PIPELINE SECURITY MODELS:

AN EXPLORATIVE REVIEW
Introduction
A pipeline is a system of pipes for long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas, typically to a

market area for consumption. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of slightly less than

2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in 120 countries around the world. The United States

had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 76% of all pipeline were in these three

countries (CIA, 2016). Pipeline and Gas Journal's worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623

miles (190,905 km) of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these, 88,976 miles

(143,193 km) represent projects in the planning and design phase; 29,647 miles (47,712 km)

reflect pipelines in various stages of construction. Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines,

and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline (James, 2014). Pipelines exist

for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels – such as oil, natural gas and biofuels –

and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, beer, hot water or steam for shorter distances.

Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it

needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations of

evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact.

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is moved

through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous

fuels) are pressurized into liquids known as natural gas liquids (NGLs). Natural gas pipelines are

constructed of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of hydrogen

through a pipe. Pipelines are one of the safest ways of transporting materials as compared to road

or rail, and hence in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks (James, 2014). Cross-

country pipelines are comprehensive engineering systems designed to transport hazardous

material in a safe manner from source point to destination. Typically, the system comprises the

following elements:

a. Main Pipeline

This refers to the actual pressurized vessel (pipe) that transfers the hazardous material from one

location to the other. Typically, this is the main component of the pipeline system. It should be

designed, constructed, operated, and maintained/inspected according to applicable codes and

standards/practices to ensure that the pipeline operation is smooth and the risk posed by the

pipeline is managed appropriately. This element of the pipeline is the most expensive, and due to

the fact that the pipeline passes through vast area, it is the segment that requires a lot of attention

to keep the pipeline safe.

b. Metering Stations

In order to determine the amount of fluid flowing in the pipeline, a metering station is used,

which has a flowmeter of some kind suitable for the fluid being pumped in the pipeline.

Typically, metering stations are placed at least at the source and sometimes at the destination as

well. This allows the pipeline operator and its customers to know how much fluid is being

transferred and to perform a material balance for the purpose of identifying if a leak occurs in the

pipeline. Metering stations can cause some pressure loss and have to be accounted for in the

design.

c. Scraping Launcher and Receiver

In order to maintain the integrity of the pipeline and prevent its failure, the pipeline must be

inspected and maintained appropriately. One of the essential techniques to achieve is scraping

the pipeline. Different types of scraping operations are used, the most common of which are the

following:

1. Intelligent scraping used to measure the corrosion rate and whether it com- promised

the pipeline thickness

2. Regular scrapping used to clean the pipeline

The scraper is a piece of equipment that is inserted into the pipeline, through a launching pad

called scraper launcher, when it flows through the pipeline all the way to the end, where it is

collected in the scraper receiver station. The scraper flows along with the fluid and cleans the

pipeline or collects information on pipeline wall thickness, which is used to evaluate the need to

fix pipeline segments that are losing thickness due to corrosion.

According to Mokhatab (2009), Pipeline scraping is an essential part of the pipeline operation

and is conducted at a predetermined frequency to ensure the integrity of the pipeline. Typically,

cleaning scraping is run much more often than intelligent scraping (which also cost more than

cleaning scraping). Useful information is available in open literature on scraping operations and

scraper design. Scraping is also referred to as pigging in many literature and sources, and the

name comes from the shape of the equipment itself. While scraping is a simple concept in theory,

its operation can be risky and complicated. It involves opening the scraper launcher that is

connected to pressurized pipelines and loading the scraper. Then closing the launcher and

sending the scraper to the receiver end where the receiver is opened and the scraper is retrieved.

The launcher and receiver should be isolated before they are opened, and there are safety

mechanisms and procedures to ensure safe operation.

However, taking shortcuts when conducting the operation or the presence of faulty equipment

that gives wrong measurements of pressure can cause serious safety incidents that can lead and

has led to fatalities. Scraping operations shall be conducted by well-trained and adequately

supervised individuals following well-written/clear procedures to reduce the likelihood of these

incidents.

d. Cross Country Pipeline Risk Assessments and Mitigation Strategies

i. Pressure-Boosting Stations

For the fluid inside the pipeline to flow from one location (starting point or source) to other end

(destination), a pressure gradient has to exist. The source has to have pressure high enough to

push the fluid to the destination. While the fluid flows inside the pipeline, pressure loss will

occur due to friction between the fluid and pipe walls as well as other pressure loss elements

such as valves, fittings, and elbows; the pressure at the source should be at or above the pressure

at the destination plus the pressure loss inside the pipeline. For long pipelines, increasing the

pressure at the source to meet this requirement might not be feasible (technically and

economically) due to the increased wall thickness required for the pipeline and size of pressure-

boosting equipment at the source.

