NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

- study that deals with the changes occurring within the atomic nuclei opposed to traditional
chemistry, which involves changes to electronic structures of atoms.

Nucleus  Radioisotope dating or carbon

- contain protons and neutrons and dating - uses isotopes in determining
particles collectively called as the ages of bodies or objects.
nucleons.
 Stable Nuclei - lighter elements with Radioactive Decay Series
approximately equal numbers of  Decay series or Disintegration
protons and neutrons (with the ratio of series - A parent nuclide can undergo
neutron to proton of 1) series of decay that leads to the
 Stable Heavier Nuclei – contains formation of a stable nuclide daughter
more neutrons than protons ` Detection of Radiation
o Increase in atomic  Ionization counter - detects
number/protons = more excess radioactive emissions by ionizing the
neutrons required in = ratio gas which produces free electrons with
increases until approximately gaseous cations that are attracted to
1.5 neutron/proton ratio. the electrodes thereby producing
electric current.
 - largest stable nuclei
 Scintillation counter - detects
(nuclei/atomic no larger than this is
radioactive emissions due to their
radioactive)
ability to excite atoms causing them to
 Magic numbers (has nuclear stability
emit light.
& larger number of stable isotopes) -
 Wilson Cloud Chamber - device use
2, 8, 20, 28, 50 and 82
to detect paths of ionizing particles
Half Life
from radioactive decay (when ionizing
- time required for half the sample of a
particles passes through air, ions are
nuclei to decay. The remaining number
produces with the path of radiation)
of nuclei is halved after each half-life
 Geiger-Mṻller counter - device used
- not dependent on the number of
to detect and measuring ionizing
nuclei and is inversely proportional to
radiation/all types of radiation: alpha,
the decay constant.
beta and gamma radiation (consists of
Radiocarbon Dating
a pair of electrodes surrounded by a
gas, usually He or Ar, with high
voltage electrodes across them)
Nuclear Transmutation - massive and highly charged
- induced conversion of the nucleus of which can interact with matter
one element into the nucleus of most strongly
another element and is achieved by - penetrate so little that a piece
high-energy bombardment of a nuclei of paper, light clothing or even
using a particle accelerator the outer layer of skin can stop
or α radiation.
 Particle Accelerators - invented - If ingested, α radiation can
beginning in the 1930s to impart high cause grave localized internal
kinetic energies to particles in an damaged through extensive
electric field in combination with a ionization.
magnetic field.
 Linear Accelerator - series of
separated tubes of increasing length
which, through the source of  Beta particles (ß-) and positron
alternating voltage, change their (ß+)
charge from positive to negative - they have less charge and much
synchronizing with the movement of less mass that they interact less
the particle through them. strong with matter.
 Cyclotron - have less chance of causing
- invented in 1930 by E. O. ionization but have more
Lawrence destructive external source
- employs linear accelerator because they penetrate deeper.
principle but uses - Only a specialized heavy
electromagnets giving the clothing or a piece of metal with
particle a spiral path to save 0.50cm thickness can stop
space. these particles.
- uses the synchronously  Gamma rays, γ
increasing magnetic field - they are neutral, massless that
making the path of a particle interact least with matter but
circular instead of spiral. penetrate most.
Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter - requires several inches of lead
- cation and electron pairs formed block to stop them.
during ionization process is directly - can ionize many layers of living
proportional to the energy of ionizing tissue.
radiation Radioisotopes Tracer
 Background Radiation – natural - used to study reaction pathways, track
ionizing radiation physiological functions, trace material
 Ionizing Radiation – alters bonds flow, identify components of a
DNA which allows species to evolve, substance from a very small sample,
but could be harmful as well and diagnose a wide variety of
 Rem (roentgen equivalent for medical conditions.
man) - unit of dosage of radiation  Reaction pathways (tracers can be
which is equivalent to a given amount used to understand simple and
of damage to tissue in human. complex reaction pathways)
Penetrating Power of Particles Inorganic systems: periodate-iodide
 Alpha particles, α reaction
Biochemical pathways: photosynthesis
 Material Flow - used for studying
solid surfaces and flow of materials.
  Activation Analysis (Neutron - used in forensic analysis for
Activation Analysis (NAA)) detecting traces of ammunition
- bombarding neutrons on a non on a suspect’s hands or traces
radioactive sample where a of arsenic in the victim’s hair
small fraction of its atom to due to poisoning.
radioisotopes, exhibiting
characteristic patterns of
decays such as γ-ray spectra
revealing the presence of the
elements.
 Medical Diagnosis minutes to a few days (ex.
- Specific organs and other body radioisotopes to assess thyroid
parts are observed employing function)
tracers with half-lives of a few

