CHAPTER 2

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES TO ASSESS LEARNER’S PERFORMANCE

Assessment is an integral part and ongoing process in the educational context. It is the means
by which teachers and other stakeholders involved in students’ learning collect information
systematically and then use it to know their level of achievement in academic, behavioral and social
areas. To learn effectively, students need to know as to how they are performing. Similarly, to be an
effective teacher, they must be informed about what the student knows, feels, and can do, so that they
can help them in building their skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Therefore, continuous feedback helps
to plan appropriate learning activities and to make adjustments to those already planned.

Purpose of Assessment and Evaluation

 To assist in student learning

 To identify students’ strengths and weaknesses
 To assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy
 To assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programmes
 To assess and improve teaching effectiveness
 To communicate with and involve parents and guardians in their children’s learning

Various techniques are adopted for assessing students’ performance. Choice of evaluation
techniques should be aligned with the learning objectives. Effective assessment is a continuous process
and it is not simply that has to be done at the end of a Unit. Evaluation is thus integrated into all aspects
of the curriculum, thus providing both students and teachers useful and relevant data to gauge their
progress.

The major techniques involved in the process of assessment and evaluation are

 Observation
 Projects
 Assignments
 Worksheet
Techniques of Assessment
 Practical work
 Seminars and reports
 Interview
 Self-reporting
Observation

 It refers to inspection of the overt behaviour of a person in appropriate situations.

 It concerns with perception of an individual’s behaviour by the other individuals and the
interpretation and analysis of this perceived behavior by them.
 Observation must be specific, systematic, quantitative and recorded immediately.
 Observation is used as a technique to evaluate various aspects of behaviour in controlled or
uncontrolled situations.
 It is a means of first hand information as experienced at a specific moment.
 It is pre-planned and purposeful activity that provides immediate recording of events.
 With the help of observation checklists, teachers could record information quickly.
 The reliability of observation can be increased by repeated observation or through observation done
by many individuals.

Criteria to be observed

 Inform students about the criteria to be observed

 Determine the specific outcomes to assess
 Develop a data gathering system such as checklist or rubric or anecdotal points
 Target observation on one or two specific outcomes
 Record the date of observation
 Share observation details with individuals or target groups
 Use the collected information to modify your instruction

Types of Observation

 Participant Observation
 Non - Participant Observation
 Controlled Observation
 Uncontrolled Observation

Merits

• This method can be used with children of all ages.

• It does not require any special tool or equipment.
• It is both adaptable both to the individuals and groups.

Demerits

• There is great scope for personal prejudices and bias of the observer.
• Records may not be written with hundred percent accuracy as the observation is recorded after the
actions of the observed.
• It reveals the overt behaviour only and not that is within.

Assignments

 Assignments are teacher-assigned task that students are expected to complete during or after the
school hours and enable to assess students’ understanding.
 Class-appropriate assignments may be chosen for students.
 Eg: For Primary class students hands-on-activities are more preferable than paper-and-
pencil assignments.
 The time required for assignments should be set based on the age of the children.
 In comprehensive project as an assignment, consider breaking it into manageable sections with due
dates.
 Assignments should motivate the students and should be able to assess students’ perspective, their
interest, learning levels, progress in learning, their understanding and critical thinking

Types of Assignments: Assignments can be given to the students in the following types depending
on the cognitive level of the students

 Essays
 Oral presentations
 Projects
 Case studies
 Lab tasks
 Group presentation
Merits:
• Easier to construct and less time consuming than exams
• Promotes higher order thinking
• Transfer and generalisation of the learned material

Demerits:

• Requires additional resources and facilities

• May require class time (Group presentation)
• Consumes more time on grading
• Less effective for introductory level
Project Work

 Project work allows students to think beyond the limits of classroom and develop among them
various skills, behaviours, inquisitiveness and confidence.
 Providing learning environments that allows students to question, analyze, evaluate leads them to
higher-order thinking.
 Assesses the skills of collaboration, problem-solving, decision making, and communication.
 As a teacher or prospective teacher, can assess work quality and understanding of students
throughout the project-building process.
 According to traditional historiography, the project idea is a genuine product of the American
Progressive education movement. The idea was thought to have originally been introduced in 1908
as a new method of teaching agriculture, but educator William H. Kilpatrick elaborated the concept
and popularized it worldwide in his famous article, "The Project Method" (1918).

