Cement

❖ Introduction

Cement in its broadest term means any substance which acts as a binding agent for materials natural
cement (Roman Cement) is obtained by burning and crushing the stones containing clay, carbonates of
lime and some amount of carbonate of magnesia. The clay content in such stones is about 20 to 40
percent. Natural cement resembles very closely eminent hydraulic lime. It is not strong as artificial
cement, so it has limited use in practice. Artificial cement is obtained by burning at very high
temperature a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials in correct proportion.

Calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added to clinker and it is then
pulverized into very fine powder is known as cement. Cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin
of leeds in England in 1824. The common variety of artificial cement is known as normal setting cement
or ordinary cement or Portland cement.

❖ Major Ingredients of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and Their Functions

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is composed of several key ingredients, each playing a crucial role in
its properties and performance.
Chemical Percentage Typical
Component Function in Cement
Formula Range (%) Value (%)
Strength provider; combines with silica to
Lime CaO 60 - 67% 62%
form C-S-H gel
Enhances strength and durability (forms C-
Silica SiO2 17 - 25% 22%
S-H gel)
Provides quick setting; improves
Alumina Al2O3Al3 3 - 8% 5%
resistance to sulfate attack
Calcium
CaSO4 3 - 5% 4% Regulates setting time (added as gypsum)
Sulphate
Enhances hardness and color; aids in
Iron Oxide Fe2O3 0.5 - 6% 3%
clinker formation
Improves soundness, but excess causes
Magnesia MgO 0.5 - 4% 2%
expansion issues
Sulfur
SO3 1 - 3% 1% Regulates setting time (with gypsum)
Trioxide
Alkalis
Na2O,K2O 0.4 - 1.3% 1% Affects efflorescence and durability
(Na₂O, K₂O)
1. Lime (CaO) – 60% to 67%
o Lime is the primary and most essential component of cement.
o It reacts with silica and alumina to form calcium silicates and aluminates, which provide
strength and durability.
o Excess lime makes the cement unsound, leading to expansion and cracking.
o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength and makes the cement set too quickly.

2. Silica (SiO₂) – 17% to 25%

o Silica contributes significantly to strength development in cement.
o It reacts with lime to form Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (C-S-H) gel, which is responsible for long-
term strength.
o Higher silica content improves strength, but excessive silica can delay setting time.

3. Alumina (Al₂O₃) – 3% to 8%
o Alumina accelerates the setting time of cement.
o It combines with lime to form tricalcium aluminate (C₃A), which contributes to early strength
gain.
o Excess alumina weakens cement and makes it vulnerable to chemical attacks, especially from
sulphates.

4. Calcium Sulphate (CaSO₄) – 3% to 4%

o It is added in the form of gypsum to regulate the setting time of cement.
o Gypsum prevents flash setting, ensuring adequate workability before hardening.
o Insufficient calcium sulphate can lead to fast setting, making the cement difficult to handle.

5. Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₃) – 0.5% to 6%

o It imparts color to cement and contributes to hardness.
o It helps in the formation of tricalcium ferrite (C₄AF), which slightly influences early strength
gain but mainly assists in clinker formation.

6. Magnesia (MgO) – 0.5% to 4%

o Magnesia contributes to hardness and soundness of cement when present in small quantities.
o Excess magnesia (>6%) can cause expansion and cracking, leading to unsound cement.
o BIS and ASTM standards limit magnesia content to 6% to ensure cement durability.

7. Sulphur (SO₃) – 1% to 3%
o A small amount of sulphur helps in controlling setting time and enhances cement’s resistance
to chemical attack.
 o Excess sulphur leads to unsoundness and weakens the cement structure.

8. Alkalies (Na₂O, K₂O) – 0.4% to 1.3%

o Alkalies mainly come from raw materials and are mostly expelled as flue gases during
heating.
o If present in excess, they cause efflorescence (white patches on hardened concrete) and
reduce durability by reacting with aggregates.

