1.1.

Soil horizons
A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in many cases by
obvious physical features, mainly color and texture. Soils often contain horizons with distinctive
properties. These are indicators of a soil’s ability to carry out important functions in natural and
engineered systems.

Fig. The six soil horizons

1.1.1. Diagnostic soil horizons

A diagnostic horizon is a soil layer containing a combination of characteristics typical of that kind of soil.
These characteristics may be of structure, origin. Diagnostic horizons are identified based on visual and
textural properties as well as chemical and mineralogical features shown below:

 Color: shown in the soil (black, brown, white etc.)

 Base saturation: the balance between acid and base cations adsorbed by the cation exchange
complex (CEC) of a soil (the total capacity of a soil to hold exchangeable cations that influences
the soil's ability to hold onto essential nutrients).

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 (absorption involves the mass transfer of particles into another material (one substance
absorbing another), adsorption takes place with the adhesion of particles onto the surface of a
substance)

 Base saturation describes the percentage of available exchange sites occupied by base cations:
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+ Base cations are those that are strong bases when in the form of a
hydroxide solid (e.g., NaOH). Soil materials (organic matter, clay minerals) have cation
exchange sites on the surfaces of these materials have a negative charge. Positively charged
ions (cations) bind to these sites. A cation on an exchange site (X) can be swapped for a cation
in solution.

X-Na + K+ = X-K + Na+

Base cations are also called non-acid cations. Acid cations (e.g., Al3+, Fe3+, H+) produce acid (H+) in
water.

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 Cation exchange capacity (CEC): is the mount of exchangeable cations (in terms of charge) per
mass of soil or soil mineral measured by centimoles (centimoles =0.01 moles or millimoles
=0.001) of charge per kilogram of soil or mineral (cmolc/kg). Amounts of specific cations soils
can hold depend on their charge. If CEC = 30 cmolc/kg, then a soil can hold 30 cmol Na+/kg, 15
cmol Ca2+/kg, 10 cmol Al3+/kg

 Texture: a feel of a soil on hand

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Fig. Textute

 pH or potential of hydrogen (soil reaction): is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is
measured in pH units defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. From
pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more
alkaline or basic.

 Clay minerology: the scientific discipline concerned with all aspects of clay minerals, including
their properties, composition, classification, crystal structure, and occurrence and distribution in
nature.

1.2. Soil taxonomy (classification)

According to FAO soil classification is the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties (chemical,
physical and biological) into units that can be geo-referenced and mapped. Soils are an overly complex
natural resource, much more so than air and water. Moreover, the number of physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics and their combinations are nearly endless. No wonder then that many different
approaches have been proposed to come to a sensible grouping of different soils. Also soil
classification systems were developed for different purposes such as:

 Soil Taxonomy to interpret soil surveys.

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  The FAO Legend for representing the global distribution and geography of soils.

 World Reference Base for Soil Resources WRB to facilitate correlations between different soil
classification systems.

Fig. Categories in soil taxonomy

Systems of soil classification

The two principal systems of soil classification in use today are:

 The soil order system of the US soil taxonomy and

 Soil group system (the World Reference Base for Soil Resources

The World Reference Base (WRB) is the international standard for soil classification system
endorsed by the International Union of Soil Sciences. A Iot was developed by an international
collaboration coordinated by the International union for soil sciences (IUSS) working Group. It
replaced the FAO/UNESCO Legend for the Soil Map of the World as international standard. The
WRB borrows heavily from modern soil classification concepts, including Soil Taxonomy, the legend
for the FAO Soil Map of the World 1988, the Référentiel Pédologique and Russian concepts.

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Three different stages to illustrate the development of soil classification systems.

 Early soil classification systems (Russian, USDA 1938): It focused on the environment and the
soil forming factors to classify soils in zonal soils (in which the pedogenesis was mainly
determined by climate and vegetation) and azonal and intrazonal (in which pedogenesis was
mainly determined by parent material and time of development). The difference between azonal
and intrazonal soils was made based on soil profile development. A later development focused
on the processes occurring in the soil itself (such as salinization, leaching and accumulation).
These processes were roughly characterized by soil properties. A good example of the latter
approach is the French classification system (CPCS, 1967).