Other Applications of Ionizing Radiation  Green chemistry - seeks to

 Radiation therapy reduce potential pollution at its
 Destruction of microbes source.
 Insect control Earth’s Atmosphere
Nuclear Fusion - 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
- process by which two very light nuclei and 1% argon, with small
of elements are fused or combined to amounts of additional gases
give heavier nuclei releasing energy including water vapor and
 Binding energy - energy required to carbon dioxide.
pull the nucleons of a nucleus apart. - minor components are the
major contributors to
 Thermonuclear Reactions – very
phenomena like weather,
high temperature required for fusion
the greenhouse effect, and
reaction
global warming.
 Plasma - state of matter, a highly - Temperature and pressure
dense, extremely hot gas consisting of decreases as altitude
cations and electrons increases
Nuclear Fission  Carbon dioxide - help trap
- process by which heavy nuclei split additional heat being radiating
into two nuclei of intermediate mass off the planet.
or a radioactive decay process in  Layers of atmosphere classified
which a nucleus of an atom splits into by temperature as altitude
two smaller, lighter nuclei of roughly increases (1995 Nobel Prize in
equal mass. Chemistry 1995 by atmospheric
- Form of elemental transmutation as it scientists P. Crutzen, M. Molina
can be induced by projectiles and F. S. Rowland)
o Ionosphere (Aurora) or
CHEMISTRY FOR THE ENVIRONMENT Thermosphere
 Environmental chemistry - full of electrically
- scientific study of the charged ions
chemical and biochemical - temperature increases
phenomena/process that from 200 K at 100 km
occur in natural places to 500 K at 300 km,
(water, air, terrestrial and temperature goes
living environments) and the even higher as the
effects of human activity on altitude increases
them. o Mesosphere
 - temperature - temperature increases
decreases as the as the altitude
altitude increase (100 increase (10 km to 50
- 50 km) km)
o Stratosphere o Troposphere
- contains an ozone - contains most water
layer (responsible for vapor (closest to the
absorption of UV light) surface)
that results from the - where all weather
reaction of ionizing takes place
solar radiation with - where we live in
oxygen gas. - region of rising and
- Planes typically flies falling packets of air
here. - contains only 8% of
- Air flow is horizontal the total ozone in the
atmosphere
o Tropopause – layer after  Nitrogen oxides - production
the troposphere of NO in the internal
o Neutral Thermosphere combustion engine.
– before the ionosphere  Methane gas - treatments of
and exosphere large amount of waste.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) -  Sulfur oxides - mining
damaged ozone, resulting in a operation, combustion of sulfur
hole in the ozone layer. containing fuel, causes acid
 Ozone rain)
- measured in Dobson Unit  Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) -
(DU), named after G.M.B. gases used as refrigerant,
Dobson, cause the ozone concentration
- One Dobson Unit (DU) is to decrease.
defined to be 0.01 mm  Water vapor - also considered
thickness of ozone at STP a greenhouse gas, but it is also
- 100 DU is 1 mm thick. generated by nature
Gases that are pollutants in the continuously due to radiation
atmosphere due to human activities from the Sun. Condensation of
 Carbon dioxide - excess water vapor causes storms and
burning of carbon-containing many of the weather
fuel. phenomena.
 Carbon monoxide - produced
by automobiles (odorless and UV (Ultra Violet)
colorless gas, very toxic) - in the electromagnetic
 Ozone radiation spectrum, it the
- exhaust of internal region beyond the violet
combustion engine, and the (wavelength ~ 400
variation of ozone nanometer nm) invisible to
concentration in the eye
stratosphere. - wavelength is shorter than
- Despite being beneficial gas 400 nm.
in the atmosphere, it is a  The visible portion of the
pollutant because as electromagnetic spectrum is the
decomposition of ozone narrow region with wavelengths
releases O, OOH, OH radicals between about 400 and 700 nm.
and they are harmful to  Three regions:
many living organisms. o UV A, wavelength = 400
- 320 nm (needed by
 humans for the synthesis - DuPont used a number
of vitamin-D, too much system to distinguish their
causes health risks like product based on three
photoaging-toughening digits. The digits are related
of skin) to the molecular formulas.
o UV B, wavelength = 320 o First digit - number of
- 280 nm carbon atoms minus 1.
o UV C, wavelength = < o Second digit - number
280 nm (most energetic) of hydrogen atoms plus
- Ozone strongly absorbs UV B 1.
and C, but the absorption o Third digit - number of
decreases as the wavelength fluorine atoms.
increases to 320 nm.  Tetrafluoroethylene resin
- Very little UV C reaches the - discovered by chemist Roy J.
Earth surface due to ozone Plunkett while researching
absorption. refrigerants at DuPont
Chlorofluorohydrocarbons (CFCs) - extremely heat-tolerant and
- made up of carbon, stick-resistant. After ten
hydrogen, fluorine, and years of research, Teflon was
chlorine. introduced in 1949.