Rubrics for assessment

• Criteria related with learners’ engagement in a real-world task

• Criteria to assess group work
• Assess students’ use of higher-order thinking and problem solving skills
• Evaluate the students’ progress throughout the task

Merits:

• It provides the growth of individual through activity

• It helps the students to think scientifically and logically before starting the project
• It helps to know the individual differences
• It provides more creative constructive thinking of the students
• It keeps the student on freedom of thoughts, and action while doing the work
• It arouses and maintains interest of student
• Group project develops team spirit and cooperation
• It helps student to evaluate and judge his finish work

Demerits

• Costly and non availability of suitable things

• Over consumption of time
• Wrong selection of topic
• Misconception of term project.
Worksheets

 A worksheet is a sheet of paper with questions for students and places to record answers.
 A specially prepared sheet, pamphlet, or booklet containing data of assistance in planning and
accomplishing some piece of work.
 Sheet of paper on which printed exercise and problems are to be solved by a student.
 There are few ways that should apply when using a worksheet in class - that makes them less
disruptive and more productive. The worksheet: -
 Should never be longer than a page.
 Should be between 5 & 15 questions.
 Should be timed and all students should start and stop at the same time.
 Should be associated with a grade.

MERITS

• Saves time
• Organize displays of information
• Increase motivation to work.

DEMERITS

• Susceptible to trivial human errors

• Difficult to test
• Not designed for collaborative work
• Hard to consolidate
• Incapable of supporting quick decision making.

Seminars and Reports

 Seminar is an activity where the social skills of students can be enhanced.

 It can be done individually or in group.
 The goal of the group may be predetermined by the facilitator or decide by the individual or the
group collaboratively.
 seminar as an assessment tool can be done at three phases:
 pre-seminar stage
 seminar stage
 post seminar stage
 The facilitator’s assessment indicators may consist of the following:
• Understanding of concept
• Critical thinking and reasoning
 • Ability to build new knowledge
• Self-confidence and self-discipline
• Presentation style

Seminar report

Seminar report is used as a self assessment tool or as a group assessment tool. While doing self
assessment, a student examines the feedback given by others and how his/her paper could be improved
for the next time.

• Assessment indicators:
o Clarity of presentation
o Accuracy of report writing
o Organization of the report
o Analysis of team work (if the reports are made in group)
o Generation of new ideas

Interview

 It is a data-collection encounter between two or more people where questions are asked by a person
(interviewer) to obtain information from another person (interviewee).
 It is a face-to-face or long distance (eg.telephone interview) discussion between two or more people
to collect information and the opinions of the people being interviewed about certain topics or
events.
 Interviewing is considered as an interpersonal encounter.
 Establishing rapport is an important element in interviewing.
 Keeping impartiality to the responses given by the interviewee is important otherwise it leads to
bias responses.
 Both verbal and non verbal observation can be made
 Structured Interview
 Unstructured Interview

Functions

• To identify the areas of difficulty and gaps in understanding a concept among students
• To understand how students are able to apply their knowledge in new situations
• To examine how students’ understanding change with teaching-learning process
• To obtain verbal feedback about teaching techniques, new concepts, etc.
• Through the feedback received from students, you may be able to refine your teaching along
with assessing the understanding level of students.
Merits:

• Interview provides opportunity to collect firsthand information thereby ensuring the

authenticity of the data collected.
• It provides the interviewer with an opportunity to observe certain aspects of the respondents’
behaviour.
• It can be made flexible depending on the need of the situation.

Demerits:

• Dominant behaviour of the interviewer may cause tension and nervousness and subsequent
blockage of free response from the interviewee.
• Since it is face- to- face situation, shy persons may hide many facts about their personal life
that they may otherwise willing to disclose.
• It is not free from personal bias and prejudice of the interviewer.

Self-reporting techniques

 Data gathering tools where respondents provide information about themselves.

 Various self-reporting techniques: interview, diaries, questionnaire, reflective journal, etc.
 Assess various traits or attitudes possessed by the individuals.
 Though these are subjective techniques, they provide means for extracting the hidden treasure of
one’s own behaviours and patterns of personality

Merits:

• Participants can be asked about their feelings and cognitions (i.e. thoughts), which can be more
useful than simply observing behaviour alone.
• Scenarios can be asked about hypothetically without having to physically set them up and
observe participants’ behaviour.

Demerits:

• Gathering information about thoughts or feelings is only useful if participants are willing to
disclose them to the experimenter.
• Participants may try to give the ‘correct’ responses they think researchers are looking for (or
deliberately do the opposite), or try to come across in most socially acceptable way (i.e. social
desirability bias), which can lead to giving untruthful responses.
Tools of Assessment

A tool may be defined as a device or technique that will facilitate the process of measuring and
recording the characteristics of pupils. Tools of evaluation are sophisticated techniques of appraisal
intelligently designed to measure what is required to be measured.