The alternative would be to use pressure-boosting stations along the pipeline to boost pressure

when it drops below critical value. This way, the fluid can be transferred for long distances

without excessive pressure increase at the source. Pressure-boosting stations can be pump

stations for liquids or compressor stations for gases.

Determining when to use pressure-boosting stations, how many is needed, and where to locate

them is a complicated decision that depends on many factors including the economy of pipeline
operations versus capital cost of the pipeline and the station equipment, as well the required

pressure profile along the pipeline rate.

2.1.2 Pipelines Design and Operation

Pipelines are designed and operated/maintained for one purpose, which is to transfer hazardous

material from one location (source or production facility) to another location (end user or

consumer stations/facilities). In order to achieve this objective, the pipeline has to be designed

and operated per applicable standards and best practices to ensure that its design is appropriate

and its operation is conducted to keep it running per design conditions (Cordell and Vanzant,

2003). Pipeline design includes selecting/calculating the following parameters:

a. Pipeline Size (Diameter)

This parameter is determined mainly by the amount of material to be transferred through the

pipeline (i.e., flowrate). The higher the flowrate is, the bigger the pipeline size is. Industrial best

practices provide proper guidelines on acceptable flowrates for a given pipeline cross-sectional

area (i.e., velocities) for both gases and liquid fluids. These recommended velocities are a

balance between the size of the pipeline and its operational need. If too low velocities are used,

then larger pipelines will be needed, which increases the cost of construction and causes

operational problems (e.g., accumulation of liquid in low points leading to corrosion problems).

High velocities reduce the size of the pipeline but could cause other problems such as erosion,

damage to pipeline material, and high pressure loss inside the pipeline. So, it is recommended to

follow the applicable standards and best practices to ensure optimum design of the pipeline and

proper selection of its size. Recommended ranges of optimum velocities for different fluids are

available in the literature and could be used for pipeline design as applicable.
 ii. Pipeline Wall Thickness

The thickness of the pipeline walls depends on several factors including the following:

1. The operating pressure and temperature: The higher the pressure and

temperature is, the higher the required wall thickness should be. High pressure

requires higher thickness to ensure that the pipeline does not rupture.

2. Corrosivity of the material and the required corrosion allowance: Highly

corrosive material requires thicker pipeline to ensure that corrosion does not

reduce the thickness to the point where a leak occurs. Note that corrosion

allowance is not always used in cross-country pipelines.

3. Design factor: This is a factor used to increase the wall thickness if the pipeline

carries hazardous material that can impact the public. The wall thickness increases

to ensure safety of the public. Increase in the wall thickness is proportional to the

size of public communities exposed to hazardous materials in case of pipeline

rupture. Note that design factors can also be modified by changing the operating

pressure of the pipeline as well.

4. Material of construction can also affect the pipeline wall thickness as well.

Stronger material (higher grade) can reduce the wall thickness, but the ratio

between the diameter and wall thickness has a limit that it should not exceed.

Wall thickness for pipelines is calculated following international best practices

and standards such as the ASME 31.4 and ASME 31.8.

iii. Pipeline Material Grade

The selection of pipeline material grade depends on the operating and design factors including

the pressure, temperature, and required corrosion resistance. International and industrial best
practices provide detailed specification for the selection of pipeline material. API, ASME,

ASTM, and ANSI standards can be used for this purpose. Economy is a deciding factor as well.

iv. Pipeline External Coating

External coating is used to protect pipelines from external corrosions especially when the

pipeline is buried, where external corrosion can be an issue. Different types of coatings have

different abilities to reduce external pipeline corrosion. The right coating type depends on many

factors including the characteristics of the backfill (i.e., nature of the soil surrounding the buried

pipeline) and the overall corrosion management approach such as the use of cathodic protection.