❖ Manufacturing Process of Cement

Cement is one of the most important construction materials, primarily used in concrete production. The
manufacturing process of cement involves extracting raw materials, processing them into clinker, and
then grinding the clinker into fine cement powder. There are two main methods for cement
manufacturing: the Dry Process and the Wet Process. The choice of method depends on the nature of
raw materials, cost efficiency, and energy consumption.

➢ Dry Process of Cement Manufacturing: The dry process is the most commonly used method today
due to its energy efficiency and lower environmental impact. It is particularly suitable when raw
materials have low moisture content. The steps involved in the dry process are:

(a) Raw Material Extraction and Preparation

• The main raw materials for cement are limestone (CaCO₃), clay, shale, and other additives like iron
ore and bauxite.
• These materials are quarried, transported to the cement plant, and crushed into smaller pieces using
jaw crushers and hammer mills.
• The crushed materials are then dried using hot air to remove moisture before further processing.

(b) Grinding and Blending of Raw Materials

• The dried raw materials are ground into a fine powder using ball mills or vertical roller mills.
• This finely ground powder is known as raw meal.
• The raw meal is then blended in silos to achieve a uniform chemical composition.

(c) Preheating and Calcination

• The raw meal is fed into a preheater tower, where hot gases from the kiln raise its temperature
before it enters the kiln.
• This process removes moisture and starts breaking down the compounds in the raw materials.
• The raw meal then enters the rotary kiln, a long rotating cylindrical furnace, where it is heated to
1400–1500°C.
• At this high temperature, a series of chemical reactions occur, converting calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
into calcium oxide (CaO) and forming clinker nodules—the primary material for cement.

(d) Cooling and Clinker Storage

• The red-hot clinker is rapidly cooled using air jets or cooling fans to prevent undesirable chemical
changes.
• The cooled clinker is stored in large silos before being processed into cement.

(e) Grinding of Clinker and Cement Packing

• The clinker is mixed with gypsum (to control the setting time) and sometimes other additives like
fly ash or slag.
• The mixture is finely ground in ball mills to produce cement powder.
• The final product is packed in bags and transported for use in construction.

➢ Wet Process of Cement Manufacturing: The wet process is an older method, used in plants where
raw materials contain high moisture. This process involves mixing raw materials with water to form
a slurry before heating. Although this method produces high-quality cement, it is less energy-
efficient due to the need for additional water removal during heating.

(a) Raw Material Extraction and Slurry Preparation

• Just like in the dry process, raw materials such as limestone and clay are extracted and crushed.
• However, instead of drying, these raw materials are mixed with water to form a slurry with about
35-40% water content.
• The slurry is stored in basins or silos, where it is continuously stirred to maintain uniform
composition.

(b) Homogenization and Pumping into Kiln

• The slurry is thoroughly mixed to ensure chemical uniformity.

• It is then pumped into a rotary kiln for further processing.

(c) Heating in the Kiln and Clinker Formation

• As the slurry enters the rotary kiln, the water content gradually evaporates due to increasing
temperatures.
• At 1400–1500°C, the raw materials undergo chemical reactions to form clinker, just like in the dry
process.

(d) Cooling and Clinker Storage

• The hot clinker is cooled using forced air systems and stored in silos.

(e) Final Grinding and Packaging

• The cooled clinker is mixed with gypsum and other additives, then finely ground to produce cement.
• The cement is then packed and distributed.
 Flow Chart of Cement Manufacturing

➢ Comparison: Dry Process vs. Wet Process

The dry process is now the preferred method for cement manufacturing because it is more energy-
efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. The wet process, while still in use, is gradually
being phased out due to its higher fuel consumption and operational costs.

❖ Composition of Clinkers

When raw material fuses in kiln, the resultant compound produced are called bogue compound. Bogue’s
compounds are the primary chemical constituents of Portland cement clinker, which govern the setting,
strength, durability, and heat of hydration of cement. The percentage of these compounds varies
depending on the cement type. Following are the type of bogue’s compound.

1. Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S - 3CaO·SiO₂) – Alite

• Percentage in Cement: 40-60% (typically ~50%)

• Strength Contribution: Responsible for early strength development (1-7 days).

 • Reaction Rate: Rapid hydration.

