Objectives:
1- To learn Casting, theoretically and practically
2- To differentiate and compare sand and lost foam casting
3- To know how to prepare mold
4- To have an overview of sand types and how to recycle it
5- To learn about metal flow and its impact on the process
Background:
Resources attribute the birth of casting to Carpathian Mountains (in Romania) and
southeastern and central Anatolia [1]. The casting process is old up to around 6000
years given that oldest (3200 BC) casted metal was copper frog found in
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), and the first metal was casted is gold due to, mostly,
its malleability [2]. However, sand and lost foam casting are considered from the
oldest casting techniques. Casting, then, was and is improving and has many
techniques that are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Different types of casting [6]
Sand casting is a well-known process capable of handling a wide range of weights and
cost-effective for low volumes because of low tooling costs. Also, approximately all
metals can be cast including ferrous or non-ferrous alloys. The process simply
involves using a pattern (Fig. 2), which is a replica of the final object used to create a
cavity in the mold for metal casting, and a mold of sand (Fig. 3). Then, the molten
metal is poured in the mold to be shaped into pattern like after solidifying in the
cavity (Fig. 4). The mold consists of special sand material called green sand (Fig. 5),
which is a mixture of sand (silica 70-80%), Clay (10-20%), Water (2-8%), and
Organic additives (1-6%). This mixture will create a bonding material with very high
melting temperature to hold molten metal. The mold has a gating or delivery and
channels, such as risers and chills, system (Fig. 6) in order to pour the metal, ensure
appropriate filling, and releasing gases. The gating system’s main purpose is to allow
metal to flow into the cavity. This requires applying principles of liquid flow. It also
should fill the cavity at an appropriate rate to avoid air entrainment and to ensure
complete fill of the thinnest areas of the casting. The gating system usually has four
parts: pouring basin, sprue, runner, and in-gates. Risers are placed in the areas that
solidify last, so they work as a reservoir of extra molten metal to compensate for
shrinkage. The main issues with sand casting are surface finish due to using sand
materials, volume shrinkage, and gas trapping. [3,5]
Fig. 2. Pattern Fig. 3. Mold Fig. 4. Cavity
Fig. 5. Green Sand Fig. 6. Gating System and Channles [3]
Lost foam casting (LFC) or investment casting is a famous and popular yet old
technique for casting, especially complex shapes. This is because the mold will not be
opened, which causes damage affecting the cavity. Moreover, the process saves more
cost compared to sand casting because the need for machining and labor is less. LFC
is similar to sand casting in general, however, it differs significantly in terms of
pattern part. The pattern is used for one time only because this technique depends on
evaporation of patterns. Thus, the pattern is made of low melting point materials,
usually polystyrene (Fig. 7). The patterns can be produced by injection molding
followed by a process that injects pre-expanded patterns into a heated aluminum mold
and further expanded with steam to fill the die, resulting in approximately 97.5% air
and 2.5% polystyrene. This is for large volume patterns, while small volume patterns
can be hand-cut or machined from solid foam. The final stage is to pour the metal and
wait for solidification. However, there is a more advanced method (Fig. 8) using
layers of ceramic coating of patterns that are mounted in a tree like shape with
delivery system, and then patterns are evaporated leaving a cavity. Finally, the metal
is poured into these cavities to be solidified, and then the ceramic coating is broken to
get the final product. This method is better in terms of having very complex shapes
and surface finish, but it needs more machining and labor. [4,7]
Fig. 7. Foam Pattern Fig. 8. LFC advanced method [7]
Solidification
Solidification occurs in almost all materials processes in one form or another. Thus,
studying it and conditions of when materials solidify is significant due to its effect on
microstructure and, subsequently, properties. Local heat and mass transfer and the
thermodynamics of the phase change are the main factors controlling this process,
which affect size, morphology, and composition of grains. Solidification process is a
nucleation and growth issue thus understanding the procedure of them is required.
