwarded
to the farmer to update about the field data where GSM is required at long distance
or Bluetooth module can help at the shorter distances.
Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard for connecting small-head
devices over shorter distances. It is used in several smart farming applications
as it is easy to use, utilize less power, and have low cost. Hong and Hsieh
(2016) successfully tested Bluetooth and PLC (programmable logic controller) with
ICS (integrated control strategy) for controlling irrigation timing depending upon
soil moisture content to carry out smart irrigation. Advanced form of Bluetooth
commonly known as Bluetooth Smart or Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) has been
used in sensors devoted to monitor moisture, ambient light, and temperature in open
field conditions as well as under protected cultivation area.
LoRa wireless technology offers LPWAN connectivity between the wireless
sensors and the Cloud as it is a long-range and low-power platform. Sensors based
on LoRa can be used in smaller devices for consistent monitoring. LoRa signals
have capability to penetrate thick and insulated objects, hence allowing coverage
over larger network area. As compared to several network platforms, LoRa-based
network have longer lifespan with little maintenance. Jedermann et al. (2018)
successfully tested LoRa-based networks platform in apple storage warehouse for
monitoring temperature and airflow with packet rate of more than 96%.
Sigfox is wireless network connectivity services employed to connect low-
powered objects that emit small amounts of data continuously. This wireless
network connectivity service uses narrowband or ultra-narrowband technology. It
offers high level performance as several sensors can transmit data at the same time
(Lavric et al. 2019).

Smartphones

Smartphones are important part of present-day lifestyle. Recent advances in the

smartphone industry have resulted in sharp decrease in price thus making it afford-
able for small farmers. Cellular communication is the key technology in rural areas.
Mobile phones are important mode of communication within farming community.
It can be easily used to contact or update farmers in the rural setting. With
flexibility and functionality (such as the camera, GPS, microphone, accelerometer,
and gyroscope), smartphones have tremendous potential to participate in IoT-based
smart farming (Table 2).
Realizing the tremendous potential of Mobile-phone-based agriculture ser-
vices, IT professionals are developing mobile apps to fulfill various needs of
farmers (Alfian et al. 2017). In recent years researchers have developed several
Mobile phone-based agriculture services, particularly in developing countries like
Cameroon, China, Turkey, India, Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, Mali, Uganda, and Zim-
babwe to address local farmers issues (Pongnumkul et al. 2015). Table 3 summarizes
some important smartphone-based application for farmers.
1672 A. K. Singh

Table 2 Some of the smartphone-based sensors used for various agriculture applications
Smartphone
Sensor Function Agriculture uses References
Image sensors Capture pictures of object Detect disease, chlorophyll Camacho
(camera) status, fruit ripeness, leaf (2018), Chung
area index (LAI), soil et al. (2018)
erosion
Global Measure the latitude and Determine location Wan et al.
positioning longitude information during machine (2018), Stiglitz
system (GPS) driving and tracking, land et al. (2017)
management, crop mapping
Microphone Detects usual/unusual Help maintaining machine, Kou and Wu
sound detect pest, make audio (2018)
enquiries
Accelerometer Measures acceleration Detect movement or Orlando et al.
forces rotation of camera, detect (2016)
worker or machine
movement
Gyroscope Detect the angular velocity Estimate movement of Kou and Wu
of object during rotation equipment, determine (2018)
canopy structure
Barometer Measures air pressure Measures the elevation of Frommberger
agriculture farm as an et al. (2013)
altimeter
Inertial sensor Determine altitude of Help in measuring distance Orlando et al.
object in relation to the of plant, leaves, or any (2016)
inertial system other object with the help
of camera

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing offers on-demand various services (like data storage, server
space, database networking, and software) through the Internet. It is a popular
choice for people as it offers cost saving, high speed, efficiency, performance,
and security. Cloud computing is named so because the information accessed by
individual is present remotely in the virtual space. It has supported smart farming
applications by two means. Firstly, it offers space for collection and storage of
information transmitted from remote sources. Secondly, it allows processing of
collected information and displaying the results to the users.
Hiring Cloud-based services in smart farming has several opportunities but with
few challenges. Smart farming uses vast range of sensors with its own data format
and semantics. Also the most of the decision-support systems utilized in smart
farming are application-specific. Thus, the Cloud-based decision-support system has
to handle the diversity of data and their formats as well as configure these formats for
diverse function. AgJunction developed an open Cloud-based system for gathering
and disseminating the data from different precise agriculture controllers. Fujitsu
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1673