• Hydration Products:

o Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) gel – Provides strength.

o Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) – Improves alkalinity but can cause durability issues.

• Heat of Hydration: ~500 J/g (High) – Generates significant heat, making it suitable for fast-
setting applications but less ideal for mass concrete structures.

2. Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S - 2CaO·SiO₂) – Belite

• Percentage in Cement: 15-30% (typically ~25%)

• Strength Contribution: Contributes to long-term strength development (beyond 7 days).

• Reaction Rate: Slow hydration.

• Hydration Products:

o C-S-H gel – Provides long-term strength and improves durability.

• Heat of Hydration: ~260 J/g (Low) – Generates less heat, making it suitable for mass concreting
and preventing thermal cracking.

3. Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A - 3CaO·Al₂O₃)

• Percentage in Cement: 5-12% (typically ~10%)

• Strength Contribution: Has minor strength contribution but affects initial setting and
workability.

• Reaction Rate: Very fast hydration, leading to flash setting, which is controlled by adding
gypsum.

• Hydration Products:

o Ettringite (in presence of sulfate) – Provides some early strength but can cause expansion
if excessive.

o Monosulfate Hydrate – Forms later as ettringite transforms.

 • Heat of Hydration: ~865 J/g (Very High) – Causes rapid heat evolution, making it vulnerable to
sulfate attack in aggressive environments.

4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF - 4CaO·Al₂O₃·Fe₂O₃)

• Percentage in Cement: 5-15% (typically ~10%)

• Strength Contribution: Minimal strength contribution.

• Reaction Rate: Moderate hydration.

• Hydration Products:

o Hydrated calcium aluminoferrites, which contribute slightly to workability.

• Heat of Hydration: ~420 J/g (Moderate) – Generates less heat than C₃A but more than C₂S.

❖ Hydration Process of Cement

The hydration of cement is the chemical reaction between cement compounds and water, forming
hydration products that provide strength and durability to concrete. This process occurs in distinct
stages, with different compounds reacting at varying rates.

1. Initial Mixing and Dissolution (0-15 minutes)

• When water is added to cement, the outer layers dissolve, releasing calcium (Ca²⁺), sulfate (SO₄²⁻),
aluminate (Al³⁺), and silicate (SiO₄⁴⁻) ions.

• Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) dissolves first, controlling the rapid reaction of tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) to
prevent flash setting.

• Key Reaction:

C3A + 3CaSO4 + 2H2O + 26H2O→ C6AS3H32 (Ettringite)

• Heat evolution: High (exothermic reaction)

• Effect: Controls setting time

2. Induction (Dormant) Period (15 minutes - 2 hours)

• The system remains in a low activity state, allowing transportation and placement of concrete.

• No significant reactions, but ions continue to accumulate in solution.

• Heat release is minimal, allowing workability.

3. Acceleration Stage (2 - 6 hours)

• Tricalcium Silicate (C₃S) reacts rapidly, forming C-S-H gel (strength-giving phase) and Calcium
Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).

• The paste stiffens, and initial setting occurs.

• Key Reaction:

2C3S+6H2O → C3S2H3+3Ca(OH)2 (C-H-S GEL)

• Heat evolution: High

• Effect: Early strength (1-7 days)

• Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A) continues reacting with gypsum, forming more Ettringite.

• Key Reaction:

C3A + 3CaSO4 + 2H2O + 26H2O→ C6AS3H32 (Ettringite)

• Effect: Prevents flash setting

4. Deceleration Stage (6 - 24 hours)

• Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S) starts hydrating, forming additional C-S-H gel for long-term strength.

• Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A) further reacts, converting Ettringite to Monosulfate Hydrate.

• Key Reactions:

2C2S + 4H2O → C3S2H3 + Ca(OH) 2 (C-H-S GEL)

• Heat evolution: Low

• Effect: Long-term strength

C6AS3H32 + 2C3A + 4H2O → 3C4ASH12 (Monosulfate Hydrate)

• Effect: Stability of hardened paste

5. Hardening and Long-Term Hydration (1 - 28 days & beyond)

• C₂S hydration continues, ensuring durability.