Certain coatings are more effective than others.

v. Determining Whether Pipeline is to be Buried or Not

Pipelines are typically buried to protect them from external impact and damage. However,

sometimes, burying a pipeline or a segment of it is not an option. For example, when the land or

soil is highly corrosive, it might be better not to bury the pipeline as external corrosion of the

pipeline might be a problem. Also, when pipelines are close to valve stations or

pump/compressor stations (used to boost the pipeline pressure), then pipelines will be placed

aboveground. If the pipeline is expected to require a lot of maintenance and regular work, then

burying it will be impractical. The actual decision to bury a pipeline or not shall be made on a

case-by-case basis and depend on the design intent and operating conditions. Note that the

overwhelming majority of the cross-country pipelines are buried.

vi. Pipeline Route and Design Factor

The route of the pipeline should be selected to optimize the economy and risk/safety of the

pipeline. The route should be chosen to be as short as possible to reduce capital cost invested in
constructing the pipeline. However, sometimes, the shortest pipeline route may not be the best

choice from risk/safety perspective as it could be increasing the risk to the public or the

environment. If the pipeline route passes by large public communities, then the design of the

pipeline shall be adjusted to mitigate the risk posed by the pipeline. One of the most effective

ways to do so is to adjust the design factor of the pipeline to increase its wall thickness. There are

different pipeline classes associated with different population densities around the pipeline route.

Increasing the pipeline class through reducing the pressure inside the pipeline or increasing its

wall thickness can improve the safety and mitigate the risk by reducing the pipeline vulnerability

to corrosion and external damage. These classes are associated with different design factors.

Details on determining the design factor and pipeline class can be found in open literature.

2.1.3 Oil and Natural Gas

It is well documented when the first crude oil pipeline was built. Credit for the development of

pipeline transport belongs indisputably to the Oil Transport Association, which first constructed

a 2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipeline over a 6-mile (9.7 km) track from an oil field in

Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek, in the 1860s. Pipelines are generally the most

economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land.

For example, in 2014, pipeline transport of crude oil cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport

cost about $10 to $15 per barrel. Trucking has even higher costs due to the additional labor

required; employment on completed pipelines represents only "1% of that of the trucking

industry." (US Energy, 2017).

In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline. (23% are

by ship, 4% by truck, and 3% by rail) In Canada for natural gas and petroleum products, 97% are

shipped by pipeline (James, 2014).

Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas

Liquids (NGLs). Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and

propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch (860 kPa), can be shipped by

rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by

the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will convert from a

gas to a liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is

pumped into cars and trucks at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at retail stations. Pipelines and rail

cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi (1,700 kPa).

An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline

The distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of natural-gas processing

plants are located in or near oil fields. Many Bakken Basin oil companies in North Dakota,

Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas fields separate the NGLs in the field, allowing the

drillers to sell propane directly to small wholesalers, eliminating the large refinery control of

product and prices for propane or butane .

According to Ulvestad and Overland (2012), the most recent major pipeline to start operating in

North America is a TransCanada natural gas line going north across the Niagara region bridges.

This gas line carries Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania and other tied in methane or natural

gas sources into the Canadian province of Ontario. It began operations in the fall of 2012,

supplying 16 percent of all the natural gas used in Ontario.

Major Russian gas pipelines to Europe in 2009. Deliveries on some pipelines were disrupted by

or became controversial after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, including the 2022 Russia–

European Union gas dispute.

This new US-supplied natural gas displaces the natural gas formerly shipped to Ontario from

western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, thus dropping the government regulated pipeline

shipping charges because of the significantly shorter distance from gas source to consumer. To

avoid delays and US government regulation, many small, medium and large oil producers in

North Dakota have decided to run an oil pipeline north to Canada to meet up with a Canadian oil

pipeline shipping oil from west to east. This allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil

producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just

one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, in

Williston, North Dakota, is only about 85 miles or 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border and

Manitoba. Mutual funds and joint ventures are the largest investors in new oil and gas pipelines.

In the fall of 2012, the US began exporting propane to Europe, known as LPG, as wholesale

prices there are much higher than in North America. Additionally, a pipeline is currently being

constructed from North Dakota to Illinois, commonly known as the Dakota Access Pipeline.

As more North American pipelines are built, even more exports of LNG, propane, butane, and

other natural gas products occur on all three US coasts. To give insight, North Dakota Bakken

region's oil production has grown by 600% from 2007 to 2015. North Dakota oil companies are

shipping huge amounts of oil by tanker rail car as they can direct the oil to the market that gives

the best price, and rail cars can be used to avoid a congested oil pipeline to get the oil to a

different pipeline in order to get the oil to market faster or to a different less busy oil refinery.