 Modern soil classification: started with the publication of the 7th Approximation of the USDA Soil
Taxonomy, where precisely defined and quantified soil properties as such, or in combination,
were used to define “diagnostic soil horizons”.

 Postmodern soil classification approaches: it makes extensive use of statistics and fuzziness
and include numerical soil classification systems (developed by among others: Webster,
Fitzpatrick and McBratney).

 Classification of soil into types

 Soil can either be cohesive or granular. Cohesive soil contains fine particles and enough clay so
that the soil will stick to itself. The more cohesive the soil, the more clay it has, and the less
likely a cave-in will happen. Granular soils are made of coarse particles, such as sand or gravel.
This type of soil will not stick to itself. The less cohesive the soil, the greater the measures
needed to prevent a cave-in.

Soil classification according to soil type

Soil Characteristic Example
type
A cohesive (kushikamana) with a high unconfined compressive strength (1.5 Clay, silty clay,
tons per square foot (0.3meter). sandy clay,
and clay loam.
B cohesive (kushikamana) and has often cracked or disturbed, with pieces angular gravel,
that don't stick together as in type A (medium unconfined compressive silt, silt loam,
strength between 0.5 and 1.5 tons per square foot (0.3meter)
C The least stable type of soil whose particles don't stick together and have gravel and
low unconfined compressive strength; 0.5 tons per square foot (0.3meter) sand
or less

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Soil classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
percent of
soil group abbreviation defining characteristics name derivation Earth's land
area
an do (Japanese:
Andosol AN volcanic ejects 0.88
"dark soil")
arena (Latin:
Arenosol AR sands 7.17
Soils defined by "sand")
parent material histos (Greek:
Histosol HS organic matter 2.51
"tissue")
vertere (Latin: "to
Vertisol VR swelling clays 2.67
turn")
fluvius (Latin:
Fluvisol FL alluvial lowlands 2.79
"river")
gley (Russian:
Gleysol GL waterlogged lowlands 5.74
Soils defined by "mucky soil mass")
topography leptos (Greek:
Leptosol LP eroded uplands 13.19
"thin")
rhegos (Greek:
Regosol RG climate-limited, thin soil 2.07
"blanket")
Soils defined by Calcisol CL calcium carbonate accumulation calix (Latin: "lime") 6.38
climate, gypsum (Latin:
organisms, and Gypsisol GY gypsum accumulation 0.72
"calcium sulfate")
time sol chak (Russian:
Solonchak SC salt accumulation 2.55
"salty area")
sol etz (Russian:
Solonetz SN sodium accumulation 1.08
"strongly salty")
durum (Latin:
Durisol DU silica accumulation —
"hard")
chern zemlja
Chernozem CH cold steppe environment (Russian: "black 1.83
earth")
umbra (Latin:
Umbrisol UM cool, wet steppe environment 0.80
"shade")
castanea zemlja
Kastanozem KS warm, dry steppe environment (Latin-Russian: 3.71
"chestnut earth")
phaios zemlja
Phaeozem PH warm, wet steppe environment (Greek-Russian: 1.51
"dusky earth")
acer (Latin: "strong
Acrisol AC seasonally dry humid tropics 7.97
acid")
humid subtropical and warm alumen (Latin:
Alisol AL 0.80
temperate areas "aluminum")
ferrum alumen
extensively weathered; humid
Ferralsol FR (Latin: "iron- 5.98
tropics
aluminum")
lixivia (Latin:
Lixisol LX driest humid tropics 3.47
"washing")
Nitisol NT extensive clay migration; tropics nitidus (Latin: 1.59
"shiny")