• C₄AF reacts, forming hydrated ferrite phases, which have minor strength contributions.

• Key Reaction:

C4AF+3CaSO4.2H2O+30H2O→C6(A,F)S3H32

• Effect: Provides color, minor strength contribution

❖ Heat of Hydration:

Heat of Hydration is the heat released when cement reacts with water, initiating the setting and
hardening process. It is an exothermic reaction, with different cement compounds contributing varying
amounts of heat. Tricalcium Aluminate (C₃A) generates the highest heat, followed by Tricalcium Silicate
(C₃S), Dicalcium Silicate (C₂S), and Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C₄AF). The total heat released
influences the strength gain, durability, and thermal effects in concrete structures. Controlling the heat
of hydration is crucial in large concrete pours to prevent thermal cracks and ensure structural integrity.

Curve of heat of hydration can be drawn in following criteria:

1. Initial Peak (0-15 min): High heat from C₃A reaction.

2. Dormant Period (15 min - 2 hrs): Low heat, allowing placement.

3. Acceleration Peak (2-6 hrs): High heat from C₃S reaction.

4. Steady Growth (6-24 hrs): Low heat from C₂S reaction.

5. Long-Term Hydration: Gradual strength development.

❖ Types of Cement
The following are the varieties of cement.

1. Ordinary Portland cement

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is a widely used cement in construction, known for its strength,
durability, and versatility. It is produced by grinding clinker, which is obtained by heating a mixture of
limestone and clay in a kiln, along with gypsum, which helps regulate the setting time. OPC is classified
into three grades based on its compressive strength: OPC 33, OPC 43, and OPC 53.

OPC has a fast-setting time and high early strength, making it ideal for reinforced concrete structures
(RCC), bridges, roads, and general construction work. It is preferred in applications requiring high
structural strength and quick construction. However, it generates more heat during hydration, which
can lead to thermal cracks in mass concreting projects

2. Portland pozzolana cement

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is a type of blended cement made by adding pozzolanic materials
such as fly ash, volcanic ash, or silica fumes to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). These materials
enhance durability and resistance to chemical attacks, making PPC suitable for marine structures,
bridges, dams, and sewage treatment plants.

PPC has a slower setting time than OPC but offers better long-term strength and reduced heat of
hydration, which helps prevent thermal cracks in mass concreting projects. It also improves workability,
reduces permeability, and is more eco-friendly due to the use of industrial byproducts like fly ash.
However, it takes longer to gain strength compared to OPC, which may affect projects requiring rapid
construction.

3. Rapid hardening cement

Rapid Hardening Cement (RHC) is a special type of cement designed to achieve high early strength in a
short time. It is similar to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) but has a higher percentage of tri-calcium
silicate (C₃S) and is finely ground to accelerate hydration. RHC reaches the strength of OPC in just three
days, making it ideal for road repairs, precast concrete, and cold-weather concreting. It reduces curing
time and allows for faster construction, but due to its rapid hydration, it may cause shrinkage and
cracking, making it less suitable for mass concreting projects.

4. Quick setting cement

Quick Setting Cement (QSC) is a type of cement that sets faster than Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC),
making it ideal for emergency repairs and underwater construction. It is manufactured by reducing the
gypsum content and grinding the clinker finely, which accelerates the setting process. QSC starts setting
within 5 to 10 minutes and achieves final setting in 30 minutes, making it suitable for cold-weather
concreting, tunneling, and rapid repair works. However, due to its fast setting time, it requires
immediate placement and finishing to avoid workability issues.

5. Low heat Cement

Low Heat Cement (LHC) is a special type of cement designed to produce less heat during hydration,
reducing the risk of thermal cracks in large concrete structures. It is manufactured by reducing the
amount of tricalcium silicate (C₃S) and increasing dicalcium silicate (C₂S), which slows down strength
gain but enhances long-term durability. LHC is ideal for mass concreting applications such as dams,
bridges, and large foundations, where excessive heat can cause structural damage. Although it takes
longer to develop strength compared to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), it improves crack resistance
and durability, making it suitable for long-term structural stability.