However, pipelines provide a cheaper means to transport by volume.

Enbridge in Canada is applying to reverse an oil pipeline going from east-to-west and expanding

it and using it to ship western Canadian bitumen oil eastward. From a presently rated 250,000

barrels equivalent per day pipeline, it will be expanded to between 1.0 and 1.3 million barrels per
day. It will bring western oil to refineries in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec and

New York by early 2014. New Brunswick will also refine some of this western Canadian crude

and export some crude and refined oil to Europe from its deep water oil ULCC loading port.

Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically

demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by tanker ships. Similarly, it is often more

economically feasible to transport natural gas in the form of LNG, however the break-even point

between LNG and pipelines would depend on the volume of natural gas and the distance it

travels (Ulvestad and Overland, 2012).

2.1.4 Functions of pipelines

In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:

a. Gathering pipelines

Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of

bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing

facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres and with small

diameters. Sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are

also considered gathering systems.

b. Transportation pipelines

Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between

cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several compressor

stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.

c. Distribution pipelines
Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the products to

the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. Pipelines

at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities are included in this groups.

d. Development and planning

When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the civil engineering work to

lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related

to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation. The pipeline is routed

along what is known as a "right of way". Pipelines are generally developed and built using the

following stages:

i. Open season to determine market interest: Potential customers are given the chance to

sign up for part of the new pipeline's capacity rights.

ii. Route (right of way) selection including land acquisition (eminent domain)

iii. Pipeline design: The pipeline project may take a number of forms, including the

construction of a new pipeline, conversion of existing pipeline from one fuel type to

another, or improvements to facilities on a current pipeline route.

iv. Obtaining approval: Once the design is finalized and the first pipeline customers have

purchased their share of capacity, the project must be approved by the relevant

regulatory agencies.

v. Surveying the route

vi. Clearing the route

vii. Trenching – Main Route and Crossings (roads, rail, other pipes, etc.)

viii. Installing the pipe

ix. Installing valves, intersections, etc.

 x. Covering the pipe and trench

xi. Testing: Once construction is completed, the new pipeline is subjected to tests to

ensure its structural integrity. These may include hydrostatic testing and line packing.

2.1.5 Technology/Components

Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move

products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:

a. Initial injection station

Known also as "supply" or "inlet" station, is the beginning of the system, where the product is

injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually located at these

locations.

b. Compressor/pump stations

Pumps for liquid pipelines and compressors for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move

the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of

the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.

c. Partial delivery station

Known also as "intermediate stations", these facilities allow the pipeline operator to deliver part

of the product being transported.

d. Block valve station

These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any

segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are

usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it
is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations

depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline

and/or the operational conditions of the line.

e. Regulator station

This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure from

the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.

f. Final delivery station

Known also as "outlet" stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed to the

consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a distribution

network for gas pipelines.

2.1.6 Pipelines Life-Cycle Management

Proper risk management means that the pipeline safety and integrity should consider a life-cycle

management approach. This means that safety and risk mitigation should be part of the entire life

cycle of the pipeline from design all the way to decommissioning, including construction,

maintenance, and operation. Throughout these different phases, all activities and aspects should

be conducted according to acceptable industry best practices and governing regulations. The

following are examples of how to achieve that:

i. Design stage: proper design is essential to maintain safety and reduce risk of the pipeline.

The following points should be observed:

ii. Adequate sizing of the pipeline will help reduce erosion, corrosion, and potential pressure

surge. An oversized pipeline will increase corrosion, and undersized pipeline will
 increase erosion. Both compromise the integrity and can damage the pipeline leading to

failure and hazardous incidents.

iii. Proper wall thickness of the pipeline will protect the pipeline against external impact

from activities near the pipeline and against corrosion as well.

iv. Proper selection of the pipeline material will help control corrosion. The use of wrong

material can expedite corrosion and lead to pipeline failure.

v. Construction/commissioning stage: incorrect construction activities such as installation,

welding activities, and incorrect application of coatings can cause damage to the pipeline

that will compromise its integrity and cause operational problems and lead to hazardous

events/incidents. Also, choosing the route that reduces exposure to public

facilities/communities and sensitive environment will reduce the risk posed by the

pipeline.

vi. Operation and maintenance: this phase constitutes the main part of the pipeline life cycle.