Table 3 Some important smartphone applications used for various agricultural purposes
Mobile Apps Application Features References
PocketLAI Irrigation Determine plant’s water Orlando et al.
requirement by estimating leaf area (2016)
index. App uses the mobile camera
and accelerometer sensor
WheatCam Crop insurance Offers picture-based insurance Ceballos et al.
(PBI) to simplify the process of (2018)
crop insurance. Smartphone camera
is used to take picture pre and post
damaged insured areas
AMACA Machinery/tools Estimate the cost of machinery and Sopegno et al.
its performance in various field (2016)
operations
Ecofert Fertilizer Calculates the best possible Bueno-
management combination of fertilizers and cost Delgado et al.
of fertilizer based on current market (2016)
prices
eFarm GIS Applied for sensing, mapping, and Yu et al. (2017)
modeling of agriculture farm land
Weedsmart Weed management This tool is capable of enhancing Scholz (2018)
weed management for a specific
paddock. Based on the answers
given for nine questions about a
paddock‘s farming system, the app
assesses herbicide resistance and
weed seed bank risk
BioLeaf Health monitoring Detects leaf damage and monitor Machado et al.
crop foliar status (2016)
cFertigUAL Fertigation Calculates the amount of fertilizer Pérez-Castro
and water needed for the major crop et al. (2017)
types in greenhouse farming

proposed Akisai-Cloud for increasing the food supply chain in future by focusing
on food and agricultural industries.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Smart Farming

UAVs are aircraft without human pilot on board. These aircraft are controlled by
remote control or autonomous control unit fitted with sensors. UAVs are more
commonly known as drones. Massachusetts Institute of Technology considered
agricultural UAVs as green-tech tool for smart farming. Agricultural UAVs has been
utilized to address several farm-related issues. It provides farmers with luxury of
collecting precise data from large areas without much labor. Collected data can be
further processed and analyzed to draw valuable information. UAVs fitted with high-
resolution cameras and precise sensors have been used for monitoring plant growth
1674 A. K. Singh

on an individual plant-level. The application of UAV technology in smart farming

has been successfully employed for weed detection and management in crop field
of sugar beet, paddy, sunflower, and cotton. UAV technology has been applied to
monitor wheat breeding in large trial, monitor key developmental stages of winter
wheat, detect plant stress, predict as well as estimate grain yield and pest monitoring.
Faiçal et al. (2014) used an algorithm to self-adjust UAV route during spray in crop
field to reduce waste of pesticide and fertilizers. UAV-based system has also been
used to detect and chase away birds from cultivated fields by producing sounds.

Application of IoT in Smart Agriculture

The IoT-assisted agricultural operation mainly has three stages, namely, data
collection, cloud-side data analysis, and decision-making. Data are collected with
on field sensors or remote sensors or UAVs. Collected raw data are filtered
and processed by data analysis tool to draw valuable information. The filtered
information is converted to critical information by data mining and machine learning
tools. Information analysis with specific factors such as crop state, soil, and
environment condition allows decision-making. Appropriate application of IoT in
smart agriculture has allowed control of all agricultural operations such as field
preparation, seeding, irrigation, fertilization, pest control, and harvesting (Fig. 7).

Irrigation

Water is crucial input for good agriculture production and maintaining food security.
Irrigation is the process of artificially applying water to the crops for fulfilling
water requirements. Farmers generally depend on wells, ponds, lakes, canals, tube-
wells, and even dam for irrigation. According to an estimate, agriculture sectors
use more than 70% of all freshwater globally (FAO 2019). Competition for water
resource particularly for agriculture sectors is expected to increase in near future due
to population growth, urbanization, and climate change. Future agriculture sector
demands judicious and precise use of water in irrigation.
The IoT has been more widely used in agriculture for executing precision
irrigation. The system uses wireless sensor network (WSN) along with in-field
sensors to monitor plant water requirement. Sensors present in the field measures
temperature and humidity from air, soil, and canopy. Data recorded by sensors are
fed into network gateway. The gateway can be accessed via Internet wirelessly by
use of technologies such as 4G LTE mobile communication network at relatively
low cost. The data transmitted can be received by subscribed web services on the
cloud. The information gathered from farmland and other source (like weather
station and satellite imaging) are analyzed to decide on irrigation index value for
each site on farmland. These results are transmitted back to network gateway and
further forwarded to irrigation controller present on the field. Irrigation controller
utilizes results to manage precise irrigation (Zhang et al. 2018). Specifically
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1675