6. Sulphate Resistant Cement (SRC)

Sulphate Resistant Cement (SRC) is designed to withstand sulphate attacks, making it ideal for marine
structures, sewage treatment plants, and foundations in sulphate-rich soils. It is produced by reducing
the tricalcium aluminate (C₃A) content, which improves resistance to chemical deterioration. While SRC
enhances durability in aggressive environments, it has a slower strength gain compared to Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC).

7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement (BFSC)

Blast Furnace Slag Cement (BFSC) is a blended cement made by adding granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) to Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). GGBS obtained from blast furnace in the manufacture of pig
iron and it contains basic elements of cement, namely alumina, lime and silica. It has low heat of
hydration, improved durability, and better resistance to chemical attacks, making it suitable for marine
structures, bridges, and underground works. BFSC enhances workability and sustainability by utilizing
industrial byproducts, but it gains strength more slowly than OPC.

8. High Alumina Cement

High Alumina Cement (HAC) is a special type of cement made by grinding clinkers formed from calcined
bauxite and lime, with an alumina content of at least 32% and an alumina-to-lime ratio between 0.85
and 1.30. It is known for its high-temperature resistance, fast strength gain, and excellent resistance to
acid attacks, making it suitable for refractory linings, chemical plants, and marine structures. The initial
setting time of HAC is about 3.5 hours, allowing sufficient time for mixing and placing. Additionally, it
evolves a significant amount of heat during setting, preventing damage in cold weather conditions.
However, HAC is costly and unsuitable for mass concreting due to the risk of thermal cracking. It also
requires careful handling, as it should not come into contact with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) or
lime, which may negatively affect its strength and durability.

9. White Cement:

White Cement is a type of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with low iron and manganese content, giving
it a pure white color. It is primarily used for architectural and decorative applications, such as tiles,
flooring, and precast facades. Though it has properties similar to OPC, it is more expensive due to its
special manufacturing process and high purity raw materials. For burning of this cement, oil fuel is used
instead of coal.

10. Coloured Cement:

Cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement.
The amount of colouring may vary from 5 to 10 percent and strength of cement if it exceeds 10 percent.
Chromium oxide gives brown, red or yellow for different proportions. Coloured cements are used for
finishing of floors, external surfaces, artificial marble, windows

❖ Uses of Cement

Cement plays a vital role in modern construction, serving various purposes:

1. Masonry work – Used in cement mortars for brickwork, plastering, and pointing.

2. Concrete structures – Essential in constructing floors, roofs, lintels, beams, stairs, pillars, and
weather sheds.

3. Large engineering structures – Used in bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, storage reservoirs, and
lighthouses.

4. Waterproof structures – Used in water tanks, septic tanks, and foundation waterproofing.

5. Pipe joints – Cement mortar is used for sealing drain pipes, water pipes, and sewage connections.

6. Precast products – Used in garden seats, fencing posts, flower pots, dustbins, and decorative
elements.

7. Pathways and flooring – Ideal for footpaths, pavements, and high-strength flooring.
• Physical Properties of Cement

Before selecting Portland cement for civil engineering applications, its physical properties must be
evaluated to ensure quality and durability witch are as follows:

1. Fineness: Fineness determines the particle size distribution of cement, affecting its rate of
hydration and strength development. It is measured either by the percentage of weight retained on
a 90-micron sieve or by its specific surface area (cm²/g). According to IS standards, the retained
weight should not exceed 10%, and the specific surface area must be at least 2250 cm²/g to ensure
proper workability and strength.

2. Setting Time: Cement must have adequate setting time to allow for mixing, transportation, and
placement. The initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes, while the final setting time
should not exceed 600 minutes. These limits, as prescribed by IS 269-1967, ensure that the cement
remains workable during construction but gains strength efficiently.

3. Soundness: Soundness refers to the dimensional stability of hardened cement. Unsound cement
undergoes unwanted expansion, leading to cracks and structural failure. The Le-Chatelier test is
used to measure this property, and the expansion should not exceed 10 mm to ensure long-term
durability.