 Tests
 Checklists
 Rating Scale
 Questionnaire
Tools of Assessment
 Inventory
 Schedules
 Cumulative Records
 Anecdotal Records

Tests

Tests may be of different forms, such as psychological test used to measure mental and behavioural
traits, achievement test to assess performances of students, etc. They can be used to assess both the
scholastic and co-scholastic abilities of the students.

A test is an instrument or systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behaviour

(Gronlund, 1990).

A psychological test is defined as a standardized, repeatable procedures used to elicit and

measure samples of human behaviour (Kazdin, 2000).

The meaning of a test can be thus summarised as:

 Human abilities, including intelligence, aptitudes, skills, and achievement in various areas
 Personality characteristics, which include traits, attitudes, interests, and values
 Adjustment and mental health, which involves detecting signs and symptoms of psychological and
neurological disorders and appraising the effectiveness of psychological functioning.

a. Paper Pencil Test: The paper pencil tests comprise a standard set of questions which are presented
to the student in writing on paper or Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) sheets that requires completion
of cognitive tasks in the form of response by the student on those papers by pencil/pen mark. These
responses or answers are summarized/scored to obtain a numerical value that represents a characteristic
of the student for which the test was administered. The paper pencil tests can focus on what the student
knows (achievement), is able to learn (ability or aptitude), chooses or selects (interests, attitudes or
values), or is able to do (skill). These paper pencil tests are easy to administer and score. They are
economic and have standard questions which provide uniform procedure for all the students. These tests
provide standard scores to the teachers.

b. Oral Test: Oral tests are those tests in which the response, solution or the task requires oral response
to answer the question. Teachers’ conversation with the students for the purpose of assessment,
component of viva-voce examination for completion of a course, etc. can be called oral test. Oral tests
have proved most valuable when used with students having language disabilities, the illiterates, shy
feeling and the young children. Actually, the oral tests rely on the students’ oral performance to display
their cognitive capabilities. Oral testing is particularly important in language classes because spoken
language plays an important role to express oneself. Oral tests focus on students’ ability to communicate
with what they know and how they articulate the things. Since spoken language is creative and flexible,
students may find that oral testing gives them opportunities to self correct, ask for clarification and use
language creatively. The oral test is also having its own limitations as hardly it measures the skill of
writing of the students. Conducting an oral test is also time consuming method, especially when it
involves in-depth questioning. Oral test can be used as one of the components of overall assessment of
the performance of the students.

c. Aptitude Test: An aptitude test is also an instrument used to determine and measure an individual’s
ability and skills to acquire, through future training. Aptitude tests may be classified into two groups:
multiple aptitude test, and special aptitude tests. Multiple aptitude tests are those which intend to
measure various areas of aptitude (musical, mechanical, etc.) each by independent sub-tests whereas
the special aptitude tests measure only one specific aptitude like teaching, musical, etc. The multiple
aptitude tests measure abilities of students in more than one area simultaneously by using different
sections of a test while the special aptitude tests measure ability of the students in one area. Aptitude
tests are used to predict the future performance of the students.

d. Achievement Test: Achievement tests are administered on students to measure their learning
outcomes. These tests are more prevalent in schools. These tests show as to what has been learned by
the students, rather than to predict future performance as in the case of aptitude tests. There are teacher
made and standardized achievement tests.

The achievement tests can be used for following purposes: to know the learning progress of the students.

 Checking any weakness in the instruction

 In formulation of learning objectives and provide an easy means of critical
 Examination of the content and the methods of teaching
 Adapting the instruction to the need of the individual learner
  To know the effectiveness of any academic programme

e. Diagnostic – Remedial Test: The achievement tests which are used to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of the students are called diagnostic tests. The primary purpose of the test is to identify the
problems faced by the students in achieving the learning objectives and to suggest remedial measures
for them. Such tests are available in various areas of study, such as in language, mathematics, science,
etc. Diagnostic remedial test is specifically required in case the teacher observes certain learning
difficulties in the students. Those tests which are devised to diagnose learning difficulties are considered
as remedial tests. In most of the cases the remedial tests are subjective and individual oriented. If the
problem is widespread among the group of students in a class or a region then the group remedial test
can be used.

f. Intelligence Test: The term ‘intelligence’ is difficult to define in a single sentence acceptable to all.
But intelligence can be understood as a general set of mental traits, which is often reported as the mental
abilities. Intelligence tests are used to provide a very general measure, usually reporting a global test
score. It can be classified on various backgrounds.