 James Lovelock (1973)

- demonstrated that all the CFCs produced up to that time have not been
destroyed, but spread globally throughout the troposphere.
 Mario J. Molina (1973)
- published an article in Nature describing the ozone depletion by CFCs.
Atmospheric Chemistry - chemicals combine with each other in chemical
reactions, making new and different chemicals
 Greenhouse gases - gases that trap the heat from sunlight in our atmosphere
(Carbon dioxide and methane)
Chemicals in the troposphere, and some of the chemical reactions that happen in the
air:
Chemic For Role in Tropospheric Chemistry
al mu
la
Carbon - kind of greenhouse gas.
CO2
dioxide - used during photosynthesis to make food.
Carbon - also produced when things burn,
monoxid CO
e
- chemicals made up of hydrogen and carbon
Hydroca Cx
atoms.
rbons Oy
- help to make smog
Methan CH4 - kind of greenhouse gas.
e
Nitrogen N2 - About 4/5ths of the air T
- a kind of pollution.
Nitrogen NO & - produced when nitrogen ix mixed with oxygen
Oxides NO2 - produced by burning fuels like gasoline in air
- help to make smog.
Nitric HN - part of acid rain.
 - forms when nitrogen oxides mix with water
Acid O3
droplets in the air.
O2 - 1/5th of the gas in the atmosphere is oxygen.
Oxygen
& - Ozone is a special kind of oxygen that has three
& Ozone
O3 atoms instead of two.

C2
PAN(Per - kind of air pollution.
H3
oxyacyt - forms when nitrogen dioxide, oxygen, and Volatile
O5
yl Organic Compounds (VOCs) get together.
N
nitrate)
 Smog - mixture of smoke and fog. Hydrosphere
 Photochemical smog - kind of air - total water system surrounding the
pollution. planet.
 Photodissociation - when a photon - includes freshwater systems,
of sunlight breaks apart a molecule. oceans, atmosphere vapour, and
 Sulfur Oxides (SO2 & SO3) biological waters.
- Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide - Arctic, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific
are types of pollution. oceans (total volume of 1.35x109
- Produced when we burn coal and km3) cover 71% of the Earth
oil.
surface, and contain 97% of all
 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) - made when
water. Less than 1% is fresh water,
sulfur dioxide gas mixes with water
and 2-3 % is ice caps and glaciers.
droplets (in acid rain).
- The Antarctic Ice Sheet, almost the
size of North America continent,
cover 3.35x108 km2.
Hydrospheric Processes impermeable material such
- steps by which water cycles as boulder and clay.
on the planet Earth. Hard Water
- include sublimation of ice, - Water containing calcium,
evaporation of liquid, magnesium ions and their counter
transportation of moisture anions Hard waters need to be
by air, rain, snow, river, lake, treated for the following
and ocean currents. applications.
 Hydrology  The solubility increases as the pH
- study of hydrospheric decrease (increase acidity).
processes  Temporary Hard Water
- study of how solids and - water containing Ca2+, Mg2+ and
solute interact in, and with, CO32- ions
water. - hardness can be removed by
 Groundwater - water in the boiling.
rocks, moves slowly. - has to be softened before it enters
 Aquifier - body of rock that the boiler, hot-water tank, or a
contains appreciable quantities cooling system.
of water, o Temporary hardness - The
 Water table amount of metal ions that can
- below, the aquifier is filled be removed by boiling
(or saturated) with water o Permanent Hardness -
- above is the unsaturated amount of metal ions that can
zone not be removed by boiling
- Some regions have two or o Total hardness - sum of
more water tables, usually temporary hardness and
separated by water- permanent hardness.
 o Hardness - often expressed as  Zeolites - group of hydrated
equivalence of amount of crystalline aluminosilicates
calcium ions in the solution. found in certain volcanic rocks.
Lime-soda softening Reverse Osmosis water
- removal of temporary purification process
hardness by adding a - simple and straightforward
calculated amount of water filtration process.
hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2 - accomplished by water
- amount of Ca(OH)3 required pressure pushing tap water
is equivalent to the through a semipermeable
temporary hardness plus the membrane to remove
magnesium hardness. impurities from water.
- amount of sodium carbonate - dissolved inorganic solids
required is equivalent to the (such as salts) are removed
permanent hardness. from a solution (such as
- effective if both the water).
temporary and total Desalination
hardness have been - process by which excess
determined. salts and minerals from
 Complexation Treatment water are removed (or) the
- Addition of complexing reagent to chemical process of
form soluble complexes with Ca2+ changing seawater into
and Mg2+ prevents the formation of potable water.
solid. - may be used for municipal,
Ion Exchange industrial or any commercial
uses.
- half of the collected water
will end up as fresh water.