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Soil classification system of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
percent of
soil group abbreviation defining characteristics name derivation Earth's land
area
plinthos (Greek:
Plinthosol PT fluctuating water table; plinthite 0.48
"brick")
clay accumulation; distinct luere (Latin: "to
Luvisol LV 5.18
seasons wash")
Planosol PL clayey horizon planus (Latin: "flat") 1.04
accumulation of iron and pod zola (Russian:
Podzol PZ 3.87
aluminum oxides and humus "under ash")
cold temperate area; bleached albus (Latin:
Albeluvisol AB 2.55
horizon over clayey horizon "white")
alternate freezing and thawing;
waterlogged during thaw; kryros (Greek:
Cryosol CR —
permafrost within 1 metre (3 feet) "cold")
of the land surface
anthropos (Greek:
Anthrosol AT extensive human modification 0.004
"man")
cambiare (Latin: "to
Cambisol CM little soil formation; recent 11.96
change")

Table: U.S. soil taxonomy

soil order defining characteristics name derivation percent of
Earth's land
area*
Alfisol moderate leaching; B horizon enriched in clay; humid forest Pedalfer (C.F. 9.77
vegetation Marbut)
Andisol volcanic-ash parent material an do (Japanese: 0.73
"dark soil")
Aridisol hot, dry climate; weak B horizon aridus (Latin: "dry") 18.53
Entisol little or no horizonation or swelling clay recent 10.61
Gelisol permafrost within 2 metres (approximately 6 feet) of the land gelid (Greek: "very —
surface cold")
Histosol organic parent material histos (Greek: 1.84
"tissue")
Inceptisol little or no B horizon development inceptum (Latin: 21.80
"beginning")
Mollisol thick, soft, black A horizon mollis (Latin: "soft") 5.99
Oxisol hot, humid climate; B horizon enriched in iron and aluminum oxide (French) 7.00
oxides and kaolinite
Spodosol cool, humid climate; B horizon enriched in iron and aluminum spodos (Greek: 3.45

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Table: U.S. soil taxonomy
soil order defining characteristics name derivation percent of
Earth's land
area*
oxides and organic matter; sandy parent material "wood ashes")

Ultisol warm, humid climate; B horizon enriched in clay; extensive ultimus (Latin: "last") 8.12
leaching
Vertisol little or no horizonation; high content of swelling clay vertere (Latin: "to 2.23
turn")

Fig. Soil classification according to WRB

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Alfisols: Moderately leached soils with a clay-rich Andisols: Dominated by short-range-order
B-horizon typically found in forests minerals. Form in volcanic ash

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Aridisols: Dry and often saline soils. Form in arid Entisols: Little or no evidence of pedogenesis
regions Often sandy or shallow

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Gelisols: Contain permafrost. Found in arctic and Histosols: Dominantly organic soil material, no
high alpine regions permafrost, Wetlands, bogs, marshes

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Inceptisols: Soils with altered horizons but no Mollisols: Dark surface layer rich in base cations
accumulations. Young soils, still developing. Found in grasslands

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Oxisols: Highly leached soils with iron and Spodosols: Accumulation of Fe/Al and OM below
aluminum oxides. Found in tropical regions leached horizonFound in coniferous forests

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Ultisols: Highly leached soils with a clay-rich B- Vertisols: High content of swelling clay; deep
horizon. Found in warm, humid regions cracks when dry Shrink-swell behavior

1.2.1. Standard sieves and mesh size

Sieve (mesh strainer or sift) is a device for separating wanted elements from unwanted material or for
characterizing the particle size distribution of a sample, typically using a woven screen such as a mesh
or net or metal.

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Fig. Sieving and its uses
Table. Standard sieves for particle Size Conversion
Standard Mesh Inches
8.00 mm 5/16 in. 0.312
6.73 mm 0.265 in. 0.265
6.35 mm 1/4 in. 0.250

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 Fig. An overview of a sieve

Mesh Size (number of holes)

Mesh Size is defined as the number of openings in one square inch of a screen. Since the size of
screen (one square inch) is constant, the higher the mesh number the smaller the screen opening and
the smaller the particle that will pass through.

To measure mesh size carefully mark the sieve for 1 inch using a permanent marker and scale.
Measurement should be started from the center of the wire to make it more accurate. Count the number
the holes in this area. The number of holes in one linear inch is known as the mesh.

Practical assignment

1. Find soil types available at Sumait campus and pack them and suggest types

2. Percentage of soil and water

3. Planters to check best soil for crop production

4. Sieving to know the percentage of soft and gravel

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