Nucleation depends on Gibbs free energy and radius as illustrated in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Difference in Gibbs free energy vs radius [10]
Lowering the temperature below the freezing point is not enough to solidify a liquid
because solidification needs a point to start from, i.e. a nucleus. The decrease of
temperature reduces the atoms movement, making them a potential sites for
nucleation. This is called homogeneous nucleation. On the other hand, heterogeneous
nucleation typically originated on solid particles suspended in the melt or on crucible
walls. Metals and crystalline substances do not usually exhibit stable planar
solidification interfaces. In fact, such interfaces experience a fingering instability due
to the variations in temperature gradients. This instability is mathematically a problem
because disturbances grow without limit due to the assumption that the interface
temperature remains constant. In reality, local curvature and front velocity, as well as
the anisotropic nature of crystalline growth play a crucial role in interface
temperature. Figure 10 may show this complexity somehow.
Fig. 10. Temperature profile across a casting freezing in a mold [8]
In general, positive thermal gradient in the liquid leads to a stable plane front
solidification and a negative thermal gradient in the liquid leads to instability of plane
front giving rise to thermal dendrites.
Solidification rate is critical in influencing the microstructure (Fig. 11) of metals and
alloys because it significantly affects the formation of phases, grain size, and
subsequently mechanical properties of the material. A slower solidification rate leads
to the formation of larger grains and more uniform structures in contrast faster rate
can result in smaller grains, which may improve properties such as strength and
toughness.
Fig. 11. Growth morphology of planar, cellular, and dendritic [8]
In casting processes, using external cooling techniques like convection can control the
heat release and thus the cooling rate. Additionally, the application of temperature
gradients can promote the formation of specific crystal structures, such as dendrites or
equiaxed grains, depending on the desired material properties.
Another factor influencing the solidification rate is the composition of the alloy.
Alloying elements can modify the liquidus and solidus temperatures, leading to
changes in the solidification process and the resulting microstructure. Furthermore,
cooling control methods like the use of controlled cooling in heat treatment can tailor
the microstructure to meet specific mechanical property requirements.
Results and Discussion
It is important to mention that the facility was not ready, so we have only done the
first part of the experiment, which is preparing the mold.
We have done two experiments about different types of casting:
1- Traditional type: sand casting
Sand casting requires skillful labor because preparing the mold is a sensitive
process. We learnt how to make sand mold, a cavity, gating system, and
recycle the used sand. The sand mold needs a specific degree of compression
that is not hard or week, so it holds the pattern and not let or collapses,
respectively. Making the cavity is easier because it needs all to be put first and
covered with the sand. However, we compressed too hard, so the pattern
didn’t come out easily. Thus, we needed to move the pattern while it is sitting
in the mold to be loose. The gating system has many parts as discussed
although it was not hard. Making the vents needs more careful process not to
touch the pattern.
2- Lost Foam Casting
It is very similar to the first type. The only difference is removing the pattern.
Here we did not need to remove the pattern because it will melt one the molten
metal touches it. We followed the same procedure, so nothing knew we learnt
from this.
References
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https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v01a.a0006320
[2] History of metal casting. MetalTek. (2023, December 7).
https://www.metaltek.com/blog/history-of-metal-casting/
[3] Reikher, A., & Barkhudarov, M. R. (2007). Casting: An analytical approach.
Springer-Verlag London Ltd.
Innovation and recent development in casting techniques. (2015). International Journal of ]4[
Science and Research (IJSR), 5(5), 1103–1106. https://doi.org/10.21275/v5i5.nov163468
[5] Sand castings - stainless steel sand casting. MetalTek. (2024, December 30).
https://www.metaltek.com/metal-casting/sand-casting/
[6] Dhore, V., & Toke, L. (2024). Overview of gravity die casting process parameters
affecting product quality. Recent Advances in Material, Manufacturing, and Machine
Learning, 124–131. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003450252-16
[7] Investment casting technology - lost wax. MetalTek. (2024a, December 17).
https://www.metaltek.com/metal-casting/investment-casting/
[8] Campbell, J. (2011). Complete casting handbook. Elsevier Butterworth-
Heinemann.
[9] Sadhana, Vol. 26, Parts 1 & 2, February–April 2001, pp. 25–34. © Printed in India
Solidification microstructure development
[10] Al-Rawahi, N. and Tryggvason, G., “Effect of Melt Flow on Dendritic
Solidification”. Talk presented at 53rd annual meeting of the Division of Fluid
Dynamics of the American Physical Society, Washington DC, Nov 19–21 (2000).
[11] Davis, J. R. (1990). ASM Handbook: Casting. ASM International.