 Reverse Osmosis (part of - Briny discharge is often a

desalination process) – modern source of precious minerals
membrane technology that and elements like salt and
produces least amount of brine, uranium.
more cost and energy effective  Thermal desalination – sucks
 two streams of water obtained: in seawater, heats it up to a
o Treated potable fresh vapor and then pushes the
water that has less remaining brine back out to
amounts of salt and sea.
minerals(treated water or
product water)  Impingement
o Concentrate or brine - intake screen where marine life like
that has salt and mineral fish and crabs can get sucked in
concentrations higher - occurs when the through-screen
than that of original feed velocity is so high that crabs and
water or saltwater. fish are unable to move away when
 Highly concentrated brine caught
- remaining half of the  Entrainment - smaller organisms like
desalination process fish eggs and plankton getting sucked
containing a mixture of toxic in and killed,
chemicals.
- Can be deadly to marine life.
  Subsurface intake process - - If combined with water and
extracting water from beneath air, it forms sulfuric acid,
the ocean floor instead of on which is the main
top, where sand can act as a component of acid rain.
natural filter to protect marine - affects the respiratory
life system and irritate the eyes.
 EPA – Environmental Protection  Sulfur Analyzer – device used for
Agency measuring Sulfur Dioxide
 more than 200 million Dissolved Oxygen
kilowatt-hours of energy per - necessary for good water quality.
day – worldwide desalination - aerobic bacteria consume to
plans consume oxidize organic materials meeting
 3 - 10 kilowatthours per their energy requirements.
cubic meter – plants that  Dissolved oxygen analysis -
utilize reverse osmosis measures the amount of gaseous
 Forward osmosis oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous
- uses a solution of salt and solution (performed on site and
gases to create a pressure immediately).
difference.  Gas bubble disease
- can lengthen the lifespan of
- disease gained by fish in waters
reverse osmosis membranes
containing excessive dissolved
and reduce the need for
gases (above 110%)
disinfectants during
treatment. - bubbles or emboli block the
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) flow of blood through blood
- colorless gas with a sharp, vessels causing death.
irritating odor.  Biodegradable materials -
- produced by erupting organic materials that rae
volcanoes, burning fossil oxidized by bacteria.
fuels and by the smelting of These bacteria need dissolved
mineral ores that contain oxygen.
sulfur.