A lot of attention is paid to this stage for controlling the pipeline risk. Following proper

operations, maintenance, and inspection practices will ensure adequate risk management

and pipeline integrity.

vii. Decommissioning stage: once the pipeline is no longer needed, the proper

decommissioning activities will ensure that the hazard is removed and the pipeline no

longer poses any risk.

a. Geopolitical Perspective

Pipelines that are constructed to transfer hazardous material across international boundaries

represent a unique situation, where the geopolitical environment could be a significant factor in
determining the mode and continuity of operation. Most of these pipelines are constructed to

transfer oil and gas from producing countries to consuming markets/countries. Typically, the

pipelines are constructed based on international (bilateral or multilateral) agreements between

the countries where these pipelines run and operate. The impact of geopolitics on these

agreements and arrangements can be high. Political tension could also affect operation continuity

as has been seen in several cases in recent years.

There are several pipelines connecting Asia with Europe or running through North America, for

example. In all cases, constructing/running international pipelines not only can enhance

cooperation between nations but also can bring some tension between others.

b. Implementation

Pipelines are generally laid underground because temperature is less variable. Because pipelines

are usually metal, this helps to reduce the expansion and shrinkage that can occur with weather

changes (Saxon, 2016). However, in some cases it is necessary to cross a valley or a river on a

pipeline bridge. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often laid on the ground or

overhead. Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska-Pipeline are

often run overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would

result in sinking the pipeline in the ground.

c. Maintenance

Maintenance of pipelines includes checking cathodic protection levels for the proper range,

surveillance for construction, erosion, or leaks by foot, land vehicle, boat, or air, and running

cleaning pigs, when there is anything carried in the pipeline that is corrosive

d. Regulation
An underground petroleum pipeline running through a park In the US, onshore and offshore

pipelines used to transport oil and gas are regulated by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials

Safety Administration (PHMSA). Certain offshore pipelines used to produce oil and gas are

regulated by the Minerals Management Service (MMS). In Canada, pipelines are regulated by

either the provincial regulators or, if they cross provincial boundaries or the Canada–US border,

by the National Energy Board (NEB). Government regulations in Canada and the United States

require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from corrosion. Often, the most economical

method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline coating in conjunction with cathodic protection

and technology to monitor the pipeline. Above ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The

coating is the only external protection.

e. Pipelines and geopolitics

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Pipelines for major energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) are not merely an element of

trade. They connect to issues of geopolitics and international security as well, and the

construction, placement, and control of oil and gas pipelines often figure prominently in state

interests and actions. A notable example of pipeline politics occurred at the beginning of the year

2009, wherein a dispute between Russia and Ukraine ostensibly over pricing led to a major

political crisis. Russian state-owned gas company Gazprom cut off natural gas supplies to

Ukraine after talks between it and the Ukrainian government fell through. In addition to cutting

off supplies to Ukraine, Russian gas flowing through Ukraine—which included nearly all

supplies to Southeastern Europe and some supplies to Central and Western Europe—was cut off,
creating a major crisis in several countries heavily dependent on Russian gas as fuel. Russia was

accused of using the dispute as leverage in its attempt to keep other powers, and particularly the

European Union, from interfering in its "near abroad".

Models in Pipeline Survey (Oil Pipeline Security Models)

There are many models used in surveying pipeline. Example are:

1. Layered Security Model

- Physical barriers (fencing, walls)

- Surveillance (cameras, sensors)

- Access control (biometrics, RFID)

- Cybersecurity (firewalls, encryption)

- Intrusion detection systems

2. Risk-Based Security Model

- Threat assessment

- Vulnerability analysis

- Risk mitigation

- Risk prioritization

- Resource allocation

3. Intelligence-Led Security Model

- Data collection and analysis

- Threat intelligence

- Predictive analytics

- Incident response planning

- Continuous monitoring
4. Compliance-Based Security Model

- Regulatory compliance

- Industry standards (API, ASME)