On the basis of administration it can be classified into two categories:

a) Individual tests: Individual intelligence test is one which can be administered on one person at
a time. The first individual intelligence test was the Binet-Simon scale (1904). Individual test
requires a highly skilled and experienced test administrator because he/she has to give exact
instructions to the students in different sections and sub-sections of the test.
b) Group tests: The group intelligence test is one which can be administered to more than one
person at a time, that is, it can be administered on a group. The Army Alpha Test, 1917 (Verbal)
and Army Beta Test (non-language) were the first group intelligence tests. They are generally
used in educational setting for adolescents and adults.

On the basis of the nature of items it can be classified into two categories

a) Verbal tests: the instructions and items are presented to the student in written language
b) Non-verbal tests: items are given in the form of figures, charts, diagrams, etc.

Checklist

 A checklist is a simple device consisting of a prepared list of items relevant to the problem being
studied.
 A systematic and quick way to gather data of the relevant factors and take actions accordingly
 After each item a space is provided for the observer to indicate the presence or absence of the item
by checking ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or appropriate word or number.
 It is noteworthy that the responses collected on the checklist are as a matter of fact not any judgment

Relevance in education……

 It is a good tool in gathering facts for educational survey, checking your school library, laboratory,
game facilities, school buildings, textbooks, etc.
 It may also be used to check the availability of other facilities in your school.
 Checklists are also applied to classroom instructional activities such as studying the working habits
of students, supervising classroom instructions, teacher –pupil relationships, etc.

Rating Scale

 Important tools widely used in psychology and education.

 It is used for assessing attitudes of students on any situation, idea, object, character, person or an
attribute.
 In a rating scale, the opinions are given in various degrees such as strongly agree, agree, and
disagree; highly satisfied, satisfied, and dissatisfied, etc.
 A rating scale is prepared always in odd number points like 3-point scale, 5-point scale, 7-point
scale, or 9-point scale.
 It is in odd number points because a definite middle measuring point will be possible only when
the scale is odd points.
 The most commonly used categories of rating scales used in the schools are as follows :
• Numerical Scale
• Graphic Scale

Numerical scale

• In this type of rating scale, numbers are assigned in different degrees.

• In a numerical scale a sequence of definite numbers is supplied to an observer. The assigned
numbers against the item carry certain meaning/interpretation.

Graphic Scale

• In this scale, a straight line is shown vertically and horizontally with various clues to help the
rater.
• The line is either segmented into units or continuous.
• If the line is segmented then the number of units can vary from case to case.
Questionnaire

 A questionnaire is a device comprising a series of questions dealing with some psychological,

social, and educational topic(s) given to an individual or a group of individuals, with the object of
obtaining data with regard to some problems under investigation. (Koul, 1997)
 To collect data from a situation, condition or prevailing practice
 The questionnaire can be classified as closed or open ended.
 Closed questionnaires are those where the respondents answer in limited way, like responding
in ‘yes’ or ‘no’; underlining the replied among the predefined responses, putting the sign
‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’.
 Open questionnaires the respondents are free to share, clarify and put their view.
 According to other classification, questionnaire may be Structured or Unstructured.
 Structured questionnaire contains definite, concrete and directed questions
 Non-structured questionnaires are often used as the interview guide which is non-directive.
 It is an important instrument being used to gather information from widely scattered sources and
also used when factual information is desired.

Construction of a questionnaire

The factors to be considered while constructing a questionnaire are:

 Purpose
 Language
 Information level of respondent
 Social acceptance of responses
 Leading questions
 Sequence of questions
 Form or Type of questions
 Length of questionnaire
 Expert opinion
 Try out
 Validation
 Administration
 Analysis and Interpreting

Inventory

 An inventory is constructed in the form of a questionnaire.

 But the inventories are more exhaustive than questionnaire.
 Inventories have been mostly used for measuring personality traits, interests, values and
adjustments i.e. for assessing self-reporting affective domain of behaviour.
 It consists of a series of questions or statements to which the subject responds to by answering ‘Yes’
or ‘No’ or ‘Agree’ or ‘Disagree’
 This can also be answered in some similar ways to indicate preferences or to make those items that
describes the subject’s typical behaviour.
 the statements are put in first person
 For example, “I think I am comparatively more tense than others”.
 In the questionnaire, there is a question in a second person, for example “Do you think you are more
tensed than other persons around you?”

Guidelines for the administration of the Inventory

The teacher should

 Explain printed instructions very clearly to the learners

 Make it clear to the learners’ that the data will be kept confidential
 Remove doubts, if any, regarding the manner of filling the inventory or the questionnaire
 Take all other timely precautions for preparing a state of mind conducive to response.