Fig. 7 Architecture of IoT-based agriculture technology

developed web application can enable farmers to access all data and results, as
well as make adjustments in irrigations. Lorvanleuang and Zhao (2018) reported
development of IoT-based automated irrigation system that used smartphone to
capture and process image of soil near root zone of crop. Rawal (2017) reported
development of automated irrigation system capable of monitoring and maintaining
the desired soil moisture content through automatic watering system. Control unit
was developed with Microcontroller ATMEGA328P on arduino uno platform. Soil
sensors present in the field measure and maintain appropriate quantity of water so
as to avoid over or under irrigation (Rawal 2017).

Fertilization

Fertilizers are natural or synthetic material that can provide essential nutrients to
crop plant for proper growth and development. The current agriculture practices
depend heavily on fertilizer application for increasing the production of food,
feed, fuel, fiber, and other plant products. Continuous cropping exhaust soil from
essential nutrients, hence a regular replenishment of nutrients is necessary in order
to maintain the fertility of the soil so as to maintain or improve the quality of the
harvest (Zhang et al. 2018).
1676 A. K. Singh

Depending upon the requirement nutrients can be grouped into major and minor
nutrients. Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) are important primary
major nutrients. Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and Sulfur (S) are secondary
major nutrients. Boron (B), Chlorine (Cl), Cobalt (Co), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), and Zinc (Zn) are minor nutrients. The
amount of fertilizer required is influenced by various factors such as crop type, soil
type and soil absorption capability, product yield, fertility type, fertilizer utilization
rate, weather condition, and climate condition (Ayaz et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2018).
Application of fertilizer in excess amount adversely affects the environment by
depleting the soil quality, deteriorating ground water resource and contributing to
the climate changes across the globe. Adverse effect of fertilizer can be reduced by
precise application of fertilization. Precise fertilization is relatively complicated as
compared to precise irrigation. The main hurdle in precise fertilization is determi-
nation of fertilizer requirement in soil patches and supplying nutrient accordingly.
Remote sensing and IoT approaches have helped in estimating fertilizers require-
ment at particular site with acceptable accuracy and minimum labor. Normalized
Differences Vegetation Index (NDVI) has been used for estimating crops health,
vegetation vigor, density, and soil nutrient assessment. NDVI is estimated from
satellite images or images from UAV or IoT ground stations. NDVI value is
used to generate the site-specific fertilization index map. Fertilizer is applied with
automated agriculture machines and vehicles in accordance to the fertilization index
map (Zhang et al. 2018).

Crop Disease and Pest Management

Yield loss due to disease and pest is one of the serious problems of agriculture
sector. According to FAO (2019) nearly 20% to 40% of global crop yield are lost
annually due to pest and diseases. Agriculture 3.0 saw application of large amount
of agrochemicals like pesticides, fungicides for overcoming losses due to diseases
and pest. Globally more than two million tons of agrochemical is used annually.
Most of these agrochemicals are harmful to living organisms.
Use of IoT-based system allows cultivators with real-time monitoring, modeling,
and diseases forecasting. Traditionally, diseases and pest management include
application of agrochemicals at particulars stage of crop or pre-prescribed time
irrespective of infection. The effectiveness of crop disease and pest management
system depends on the sensing, evaluation, and treatment strategies. First stage of
IoT-based crop disease and pest management system is to collect real-time crop
physiological and pathological data. Image processing is most commonly employed
for acquiring physiological and pathological data. Image can be obtained from
on field sensors or remote sensing devices installed on aircraft or satellite. Data
obtained from remote sensing system has higher efficiency and comparatively less
cost as compared to on field sensors. On field sensors enable more function as
compared to remote sensing system. On field sensors can be used to monitor and
collect data from every corner of field throughout the cultivation period (Zhang
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1677