4. Compressive Strength: The strength of cement is evaluated using mortar cubes prepared with
standard sand, which are tested under compression as per IS specifications. The minimum
compressive strength required is 16 N/mm² after 3 days and 22 N/mm² after 7 days of curing.
Higher strength ensures better load-bearing capacity and durability in structural applications.

❖ Test of cement

Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:

➢ Field Testing of Cement

For small-scale construction and minor works, simple field tests can be conducted to check the quality
of cement before use. These tests help identify freshness, fineness, and setting properties without
requiring laboratory equipment.

1. Visual Inspection: Open the cement bag and examine its color and texture. It should have a uniform
greenish-grey shade with no visible lumps, which indicate the absence of moisture contamination.
2. Hand Test: Insert your hand into the cement bag. It should feel cool, indicating proper hydration
control. The presence of any hard lumps suggests exposure to moisture, which compromises quality.

3. Touch & Feel Test: Take a small amount of cement between your fingers and rub it. High-quality
cement should feel smooth and fine, not gritty, ensuring proper grinding and fineness.

4. Water Float Test: Take a handful of cement and sprinkle it over a bucket of water. Good-quality
cement will have its particles float for a few moments before sinking, whereas poor-quality cement
will sink immediately, indicating excessive impurities.

5. Cake Test: Mix 100 grams of cement with a small quantity of water to form a stiff paste. Shape it into
a cake with sharp edges and place it on a glass plate. Submerge it slowly in a bucket of water. After
24 hours, the cake should retain its original shape while also setting and gaining some strength.

➢ Laboratory Tests on Cement

To ensure the quality and performance of cement in construction, various laboratory tests are
conducted. These tests help determine its physical properties, including fineness, setting time,
consistency, soundness, and compressive strength.

1. Fineness Test

The fineness of cement affects its rate of hydration, strength development, and workability. This test is
conducted by sieving 100 g of cement through a 90-micron IS sieve. The residue retained on the sieve
should not exceed 10% by weight. Alternatively, the Blaine air permeability test can be performed to
measure the specific surface area, which should be at least 2250 cm²/g as per IS 4031 (Part 1). Finer
cement leads to faster hydration, improving early strength but increasing water demand.

2. Setting Time Test

The setting time of cement is crucial in determining its usability in different environmental conditions.
This test is performed using a Vicat apparatus, which measures the time taken for cement paste to lose
its plasticity. The initial setting time is recorded when a 1 mm square needle penetrates the paste up
to 5-7 mm from the bottom, while the final setting time is when the needle leaves an impression but
the annular ring does not. According to IS 4031 (Part 5), the initial setting time should be at least 30
minutes, and the final setting time should not exceed 600 minutes.

3. Standard Consistency Test

This test determines the amount of water required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency.
A 300 g cement sample is mixed with approximately 30% water and placed in a Vicat mould. A 10
mm diameter plunger is then released onto the paste. The standard consistency is achieved when the
plunger penetrates 5-7 mm from the bottom. If the penetration is outside this range, the water content
is adjusted, and the test is repeated. This test ensures that the cement paste has the right workability
for further testing.

4. Soundness Test

The soundness test assesses the ability of cement to retain its volume after setting. Excessive expansion
can lead to cracks in structures, making this test essential. The Le Chatelier apparatus is used for this
purpose. A split brass mould is filled with cement paste (prepared with 0.78 times the standard
consistency water content), covered with glass plates, and submerged in water at 24°C to 30°C for
24 hours. The initial distance between the indicators is recorded. The assembly is then heated to
boiling temperature for 1 hour, allowed to cool, and the final distance is measured. The expansion
should not exceed 10 mm, as per IS 4031 (Part 3).
5. Crushing Strength Test

The compressive strength of cement is an important property that determines its load-bearing capacity.
This test is conducted by preparing mortar cubes (70.6 mm size) with a 1:3 cement-to-standard
sand ratio. The mix is placed in a cube mould, vibrated to remove air pockets, and cured in water for
3, 7, and 28 days. After curing, the cubes are tested in a compression testing machine, and the load
at failure is recorded. According to IS 4031 (Part 6), the minimum compressive strength should be 16
N/mm² after 3 days and 22 N/mm² after 7 days.