Interview schedule

 Interview schedule is the tool with the help of which the interview is conducted.
 Interview schedule can be classified according to the purpose for which it is structured and used.
 If it is to resolve the research hypothesis, it is a research interview schedule
 If it is for clinical purpose, it a clinical interview schedule
 On the bases of the structure, the interview schedules are categorized as structured or unstructured
 A structured interview schedule is one in which the procedure to be followed is standardized
and it is determined in advance of the interview. The same types of questions are presented to
the interviewee and the wordings of the instructions to the interviewee are specified
 In the unstructured interview schedule, the series of questions are decided in advance but the
interviewer is largely free to reorganize the questions and timing to attain the objective of the
interview

Observation Schedule

 Observation has been the first practice of assessment in the classroom.

 Observation is the process in which one or more persons observe what is happening in a real-life
situation, and he/she classifies and records pertinent happening according to pre-planned scheme.
 The observation schedules are the enumerations, listing of the facts or other data that are observed
under observation process.
 Classified as:
 Participant and Non-participant Observation
 Structured and Unstructured Observation Schedule

Anecdotal Records

 Every teacher (also parents, friends, relatives, etc.) observes his/her students on the day-to-day basis
and those observations can be formally recorded to his own understanding or to that of others who
will later deal with the students.
 Such reports of a student recorded by informal observations in the form of anecdotes (not only of
present, but past too, that is childhood, nursery and pre-school days, etc.) by parents, siblings,
friends and peer group are called anecdotal records.
 The anecdotal records provide a means for the observation of one’s behaviour.
 A record of events is one dependable data that will remain unchanged from the time it is made until
the time we want to refer to it.
 A set of such records provides stable evidence on which later appraisals can be raised.
 These records serve two purposes.
 To give practice in studying students with a view to develop understanding and increase
sympathetic insight.
 It provides an informal and usually qualitative picture of certain aspects of an individual’s
behaviour.
 Anecdotal records should be factual report of an event in a child’s life reported with adequate details
so that it is a meaningful evidence of his/her behavior.

A good Anecdotal record has the following features

 It provides an accurate description of any event

 It describes a setting sufficiently to give the events meaning
 If it includes interpretations or evaluation by the recorder, this interpretation is separated from
the description and its different status is clearly identified
 The event relates to the child’s personal development or social interactions.

Cumulative Records

 The student’s Cumulative Record is the Compilation of information maintained in the school for
the student.
 It contains factual, objective and professional information regarding a student’s academic progress.
 Characteristics of Cumulative Record
• It is a permanent record about the pupil or student
• It is maintained up to date. Whenever any new information is obtained about the pupil it is entered
in the record
• It presents a complete picture about the educational progress of the pupil , his past achievements
and present standing
• It contains only those information’s which are authentic, reliable, objective and useful
• Confidential information about the pupil is not entered in the record but kept in a separate file.
• It is comprehensive in the sense that it contains all information about the pupil ‘s attendance, test
scores, health etc
• It is continuous in the sense that it contains information about the pupil from the time he enters for
pre school education or kindergarten system till he leaves the school
• Keeping of record is a continuous process and should cover the whole history from pre – school to
the college and this should follow the child from school.
• All the teachers and the guidance workers should have access to these records.
• Records should be based on an objective data.
• It should contain reliable, accurate and objective information.
• Data Contained in the Cumulative Record should be
 Accurate
 Complete
 Comprehensive
 Objective
 Usable
 Valid

Norm referenced and Criterion referenced Tests.

A criterion referenced test evaluates an individual’s performance in a given situation with

respect to specific characteristics expected in the performance. It describes how well the individual does
in relation to the expected goal. The performance of other individuals is not compared with his
performance. For example, when you go to obtain a driving license the authority who gives you the
driving test rates your driving skill against set patterns of behaviour expected of a competent driver,
irrespective of how others who have taken the test have performed. So if you meet the fixed criteria
required for efficient driving you are issued a license.

The norm referenced test, on the other hand, compares the individual's performance with those
of other persons taking the same test. It compares performance differences among individuals with
reference to group norms. The items which are chosen for criterion referenced system, depends on the
level of mastery of the key concepts and skills expected of the students. According to Groundland, the
criterion referenced tests are especially helpful in measuring the achievement levels of minimum
essentials in an instructional programme, while norm referenced tests are most appropriate for
estimating progress toward comparatively higher level and complex learning outcomes when
continuous development is possible. However, Groundland observes that it possible to use criterion and
norm referenced strategies at the same time.