 Chemical Oxygen Demand - measures the amount of

(COD) oxygen consumed by
- measure of water and microorganisms in
wastewater quality. decomposing organic matter
- amount of oxygen consumed in stream water.
to chemically oxidize organic - measures the chemical
water contaminants to oxidation of inorganic matter
inorganic end products - directly affects the amount
- measured using a strong of dissolved oxygen in rivers
oxidant under acidic and streams.
conditions. - greater the BOD, the more
- expressed in mg/L, which rapidly oxygen is depleted in
indicates the mass of the stream.
oxygen consumed per liter Table 11.3. BOD vs
of solution. BOD is the amount of oxygen COD is the
Biochemical oxygen consumed by bacteria while for the oxid
demand, or BOD decomposing organic matter under matter in w
aerobic conditions.
 Biological oxidation process.  Smog
Chemical oxidation - byproduct of modern
process.
Determined by incubating a sealed industrialization.
Determined by incubating a
water under specific temperature Primary
closed water sample pollutants
with a - volatile
sample for 5 days and measuring the organic compounds
strong oxidant like potassium as a result of
industrial processes
loss of oxygen from the beginning of dichromate in combination with
 Secondary pollutants - created
the test. boiling sulfuric acidthe
through under a
reaction of primary
specific temperature for a
pollutants with ultraviolet light.
specified
 period.
Five days to take the Can be taken for Environmental
a few days. Chemistry
examination. - focuses on the effects of
Permissible limit is 30mg/L polluting
Permissible chemicals
limit is 250 to 500on ppmnature
Value is lower than COD Green chemistry
Always greater than the BOD value.
value. (sustainable chemistry)
Capable of oxidizing waste of any area
Capable of- degrading ofindustrial
chemistry and
kind in the water. sewage, but doeschemical
not measure engineering
oxygen consumption ofon
focused the design of
acetate.
products and processes that
Carbon Monoxide (CO) minimize the use and
- colorless, odorless gas that can be generation of hazardous
harmful when inhaled in large substances.
amounts. - focuses on technological
- released when something is approaches to preventing
burned. pollution and reducing
- high concentration of CO reduces consumption of
the amount of oxygen that can be nonrenewable resources.
transported in the blood stream to - uses renewable raw
critical organs like the heart and materials, proper disposal,
brain. eliminating waste and
 Angina - short-term exposure to avoiding the use of toxic and
elevated CO may result in reduced hazardous reagents and
oxygen to the heart accompanied by solvents
chest pain - takes into account the
Photochemical smog environmental impact and
- Composed of primary and seeks to prevent or lessen
secondary pollutants that impact through several
- type of air pollution due to key principles outlined below.
the reaction of solar
radiation with airborne
pollutant mixtures of
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
volatile organic compounds
(hydrocarbons).
12 key principles of green - move from a “quantity of waste per
chemistry as formulated by quantity of product” principle
P.T. Anastas and J.C. Warner, in toward a principle addressing the
Green Chemistry: Theory and “quantity of waste generated per
Practice, 1998. function provided by the product.”
1. Prevention 2. Maximize “atom economy”
- minimize the generation of - Design synthetic methods to
hazardous waste as an important maximize incorporation of all
step toward pollution prevention. material used into final product.
o Atom economy
 - concept developed to in a fundamental change in
evaluate the efficacy the structure of processes,
of chemical used technologies, and the
conversions on an economical concepts of
element-by-element industry and society. .
basis 8. Reduce Derivatives
- maximize the - designed in such a way to
integration of all reduce the use of additional
materials used in the reagents and the resulting
process into the final wastes.
product, resulting in a - synthesize a derivative of a
number of wasted compound containing groups
atoms as low as which are not needed in the
possible. final product, but which
3. Less Hazard allow the synthesis or
- Design less hazardous chemical purification steps to proceed
synthesis. more easily.
4. Safer Chemicals - derivatives result in lower
- Design safer chemicals and atom economy, since they
products. introduce atoms that are not
- achieve their desired incorporated into the final
function with at the same product, but finally end up
time minimizing their as waste; this is in conflict
toxicity. with the atom efficiency
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries principle
- promotes the use of safer 9. Catalysis
solvents and auxiliaries. - chemical reaction enabled
- Includes any substances that or accelerated by a catalyst.
do not directly contribute to - microwave-driven chemical
the structure of the reaction reaction for organic
product but are still chemistry is an emerging
necessary for the chemical field to drastically reduce
reaction or process to occur. reaction times from days to
6. Design for Energy Efficiency only seconds
- choosing the most suitable o Catalysts - substances
technologies and unit that speed up a reaction
operations has to go in by enabling an
parallel with selecting proper energetically favored
energy sources. transition state between
- minimization of energy loss reactants, but which are
7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks not consumed by it and
- represents a real option to do not appear in the net
prepare functional reaction equation.
bioproducts in a sustainable 10. Design for Degradation
way and to contribute to - maximizing the production
energetic transition. with minimizing unwanted
- a switch in feedstock by-products.
provision, however, results
11. Real-time Analysis for Pollution - designing better
Prevention manufacturing processes for
- Less hazardous materials in chemical materials with
chemical formulations and minimum waste production
reducing waste formation by real-time monitoring of
running processes.
12. Inherently safer chemistry for - safe chemistry can also be
accident prevention carried out in flow mode,
- avoid highly reactive using tubular microreactors
chemicals that could with reaction channels of
potentially cause accidents tiny diameter.
during the reaction.