et al. 2018). IoT-based system has been employed to develop automated pest traps.
IoT-enabled pest traps capture, count, and characterize pest. Information collected
by automated traps is then uploaded to cloud for analysis (Ramalingam et al. 2020).
Data collected by crop disease and pest management system are sent and stored at
central management system. The center processes and analyzes data or image using
sophisticated models and algorithms to provide functions like pest identification,
diseases identification, behavior of pest, and recommendations from experts. Early
warning and suitable interventions can be suggested to the farmer from the central
managing system in various ways such as text messages or emails. Information
obtained from central system are also utilized in precision farming to precisely
apply diseases treatment and pesticide using automated spray or unmanned aerial
vehicles or automated variable rate technology. Use of advance robot enabled
with multispectral sensing devices, precision–spraying, can locate and deal with
the problem. Several IoT technology systems have been successfully used in
smart farming for monitoring various aspects of crop production. Zhang et al.
(2014) developed IoT system for monitoring diseases, pest, and weeds in field
crops of wheat. The system also has capability to diagnose and predict diseases,
pest, and weeds of wheat. Depending upon data analysis, the system can provide
recommendation to farmers (Zhang et al. 2014). An IoT system developed by Lee
et al. (2017) predicted diseases and pest by utilizing model based on correlation
information. This IoT system helped farmers to control diseases and pest by
judicious usage of pesticides and fungicides.

Yield Monitoring, Forecasting, and Harvesting

Yield monitoring is the means of analyzing quality and quantity of harvest. Grain
mass flow, moisture content, and harvested grain quantity are some important
parameters analyzed during yield monitoring. Accurate yield monitoring helps in
estimating crop performance and deciding on the future course of action. Yield
monitoring is the important part of smart farming as it not only helps in deciding
on the time of harvest but also inform about the quality of yield. Yield quality
depends on several internal and external factors. Genetic composition of the crop
is an important internal factor influencing yield quality. Nutrient availability, good
quality pollination, photoperiod, and sufficient pollination are some external factors
influencing yield quality and quantity. With globalization of agriculture sector,
the demand for good quality fruits has increased tremendously in recent times.
Moreover, good quality fruits must reach right market at right time for harnessing
maximum profit. Consumers prefer fruits with attractive external features like fruit
size, color, aroma, and texture. All these attractive features of fruit can be achieved
only if fruits are harvested at right time and maintained under appropriate post-
harvest care.
Crop forecasting is an art to predicting the yield and production before the
harvesting period. Forecasting is done after taking into account the current status
of crop plant. Forecasting of crop yield helps farmers to decide on near future
1678 A. K. Singh

plan. Predicting yield quality and maturity time is critical in decision making and
deciding on the harvesting time. Yield quality and maturity time prediction take into
account the data collected during various development stages of fruit. Fruit color,
size, texture, and appearance are some important parameters that are considered for
predicting right harvesting time. It must be noted that right harvesting time helps to
maximize the crop quality and quantity. It also offers an opportunity to accordingly
adjust the post-harvest management strategy.
Harvesting is the last but most crucial stage of agricultural process. Proper
harvesting at right time can make a great difference. Farmers must know the right
time for crop harvesting as it is essential for drawing real benefits from crops. Farm
area network (FAN) helps in real-time monitoring of the whole farm and deciding
on the harvesting time. A yield monitoring system can be installed on harvester
combine and linked with the mobile app FarmRTX. Mobile app displays live harvest
data and uploads it automatically to web-based platform of the manufacturer. Mobile
app FarmRTX can also generate high-quality yield maps. These maps can be shared
with any agriculture experts. Farmer also has option to export information and
analyze them on other farm management software.
Manfrini et al. (2015) estimated the production and quality of yield by monitoring
fruit growth on apple trees. The group considered the fruit growth as the most
fundamental and appropriate parameter for determining the progression of the crop.
Torbick et al. (2017) used satellite imagining for monitoring rice crop yield in vast
areas. Satellite imagining allows monitoring of large area and thus aids in estimating
yield of large farms. Such method can also be useful in estimating yield of entire
state or country. Sentinel-1A Interferometric images were used to map the rice crop
yield and intensity in Myanmar (Torbick et al. 2017). Color (RGB) depth imagining
has been used to track the different fruit conditions in mango and papaya farms
(Wang et al. 2017). Multiple optical sensors have been employed successfully to
monitor the shrinking of papayas particularly during drying conditions.