A comparison of Criterion and Norm referenced tests

Criterion referenced tests Norm referenced tests

The main objective is to measure the The main objective is to measure individual
effectiveness of a programme or instruction. differences.
It provides specific information on individual It aims to classify and grade learners in various
levels of performance with respect to objectives categories.
The score of an individual can be interpreted The meaning of any particular score can be
individually. determined only by comparing it to other scores
achieved by students taking the test
The purpose is not to classify and rank learners, It is often used for selection purposes.
but to ensure development.
Test results are used to evaluate student Test results are used for making comparative
performance relative to specific performance decisions regarding individuals.
levels anticipated.
A test constructor is not concerned with It is specifically constructed to maximise the
developing a test to maximise the variability of variability of test scores, as the purpose is
test scores. discrimination of individuals by comparison.

DIAGNOSTIC TEST

A test designed to identify and investigate the difficulties, disabilities, inadequacies and gaps of
pupils in specific curriculum areas with a view to helping them overcome those difficulties through
remedial instruction is called a diagnostic test. Its purpose is to identify the exact nature of the
difficulties and to locate the causes that result in poor achievement. Such use of diagnostic tests becomes
relevant on two occasions:
  Before introducing a new unit: to diagnose the deficiencies concerning pre-requisites for
learning the new material, in the absence of which learning will be quite impossible (pre
diagnostic test)

 After teaching a unit: a test meant for this purpose is a pre-diagnostic test. The second case is
concerned with diagnosis of the difficulties that might be felt after learning the new material
(post diagnostic test)

The function served by a diagnostic test is to identify the difficulties of the pupils in specific areas of
the curriculum before they become serious problems for the learner as well as the teacher. This is done
with a view to helping the learners overcome those difficulties through remedial measures.

Construction of a Diagnostic Test

There are five steps in the construction of a diagnostic test

 Purposeful planning: This aims at identification of learning materials that are known to have
potential difficulties. An experienced teacher can identify such areas by proper analysis. Such
areas will have more weightage in the test.
 Analysis of the learning material concerned: The content should be thoroughly analysed, first
into teaching-points. Each teaching point may include a number of stages. These stages should
be arranged in the sequential order of difficulty as well as logical sequence. This is a very
important step that needs great care and insight. For example, consider the problem-area
addition of two two-digit numbers in the Primary class. Let us see how the stages are logically
and sequentially arranged.
 Writing of test items: Write test items representing all the minute steps arising out of the
analysis. Arrange these items in the order, taking into consideration both sequence of the stage
and difficulty level.
 Division of items into small sections: Sometimes the total number of items will be very large
and so, more time will be required to work out these items. In such cases, items may be divided
into two or three sections to suit the convenience of the learners. The subtests thus obtained
may be administered on different occasions.
 Provision of clear instructions: Very clear instructions should be given as to what the pupil
should do and how. If they find any difficulty with a particular item, they should be directed to
pass on to the next item without wasting time.

Analysis of the result of a Diagnostic Test

The result of a diagnostic test has to be analysed with a view to find out the exact area in which
difficulties exist and to determine What exactly the nature of each difficulty is. This may be done with
respect to the group tested (group diagnosis) as well as for each Individual student (individual
diagnosis). The former is meant to locate difficulties general tor the group while the latter aims at
helping each individual student solve specific difficulties of his own. On the basis of this analysis, the
reason for each difficulty has to be determined. This process is one that requires both competence and
imagination, arising out of experience.

Remedial Teaching

Remedial teaching is the process of instruction that follows immediately after diagnostic testing
and analysis of the result. The teacher has to plan strategies for remedial teaching on the basis of the
nature of the difficulties and the reason behind each. This may be at the group-level or individual-level,
depending on the scope of the diagnosis and the spread of difficulty within the group. Additional
learning experiences appropriate for solving the difficulties identified are to be provided. The nature of
these learning experiences cannot be suggested in a general way. It depends upon the nature of the
difficulty and the causes behind it. By giving successful experiences to the slow learner, the teacher is
taking a great step towards re-building his morale and integrating his personality. By the success in
remedial classes, resistant children become co-operative, apprehensive children become self-confident,
discouraged children becomes hopeful and socially mal -adjusted children becomes acceptable to the
group.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

 Any test designed to assess the achievement in any subject with regard to a set of predetermined
objectives is called an achievement test.
 The major steps involved in the construction of an achievement test are:

1. Planning of the test

2. Preparation of a design for the test

3. Preparation of the blueprint

4. Writing of items

5. Preparation of the scoring key and marking scheme, and

6. Preparation of question-wise analysis.

Planning of the test

• It should be well-planned and systematic.

