1(A) A regular expression defines a set of strings..
• Example: a(b|c)* represents strings starting with "a" followed by zero or more "b" or
"c".
1(B) Demonstrate regular expressions with the alphabet = {0, 1}, that:
i) Start with 1 but not having consecutive 0's.
Code snippet
1(1|01)*
Explanation: It must start with '1'. After the initial '1', any subsequent '1' is allowed, or a '0'
must be immediately followed by a '1' to avoid consecutive zeros.
ii) Ending with 1 but not having consecutive 0's.
Code snippet
(1|10)*1
Explanation: It must end with '1'. Before the final '1', any '1' is allowed, or a '1' can be
preceded by a '0' (but not another '0' immediately before that to avoid consecutive zeros).
iii) Starting with 1 and ending with different symbols.
Since the alphabet is only {0, 1}, if it starts with 1 and ends with a different symbol, it must
end with 0.
Code snippet
1(0|1)*0
Explanation: It starts with '1', can have any combination of '0's and '1's in between, and ends
with '0'.
2(A) Conversion Rules from Regular Expression to NFA
• Empty string ε: Create start and accepting states with ε-transition.
• Symbol a: Create start and accepting states with 'a' transition.
• Concatenation (AB): Connect NFA(A) to NFA(B) with ε-transition.
• Union (A|B): Create new start and accepting states with ε-transitions.
• Kleene star (A*): Create new start and accepting states with ε-transitions
2(B) Apply the rules to convert the following regular expressions to NFA:
i) (ab ∪ a)*
This means zero or more repetitions of either ab or a.
Step-by-step NFA construction:
1. Build NFA for ab:
o q0 —a→ q1 —b→ q2
2. Build NFA for a:
o q3 —a→ q4
3. Combine both with union (ab ∪ a) using ε-transitions.
Let q_start —ε→ (NFA_ab or NFA_a) —ε→ q_accept
4. Apply star:
o q_new_start —ε→ q_start
o q_accept —ε→ q_start
o q_accept —ε→ q_new_accept
o q_new_start —ε→ q_new_accept
ii) (0 ∪ 1)*01(1 ∪ 0)*
Breakdown:
• (0 ∪ 1)*: any number of 0s or 1s → standard loop on 0 and 1
• Then match ‘0’ followed by ‘1’
• Then again any number of 1s or 0s
Construct it as:
1. Loop: q0 —0→ q0, q0 —1→ q0 (for (0 ∪ 1)*)
2. Transition q0 —0→ q1 —1→ q2 (for 01)
3. q2 —0→ q2, q2 —1→ q2 (for (1 ∪ 0)*)
Accept state is q2.
iii) (0+1)*1(0+1)
This means: any string of 0s and 1s, followed by 1, then a single 0 or 1.
1. (0+1)* → loop on 0 and 1: q0 —0/1→ q0
2. Transition on 1: q0 —1→ q1
3. q1 —0/1→ q2 (final)
Accepting state is q2.
3(A) Context-Free Grammar Overview
• A Context-Free Grammar (CFG) is a formal grammar where every production rule is of the
form A→α, where A is a non-terminal symbol and α is a string of terminals and/or non-
terminals.
• Components of a CFG include non-terminals (V), terminals (Σ), production rules (P), and
the start symbol (S).
• Non-terminals represent syntactic categories or variables, typically written in uppercase
letters.
• Production rules are finite sets of rules of the form A→α, where A∈V and α∈(V∪Σ).
• The start symbol represents the initial syntactic category.
3(B) Demonstrate a CFG to generate the given strings:
i) having any combinations of 'a's and 'b's except null.
S -> aS | best | a | b
Explanation:
• SaaS generates strings starting with 'a' followed by any combination.
• S→bS generates strings starting with 'b' followed by any combination.
• S→a generates the single string "a".
• S→b generates the single string "b". This ensures at least one 'a' or 'b' is present.
ii) having at least two b's.
S -> aS | bS | bAks
A -> aA | bA | bB
B -> aB | bB | ε
Explanation:
• S→aS∣bS allows any number of 'a's and 'b's at the beginning.
• S→bA ensures at least one 'b' and moves to state A.
• A→aA∣bA allows any number of 'a's and 'b's after the first 'b'.
• A→bB ensures a second 'b' and moves to state B.
• B→aB∣bB∣ϵ allows any number of 'a's and 'b's (including none) after the second 'b'.
Alternatively, a more direct approach:
S -> XbXbX
X -> aX | bX | ε
Explanation: This grammar ensures there are at least two 'b's with any combination of 'a's and
'b's (including none) before, between, and after them.
iii) start and end with the same symbol.
S -> aAa | bBb | a | b
A -> aA | bA | ε
B -> aB | bB | ε
Explanation:
• S→aAa generates strings starting and ending with 'a' with any combination of 'a's and
'b's in between (including none).
• S→bBb generates strings starting and ending with 'b' with any combination of 'a's and
'b's in between (including none).
• S→a generates the single string "a".
• S→b generates the single string "b".
Q: S →ABA A → aAS | a | ε B → SbS | A | bb
Step-1 S0→ AS | ASB | SB X→a
S0→S S → AS | ASB | SB Y→b
S → ASB A → aAS | aS | a P → AS
A → aAS | a | ε B → SbS | bb | aAS | aS | a S0→ AS | PB | SB
B → SbS | A | bb Step-3 S → AS | PB | SB
Step -2 S0→ AS | ASB | SB A → RS | XS | a
S0→S S → AS | ASB | SB B → SYS | YY | RS |
S → ASB | SB A → XAS | XS |a XS | a
A → a | aAS | aS B → SYS | bb | XAS | XS |a X→a
B → SbS | A | ε | bb X →a Y→b
S0→S Y→b P → AS
S → AS | S | ASB | SB S0→ AS | ASB | SB R → XA
A → a | aAS | aS S → AS | ASB | SB S0→ AS | PB | SB
B → SbS | A | bb A → XAS | XS | a S → AS | PB | SB
S0→S B → SYS | YY | XAS | XS | a A → RS | XS | a
S → AS | ASB | SB | S X→a B → TS | YY | RS |
A → a | aAS | aS Y→b XS | a
B → SbS | bb | aAS | aS | a Step -4 X→a
S0→ AS | ASB | SB | S S0→ AS | PB | SB Y→b
S → AS | ASB | SB | S S → AS | PB | SB P → AS
A → aAS | aS | a A → XAS | XS | a R → XA
B → SbS | bb | aAS | aS | a B → SYS | YY | XAS | XS | a T → SY
(4a)The Pumping Lemma for regular languages is primarily used to prove that a language is not
regular. It works by contradiction. You assume the language is regular, and then show that this
assumption leads to a violation of the Pumping Lemma's conditions for some string in the
language. If you can find such a string that cannot be "pumped" as the lemma requires while
remaining in the language, you've proven the language cannot be regular. However, if a language
does satisfy the Pumping Lemma's conditions for all strings tested, it doesn't necessarily prove
the language is regular – some non-regular languages might coincidentally satisfy the conditions
for certain strings or choices of decomposition. Therefore, it's a tool for disproof (a negative
test), not proof of regularity.
If A is a regular language, then there is a number p where if s is any string in A of length at least
p, then s may be divided into three pieces, s = xyz, satisfying the following conditions:
for each i ≥ 0, xyiz ∈ A.
|y| > 0, and
|xy| ≤ p.