- Audits and inspections

- Certification and accreditation

- Compliance training

5. Resilience-Based Security Model

- Business continuity planning

- Incident response

- Recovery strategies

- Crisis management

- Emergency response planning

Technologies for Oil Pipeline Security

1. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems

- Remote monitoring and control

- Real-time data analysis

- Automated alerts and notifications

- System integration

2. Cybersecurity solutions

- Firewalls

- Encryption

- Intrusion detection and prevention

- Anti-virus software
- Secure communication protocols

3. Surveillance cameras and sensors

- Motion detectors

- Pressure sensors

- Temperature sensors

- Acoustic sensors

- Video analytics

4. Access control systems

- Biometrics (facial recognition, fingerprint)

- RFID (radio-frequency identification)

- Smart cards

- Secure authentication

- Access control lists

5. Drones and aerial monitoring

- Visual inspection

- Thermal imaging

- Leak detection

- Right-of-way monitoring

- Environmental monitoring

Best Practices for Oil Pipeline Security

1. Conduct regular risk assessments

- Identify potential threats

- Evaluate vulnerability
- Prioritize risks

- Develop mitigation strategies

2. Implement robust access control measures

- Secure authentication

- Access control lists

- Biometric identification

- Secure communication protocols

3. Monitor and analyze SCADA data

- Real-time monitoring

- Data analytics

- Automated alerts

- Incident response planning

4. Train personnel on security protocols

- Security awareness training

- Incident response training

- Emergency response training

- Compliance training

5. Collaborate with stakeholders and law enforcement

- Information sharing

- Intelligence gathering

- Joint exercises and training

- Incident response coordination

Challenges and Future Directions

1. Integration of emerging technologies

- AI-powered threat detection

- IoT-based pipeline monitoring

- Blockchain-based secure communication

- Cloud-based security solutions

2. Addressing insider threats and human factor risks

- Background checks

- Personnel screening

- Security awareness training

- Incident response planning

3. Enhancing cybersecurity for connected systems

- Secure communication protocols

- Encryption

- Firewalls

- Intrusion detection and prevention

4. Developing resilient and adaptable security frameworks

- Business continuity planning

- Incident response

- Recovery strategies

- Crisis management
Real-World Examples

1. Colonial Pipeline's cybersecurity incident (2021)

- Ransomware attack

- Pipeline shutdown

- Economic impact

- Lessons learned

2. Keystone Pipeline's spill detection system (2020)

- Advanced sensors

- Real-time monitoring

- Automated alerts

- Incident response planning

Research Opportunities

1. AI-powered threat detection and response

- Machine learning algorithms

- Anomaly detection

- Predictive analytics

- Automated incident response

2. IoT-based pipeline monitoring systems

- Sensor integration

- Real-time data analysis

- Automated alerts

- Edge computing
Other Example where authors used this model

Different authors have actually worked on different model to be adopted in pipeline system, the

few mention are stated below:

Sela et al. (2016) worked on optimal sensor placement for detection on failures on water

pipelines. They used a preliminary method of approximate solution of the minimum set cover

problem based on the Minimum Test Cover (MTC) approach. A novel approach based on an

augmented greedy MTC-based algorithm was proposed. Conducted test on a water network

shows that the algorithm is about three to eight times faster than the other approach. In their

other work, Lina et al. (2018) proposed a robust sensor placement in a pipeline network using

robust greedy approximation (RGA) and robust mixed integer optimisation (RMIO). Both

propositions served as an enhancement of the nominal GA and MIO using a robustness and

redundancy parameter. In most of their simulation conducted on a water pipeline network, MIO

and RMIO outperformed the compared versions, i.e. the robust sub-modular function

optimisation (RSFO), MIO and GA. Both works are based on the assumption that a single sensor

is able to detect failures in multiple pipelines, making them susceptible to SPOFs. Berry et al.,

(2006) is also based on mixed integer programming (MIP) for sensor placements. Results

analysis using EPANET, SNL-1, and SNL-2 showed average consensus within the range of

86.5% to 100% with a maximum standard deviation of 1.3%.

On the other hand, Krause et al. (2008) also worked on robust sensor placement for water

networks to avoid intrusions. However, they optimised sensor placement using the minimax

criteria instead of MIP. Experimental results include the extension of multi-criterion

optimisation, and efficient placement for large networks, i.e. up to 91% of the maximum

placement score achievable.