• Before constructing a good achievement test, the paper setter should think about the following
aspects as a part of his planning.
• the intention with which the test is being given
o anticipated instructional objectives
o Realisation of these objectives.
• to determine the maximum time, maximum marks and the nature of the test

Preparation of a design for the test

 The objectives, content, forms of questions and the difficulty levels of items are the most important
factors to be considered in a design

 Weightage to objectives:

 This indicates what objectives a tested and what weightage has to be given to each objective.
 Should decide the relative importance of each of the objectives applying his knowledge and
experience and in tune with the nature content covered.

 Weightage to content

 This indicates the various aspects of the content to be tested and the weightage to be given to
these different aspects
 Questions covering all the aspects should be included in the design with marks assigned to each
aspect in relation to its importance with the other aspects

 Weightage to form of questions:

 This indicates the forms of the items to be included in the test and the weightage to be given
for each.

 The setter should select those forms of questions that are suitable to the objectives and content
to be tested.

 The weightage to be given to each form of questions should be decided on the basis of the time
needed for answering, difficulty level, objectives tested and the nature of the content involved.

 Weightage to difficulty level:

 Appropriate weightage should be given for different levels of difficulty of the items. The test
should cater to the bright, the average and the dull.
  If all the questions too tough, the dullards will 'weep'. If they are too easy the performance of
bright pupils will be at par with that of the backward. If the questions cater only to the average,
it will not be challenging to the bright.

 In short, the test will not have the power to discriminate the bright, the average and the poor
within the group of examinees.

 Hence the test should contain easy, average and difficult questions.

Preparation of the Blueprint

 Blueprint is prepared as a three dimensional chart indicating the distribution of questions objective
wise, content-wise and form-wise.
 The blueprint gives the frame work for the test and indicates the broad limit within which the test
constructor has to work.
Writing of Items

 The blueprint gives a very clear idea about the number of questions to be written from each topic,
their forms and objectives.
 The difficulty level also has to be considered while writing items. It should also be checked whether
all the questions included can be answered within the time allotted.
 Construction of test items calls for the mastery of the subject matter and technique of constructing
each type of test items.
 If a pool of well prepared items in the form of question bank is available, the constructor can easily
choose the required number of items for the test.
 After writing the preliminary details such as the name of the examination, title of the paper,
maximum marks and time, instruction for answering each part, etc., the setter has to arrange the
questions already written.
 It is advisable to arrange questions in the order their difficulty level. Normally, knowledge-item
will be easier than an understanding item, which in turn may be easier than an application item.

Preparation of the Scoring Key and the Marking Scheme

 In the case of objective type items where the answers are in the form of some letters or other symbols
a scoring key is prepared.

 In the case of short answer and essay type questions, the marking scheme is prepared. In preparing
marking scheme what the examiner has to do is to list out the value points to be credited and then
to fix up the mark to be given to each value point.
 Clearly writing the value points will also help to identify defects, if any, that might have accidently
crept into the test items.

 Usually, general instructions also are given at the end of the scheme of valuation in order to avoid
subjectivity in scoring.

Preparation of Question-Wise Analysis

 The setter prepares a table containing all relevant details of all the items of the test.

 This is done by making an analysis of each item in terms of content, objective, specification, form
of question, difficulty level, marks and estimated time.

 This analysis is very helpful to check whether all the aspects envisaged in the design and blue-print
are satisfied by the test in its final form.

 If some mistake is noticed it should be rectified at this final stage.

Distinction between Diagnostic Test and Achievement Test

Achievement Test Diagnostic Test

Measures how much a student has achieved Measures how much a student has not been able
to achieve and why.
Gives due weightage to objectives, content, form Considers each and every one of these aspects in
of question and difficulty level-all in a general a specialized way - this is done in a critical and
way analytical way.
Gives due weightage to every topic in content Gives greater emphasis to the aspects with
area potential difficulties
Strictly observes the time factor in answering. Not concerned with time factor. This is because
Measures how much can be performed in a fixed it is meant to identify deficiencies and difficulties
duration of time. No extra time is allowed. of learner
Marks scored in achievement tests are very Marks are not normally assigned in diagnostic
important because, grading, ranking and tests, because, grading, ranking and placement
placement are its functions. are not its functions. It aims only at identifying
difficulties.
Construction of an achievement test is Construction of a diagnostic test requires more
Comparatively easy, though the test-constructor imagination, the test-constructor has to analyse
has to prepare a design, blue print, etc. the content, arrange them in the order of their
difficulty, and present each item with clear
instructions.
 However we cannot separate achievement test and diagnostic test into watertight compartments.
Diagnostic charts can be prepared on the basis of the results of a good achievement test. That is why
well-constructed achievement tests are considered to have diagnostic function also.