Protected Cultivation

Protected cultivation is a process of growing crops in controlled environments.

Green house farming is a good example of protected cultivation. Green house
cultivation is more intense than open farm system, hence requires relatively
more monitoring and controlled farming operations. There are cloud-based IoT
solutions used for monitoring and controlling various operations in green house.
High-precision monitoring of green house has been made possible by IoT-based
technologies. Sensors present in the green house collect data. These data are
uploaded to a cloud infrastructure by Internet facility. Collected data are analyzed
with well-evaluated equations and crop and climate models to provide grower with
valuable information. Depending upon the information grower may take better
decisions or get early warnings.
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1679

Online precise irrigation scheduling for greenhouses (OpIRIS) was developed on

the basis of well-evaluated scientific knowledge. OpIRIS uses web application for
communicating with long distance sensors installed in the greenhouses. The system
has climate sensors and machinery for regulating fertigation. Sensors robotically
sense drainage sample and transfer data to the infrastructure. The data is processed
and employed to precisely predict the crop water requirement and notify growers
about when to irrigate and volume of nutrient solution to apply. Tong-ke (2013)
developed automate irrigation system for green house with agricultural information
cloud and a hardware combination of IOT and RFID. The system was able to achieve
high efficiency in resource utilization and significant improvement in maintaining
water quality.
The increasing demand for food requires more farmable lands but soil erosion
and pollution has destroyed nearly one-third of farm land. Current intense agri-
cultural practices are also damaging the soil quality at faster rate than it can be
replenished. Researchers believe that Vertical Farming (VF) and plant factories are
better options to overcome limitation arising due to reduction of arable land and
decrease in water resource issues.
Plant factories are closed plant growing system facilitated with artificially
controlled light, temperature, moisture, and carbon dioxide concentrations. These
enable constant production from plant throughout the year, even under unfavorable
external environment condition. Artificial growth systems heavily rely on IoT-based
technology for imparting suitable condition for plant growth.
Vertical Farming is a form of urban agriculture that offers prospect to stack the
plants in vertical racks. Plants are allowed to grow in limited space under controlled
environment. Vertical Farming is highly efficient in terms of resources consumption
due to smart farming approaches. This method enhances production several folds
by increasing the number of stacks under fraction of ground surface as compared to
conventional agriculture practices.
Indoor farm developer Mirai reported that Japanese vertical farm of 25,000
square meters produce 10,000 heads of lettuce per day which is double the amount
produced under traditional field condition. Japanese vertical farms used nearly
40% less energy and 99% less water consumption as compared to open field type
cultivation practice. Aerofarms, another vertical farm developer, reported 390 times
higher yields and nearly utilizing 95% less water as compared to conventional
cultivation practice. All abiotic parameters required for plant growth is controlled
by sensors. Carbon dioxide concentration in plant growing environment is very
critical parameter. Non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) carbon dioxide sensors play
important role to detect and control the concentration in artificial vertical farms
system. Edinburgh Sensors designed Boxed Gascard for vertical farms environment.
Boxed Gascard employs a pseudo dual beam NDIR measurement system to enhance
the stability and reduced optical complexity. Mint Controls reported development of
IoT-connected vertical farm that do not require human hands to touch the crops at
any stage (Chowdhury et al. 2020).
1680 A. K. Singh

Livestock Applications

Livestock are important part of agriculture sectors. Livestock or farm animals are
domestic animals raised for producing labors and different commodities (such as
meat, eggs, milk, etc.). Water buffalo, cattle, sheep, donkey, camel, and goat are
some common examples of livestock. Maintaining livestock in clean and optimal
environment is necessary for good productivity. Optimum supply of food and water
is also essential for maintaining proper health of livestock. IoT-based application has
been used successfully for managing livestock. WSN-based technology has been
employed for monitoring and controlling the environmental conditions. It has also
been used for monitoring feeding practice, animal tracking, and animal behaviors.
Murphy et al. (2015) reported use of WSN technology for monitoring a beehive
colony. Their group collected important information about activity and environment
within a beehive as well as its surrounding area.