Sarrate et al. (2012) studied the impact of sensor accuracy based on infrastructural analysis using

the isolabilty index. Application on leakage detection in water networks shows that fault

detection is improved and removes the complexity of mesh connectivity in an extensive network.

Boubrima et al. (2015) in their work for optimal deployment of sensors ensured minimal cost for

air pollution monitoring. Two approaches based on integer programming formulation using real

air pollution dispersion were proposed, i.e. a basic model and an enhanced model (an extension

of the basic model). Both formulations aimed at finding minimum deployment cost solutions

through the combination of network coverage, air pollution dispersion and connectivity

constraints in a centralised manner. Experimental results showed a considerable reduction in

cost.

Guo et al. (2010) proposed a sensor placement on an oil pipeline to address the sensors’ lifetime.

They achieved this by taking into account the maximum transmission range of each sensor node.

As a result, the distance between the sensors is measured by the length of the pipeline divided by

the maximum transmission range of the sensors. The lowest number of sensors are deployed

based on their communication range. This approach to sensor placement may significantly

increase the impact of event detection if any of the intermediary nodes fail by putting the

neighbouring nodes out of reach.

Elnaggar et al. (2015) worked on sensor placement in a WSN network for oil pipeline monitoring

to reduce the impact of energy consumption using ant colony optimisation and genetic algorithm.

The simulations conducted on a linear pipeline segment indicate that the ant colony optimisation

outperformed the genetic and greedy algorithm in terms of the communication level. However,

both approaches show similar behaviour in terms of WSN lifetime optimisation with constraints.
Also based on sensor placement in a linear pipeline is the work of Al Baseer et al. (2019). They

proposed sensor deployment and grouping based on an adaptive clustering algorithm for

intermediate data delivery aimed at reducing energy consumption. Simulation results evaluation

shows a significant energy reduction between 300% to over 500% through load sharing

mechanism among the cluster heads and up to 62% better than heuristics approaches. Further

evaluation using experimental studies shows that their approach conserves energy up to 50%

more than the compared scheme.

Li et al. (2017) proposed a generic sensor placement for sensor network optimisation utilising

retransmission and discrete power control for single and double-tier uniformly and non-

uniformly distributed WSNs. In the next subsections, we discuss existing work on pipeline

monitoring using WSN. Recent approaches to pipeline monitoring are taking advantage of the

advent of WSN and IoT-based solutions. The following works present various approaches to its

application for pipeline monitoring and challenges.

Yelmarthi et al. (2016) proposed a four-layered low-power IoT applications architectural

framework from the sensor layer to cloud servers. It comprised easily implementable wired and

WSN, with minimal resources for multiple applications. Its applicability in diverse applications

and low power consumption were experimentally demonstrated in damage detection, analysis of

posture and physical activities. Khan et al. (2008) also proposed a three-layered IoT architecture

for all the sectors of the OGI. In each layer, they considered reliability and robustness through a

hierarchical design. In this structure, interconnection and collaboration enable performance

enhancement through reliable communication and intelligent decision-making while allowing

predictive maintenance.
Sadeghioon et al. (2018) proposed a novel algorithm for detecting leakages in underground

pipelines through the measurement of relative pressure and temperature obtained from a WSN.

In a test conducted, the detection algorithm showed high accuracy in leak detection and

sensitivity compared to other threshold-based methods.

Also on leak detection is another work of Sadeghioon et al. (2014). This research presented a

comparative pressure method based on force-sensitive resistors for ultra-low power wireless

sensor networks. Experiments to test this technique were conducted in the laboratory and fields

where the leakage was simulated and detected.

Saeed et al. (2014), on the other hand, worked on a reliable WSN-based system for monitoring

oil and gas pipeline that spans over a long distance (REMONG). REMONG specifically focused

on how data is sensed and communicated over a sizeable geographical area aimed at reducing

energy consumption. A preliminary test for the energy consumed in the communication test

showed promising results.

Yunana et al. (2017) presented a comparative analysis of techniques for monitoring pipeline

vandalism. Several monitoring techniques were compared, such as satellite, visual, UAV, and

WSN. WSN was more suitable for its low power consumption and cost-effectiveness compared

to other techniques. On the other hand, Azubogu et al. (2013) proposed a WSN-based pipeline

monitoring technique. In their work, they discussed several existing monitoring techniques and

compared them to WSNs in terms of their architectural design, energy consumption, or

maintainability.
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