A comparison of Teacher made and Standardized tests

Teacher made Test Standardized Test

It is meant for a specific small set of students It is meant for a large population of students, say,
handled by the teacher concerned say a class or a of a Country, State, District, etc, belonging to a
school particular standard or stage.
It is meant mostly for value judgement of the It is meant mainly for comparing levels of
level of the attainment and for placement. attainment of groups, with respect to norms for
the area concerned; it can be used for value
judgement and placement also
Teacher's judgement is generally the only Statistical techniques are applied for item
criterion for selection of items to be included in analysis and selection. A pre-test is administrated
a test. on a selected sample and the scores are analysed,
Only those items that possess satisfactory
discriminating power and difficulty value are
accepted.
Validity and reliability are not statistically Validity and reliability of the test are determined
determined. using statistical techniques
Scores obtained by the examinees are used as Various norms are arrived at for the purpose of
such for value judgement and placement comparison of and groups (say for example, age
norms, locale norms, sex norms, percentile
norms, etc.) For this purpose, the final test is
administrated to a large sample representing the
area concerned
There is no restriction is attached to the use of Use of a standardized test is restricted to
such tests. academic purposes only. Everybody is not
permitted to use it as and when they like.
Online Examination

Online examination is a test conducted over the internet also referred to as e-examinations.
Also, it measures the knowledge level of students. Students can give online exams from their own
devices at their own time. The online examination requires an internet connection and a web browser.
Candidates are given limited time to answer the questions and after the time expiry the answer paper is
disabled automatically and the answer is send to the examiner. The examiner will evaluate the answers
either through automated process or manually and the results will be made available in the mail or
website.

Advantages:

• Can be conducted for remote candidates

• Evaluation can be made objective
• Can be conducted at any time
• Less costly than traditional exams

Disadvantages:

• Can’t keep complete check on students

• Chances of misbehaviour

Portfolio Assessment

A portfolio is a systematically organized collection of a student’s work that covers a specific

period of time. It proved to be an excellent vehicle for gathering together student writing and displaying
the changes in the proficiency over a period of time. Portfolio assessment represents a blend of the
instructional process and the evaluation process. it is an ongoing dialogue between teacher and student
and, often, between the individual student and others in the class or between the students and parents.
Components of portfolios will vary depending on the subject that is being taught and preferences of
teachers and students.

Portfolios can contain the following items:

• Completed assignments and Evaluation

• Journal writings
• Reflections on discussions that have been held in or out of class
• Photos, sketches, and other visuals
• Summary statements made at different points regarding what has been
• learned Self-assessment statements
Use of portfolios is consistent with reflective teaching. There is an ongoing dialogue between the
teacher and student that takes the form of written comments about the materials in the portfolios.
Portfolio assessment focuses evaluation of students’ progress, processes, and performance over a period
of time.

Generally there are two basic types of portfolios:

 Process portfolio is used for classroom-level assessment. It reflects both formative and summative
assessments.
 Product portfolio is more summative in nature. It is meant for a majorλ evaluation and is
accompanied by an oral presentation of its contents.

A variety of tasks that elicit planned performance for a variety of purposes are included in both
types of portfolios and demonstrate reflection about learning, including goal setting and assessment.
Portfolios can be used to demonstrate processes and growth in relation to the selected learning
objectives. They can be used to display 21st century skills such as problem-solving, creativity, and
information literacy. It can also reflect strengths and weaknesses, time management skills, and meta-
cognitive abilities. On the point of assessment, a portfolio exhibits the progress of students and provides
teachers, students as well as parents the evidence of learning progress. The overall aim of a portfolio is
to provide evidence about a set of learning objectives mastered by a student. It is a like a personal album
containing various tasks and achievements of a student. It is a symbolic representation of what the
student does know.

Student portfolios promote and support student learning in three ways:

• Students’ is participation in the selection of contents

• Students’ written reflection about learning
• Students’ communication with teachers regarding their reflections

Rubric

A rubric is an assessment tool for the teachers to assess performances of the students in different
areas with fixing certain criteria of assessment. To measure students’ performance based on a pre-
determined set of criteria, a rubric or scoring scale is typically created which contains the essential
criteria for the task and appropriate levels of performance for each criterion.

A rubric comprises two components: criteria (vertical column) and levels of performance
(horizontal column). Any rubric has at least two criteria and at least two levels of performance (which
may be added as per the requirement of the teacher). The criteria for the performance on a task, are
listed in the left hand column in the rubric below (concepts, facts and figures, organization/ presentation
and references) and the performance is marked in three levels poor, average and good. Weightage to
each criteria is also given in the second column

Criteria Weightages Performance

to the
Poor Average Good
criteria
1 2 3
Concepts X2
Facts and figures X3
Organization and Presentation X3
References X1