Future Challenges

IoT-based smart agriculture has several challenges that need to be addressed

before it becomes imperative part of agricultural practice. Challenges range from
hardware problem to security concerns. The equipment present at the perception
layer are directly exposed to harsh environmental conditions capable of destroying
the electronics circuits. Environmental condition such as soaring solar radiation,
extreme temperatures, rain, humidity, winds, vibrations, and dust storms can damage
electronic circuits and render perception layer nonfunctional.
The devices of IoT system has to stay active and function perfectly over long
period with limited availability of power resources from batteries. Suitable program-
ming tools and low-power utilizing system needs to be developed as frequent battery
replacement or reset of the system is not an easy task in the large-scale open fields.
Small power harvesting modules like solar panels, wind turbines can be applied to
generate power to some extent in open fields but still low power utilizing equipment
are prerequisite for successful IoT system. Ziegeldorf et al. (2014) highlighted the
importance of small number of interconnected devices produces exceedingly large
amount of data. Small-scale server infrastructures usually fail to handle such large
amount of data (Atzori et al. 2010).
Logistics infrastructure dealing with food and agricultural sector aims to assist
the exchange of information as well as transport of goods. Proper logistics can
optimize the production process and the supply chain networks globally. Including
IoT-based technology in logistics have progressively transformed post-harvest
agriculture business processes by providing more precise and real-time information
to the movement of materials and products. Inclusion of cloud computing into IoT-
based logistics system has increased service quality primarily by offering ample
storage and computational resources to store and process the data generated at the
edge of the network. Botta et al. (2014) used the “CloudIoT” to highlight the ideal
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1681

accompaniment of IoT technologies and cloud computing. The enormous amount

of data generated at the edge of the network can sustain unpleasantly high cost for
transferring it to the cloud. Therefore, the researchers and industries must develop
technologies that can draw best possible balancing between the edge storage and
processing as well as determine the portion of the workload that is to be done on
the cloud. Expanding cloud technologies and tools is must for satisfying the future
requirements of IoT-based technologies. Fog computing which is an extension
of the Cloud Computing paradigm offers such advancements. It is decentralized
computing infrastructure that uses edge devises to carry out sizeable amount of
computation, data storage, and application locally and routed over the Internet
(Jukan et al. 2019; Bo and Wang 2011).
Another challenge for IoT-based system is the network layer. Normally wireless
communication systems are preferred over wired base data transfer system in
various agricultural deployments. It is well established that environment condition
has considerable influence on wireless link quality. Environment condition can
decrease wireless link quality through the multi-path propagation effects and its
contribution to background noise (Wang et al. 2017). In the real world, performance
of popular transceivers has been found to be influenced by temperature, humidity,
and presence of human and other obstacles within the space where a wireless node
attempts to communicate. Thus, there is need for robust and reliable data transfer
technologies that can work accurately according to the requirements and challenges
of the rural environment.
Security concerns are another challenge commonly faced by IoT-based system.
The safe IoT-based system transfer data through interconnected Internet that can
ensure the security, legitimacy, confidentiality, and privacy of the stakeholders
involved in this group. A well-protected IoT-based system guard data present in
perception layer, network layer, and application layer from external attacks. It
ensures that only approved entities can access and alter data in the application layer.
IoT security requires to fulfill three primary requirements, namely, authentication,
confidentiality, and access control.
The first layer, that is, perception layer often faces most common security breach.
This layer requires security not only for the acquired information but also physical
security for the hardware components. In case of agriculture, the physical security
of hardware components is quite important, since the devices are deployed in open
fields and work continually without proper surveillance for long periods under
diverse environmental condition. Very often a single security protocol may not
be effective in providing protection to all devices as they are deployed in diverse
environments and distributed nature of IoT.
RFID commonly used in IoT has security concern related to leakage of infor-
mation. Information leakage from RFID may reveal the location identity and other
similar sensitive data. RFID security has been achieved by several countermeasures
like data encryption, use of blocker tags, and tag frequency modification. Jamming
of tags and tag destruction policy which enables physical ending of a tag’s life
has also been used as countermeasures. Security of sensor can be achieved through
several policies like cryptographic algorithms, identity authentication mechanisms,
1682 A. K. Singh

data flow control policies, and data filtering mechanisms (Li et al. 2012). This
layer is also threatened by wiretapping, tampering, cheating, and replay attacks.
Therefore, data acquisition and key management protocols must be guaranteed
with authenticity, confidentiality, and data integrity. Secure routing policies must
be adopted and sensor node verification policies must be controlled to prevent data
access by unauthorized things.
Middleware layer of IoT also has specific security requirements. This layer
is positioned between the perception and application layers and is accountable
for data processing. Middleware layer enables communication interface between
network and application layers. Confidentiality and secure data storage are primary
security requirement of middle layer. Data transmissions through wireless medium
often offer security challenges to IoT system. IoT systems are easily exposed to
threat, such as denial of service attacks, virus attack, man-in-the-middle attacks, and
unauthorized access. These security threats often target and affect privacy and data
integrity of network layer. Security threats of middleware layer can be overcome by
authentication, intrusion detection, key management, and negotiation mechanisms
(Demesticha et al. 2020; Farooq et al. 2019).
Application layer is the top layer in the IoT system. Enormous amount of data
streams end up in this layer, thus requiring improved storage and computational
resources. Often the application layer is so closely related with the cloud and thus
security threats of application layer are similar to the security issues of the cloud
itself. Application layer experiences threats for data security, privacy, backup, and
recovery. Secured application layer must have mechanisms to manage the rights
and ownership of data. It must also control the access rights to all, or part of the
information, both for users and between machines, or even organizations (Farooq
et al. 2019).

Conclusions

The agriculture sector has undergone several important changes during last few
decades. These changes have transformed traditional agriculture sector into a new
smart agriculture. The fourth revolution in agriculture has transformed traditional
farming approaches by introducing ICT technologies. The use of contemporary
software and hardware technologies like WSNs, IoT, UAVs, cloud computing, and
machine learning has enabled development of smart agriculture. These technologies
have potential to further enhance crop yield, improve harvest quality, reduce cost of
production, and lessen the ecological footprint of traditional farming. Smart farming
technologies have aided farmers to practice modern process by monitoring crops
even at a per plant level.
IoT is expected to optimize the agriculture process by many means. Recent
advances in IoT-based open-field and protected cultivation has paved pathway to
move farming from precision to a micro-precision model of agricultural production.
Precise monitoring, pervasive computing, and proper agriculture decision support
system are bound to provide the optimal growing or living conditions for both crops
65 Smart Farming: Applications of IoT in Agriculture 1683

and animals. Automation of agriculture systems will allow optimization of service

and resource usage as well as control the crop production in harmony to the market
condition. This approach is bounded to maximize the profit and minimize the cost
of production in every possible way.
In a real world, IoT-based agriculture system employ diverse equipment, with
different technical specifications and sensor features. Data coming from vast
heterogeneous sources can be used to optimize agriculture decision support system
or expert system only after making it interpretational, filtration, and the semantic
annotation of the data.
Food supply chains and agriculture logistics system armed with WSN and RFID
equipment can allow monitoring of product at each stage of its life thus imparting
feeling of safety for consumer, through a transparent product lifecycle information
system. All the abovementioned approaches are the optimistic advances of the IoT-
based agriculture system. However, in this perception, several individual players
have to participate in accord. Foremost, the local networks systems have to be
protected against interference from other unwanted networks.
Undoubtedly, IoT-based agricultural technologies have tremendous potential to
serve future human demand in sustainable manner. However, still lots of issues
need to be addressed before IoT-based agricultural technologies become imperative
part of farming and affordable for every farmer. IoT-based agricultural technologies
along with robotics and artificial intelligence algorithms are about to bring about
fifth revolution in agriculture.

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Some Important Websites

http://www.easyfarm.com/
http://www.mbeguchoice.com/
https://edinburghsensors.com/industries/agriculture/
https://farmlogs.com/
https://www.eip-water.eu/projects/opiris-online-precise-irrigation-scheduling-algorithm
https://www.farmtrx.com/
https://www.farmx.co/
https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/smart-agriculture-market-239736790.html;
https://www.cropx.com/
https://www.onfarm.com/

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