Modern Algebra Lecture Notes

Rebekah Dix

December 18, 2018

Contents
1 Group Theory 3
1.1 Basic Definitions/Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Direct Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Symmetric Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Matrix Groups (General Linear Groups) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Dihedral Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Isomorphism Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Actions, Orbits, and Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.10 Multiplicative group of integers modulo n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11 p-Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.12 Commutator Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2 Ring Theory 35
2.1 Ring Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Matrix Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Subrings, Homomorphisms of Rings, and Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3 Practice Quizzes 42
3.1 Quiz 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Quiz 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Quiz 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Quiz 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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 3.5 Quiz 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Quiz 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.7 Quiz 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Quiz 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.9 Quiz 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.10 Quiz 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.11 Quiz 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 Practice Exercises 53
4.1 Practice 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Practice 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Practice 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Practice 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.5 Practice 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.6 Practice 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.7 Practice 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.8 Practice 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.9 Practice 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.10 Practice 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.11 Practice 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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1 Group Theory
1.1 Basic Definitions/Examples
Definition 1 (Group). A set G with a binary operation ? : G × G → G is a group if the
following axioms are satisfied:

1. Associativity: ( a ? b) ? c = a ? (b ? c) for every a, b, c ∈ G.

2. Unit (or Identity): There exists an e ∈ G such that e ? a = a ? e = a for each a in G.

3. Inverse: For each a ∈ G there is a b ∈ G such that a ? b = b ? a = e.

Note that the binary operation requires closure, by definition.

Example 1 (Examples of Groups). The following are examples of groups.

1. G = R \ {0} = R? and ? = multiplication.

2. G = Z and ? = addition (e = 0 and b = − a).

3. G = {+1, −1} ⊂ R? and ? = multiplication.

4. G = S3 = { All bijective functions f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3}} and ? = composition of

functions. To check the axioms in this example:

(a) Associativity: Holds because associativity is a basic property of composition

(b) Unit Element: The element that maps 1 to 1, 2 to 2, and 3 to 3 is the unit element.
This element moves each element to itself.
(c) Inverse: S3 is the set of bijections, so the definition of bijection implies there is
an inverse by composition.

Definition 2 (Abelian/Commutative). A group G is abelian or commutative if a ? b = b ? a

for all a, b ∈ G.

Example 2 (Examples of Abelian Groups). The following are examples of groups.

1. Examples 1, 2, and 3 above are Abelian. The commutativity follows from the com-
mutativity of addition and multiplication.

2. Example 4 is not Abelian. It’s easy to find a pair of elements that don’t commute
under composition.

Not everything is a group.

Example 3 (Non-Examples of Groups). The following are non-examples of groups.

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 1. G = R and ? = maximum. For example, 2 ? π = max(2, π ) = π. Associativity
is satisfied. The order in which we take the maximum of a set of elements doesn’t
matter – we’ll eventually find the largest element regardless. However, there is no
unit element. The reason is that there is no smallest element in R.

2. G = R≥0 and ? = maximum. Associativity is satisfied. There is a unit element,

namely 0 (observe that we’ve corrected the problem of not having a smallest ele-
ment). Fix g ∈ G, and observe that max( g, 0) = max(0, g) = g. However, there
need not be an inverse of each element. We can’t take the maximum of some ele-
ment g > 0 and 0 and get 0.

Theorem 1 (The unit element is unique). Let G be a group and ? its binary operation.
Suppose that e1 , e2 ∈ G are both units elements. Then, e1 = e2 .

Proof. Since e1 and e2 are unit elements, we know that for all a ∈ G, a ? e1 = e1 ? a = e1
and a ? e2 = e2 ? a = e2 . Consider the product e1 ? e2 . We know that e1 ? e2 = e2 since e2 is
a unit element. Further, e1 ? e2 = e1 since e1 is a unit element. Therefore, e1 = e2 .

Theorem 2 (Cancellation Law). For every group G and a, b, c ∈ G that satisfy ab = ac, we
have b = c.

Proof. Let x be the inverse of a. Then, x ( ab) = x ( ac). By associativity, we may write
( xa)b = ( xa)c. This simplifies to 1 ? b = 1 ? c or that b = c.

Theorem 3 (The inverse of a group element is unique). Let G be a group and let a ∈ G. If
b and c are inverses of a, then b = c.

Proof. Since b and c are inverses of a, we know that ab = 1 = ac. Then by the Cancellation
Law, we know b = c.

Exercise 1. Show that if a, b ∈ G, then ( ab)−1 = b−1 a−1 .

Solution 1. Going back to the definition of a group and the axiom required to be an
inverse element, we must show that ( ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = (b−1 a−1 )( ab) = 1. Then,

( ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = a(bb−1 ) a−1 = a · 1 · a−1 = aa−1 = 1 (1)

And,
(b−1 a−1 )( ab) = b−1 ( a−1 a)b = b−1 · 1 · b = b−1 b = 1 (2)
Therefore, ( ab)(b−1 a−1 ) = (b−1 a−1 )( ab) = 1 so that b−1 a−1 is the inverse of ( ab).

Exercise 2. Give an example of τ ∈ S4 such that τ 6= 1, τ 2 6= 1, and τ 3 6= 1.

Solution 2. Consider τ (1) = 2, τ (2) = 3, τ (3) = 4, τ (4) = 1. Then, τ 2 (1) = 3 and

τ 3 (1) = 4. This is sufficient to show that τ 6= 1, τ 2 6= 1, and τ 3 6= 1.

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Definition 3 (The group Z/nZ). The group Z/nZ is the set {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}. That is,
the possible (integer) remainders upon dividing by n. Recall that the remainder is the
smallest number that you subtract from the original number so that it becomes divisible
by n.

Exercise 3. Calculate 5 + 6 + 3 in Z/7Z.

Solution 3. 5 + 6 + 3 = 14 = 0

Exercise 4. What is the inverse of 15 in Z/30Z.

Solution 4. Observe that 15 + 15 = 30 = 0. Hence 15 is its own inverse.

1.1.1 Order
Definition 4 (Order of a group, order of an element of a group). Let G be a group. We call
| G | the order of G (i.e. the number of elements in G). Further, the least d > 0 such that
gd = 1 is called the order of g ∈ G.

Example 4 (Orders of groups). The following are examples of orders of groups:

• |Sn | = n!

• |Z/nZ| = n

Exercise 5. Calculate the order of 2 in Z/7Z.

Solution 5. The order of 2 is 7.

1.1.2 Direct Product

Given groups G, H we define a group structure on G × H by ( g1 , h2 )( g2 , h2 ) = ( g1 g2 , h1 h2 ).
The unit of G × H is (1, 1) = (1G , 1 H ). The inverse of ( g, h) is ( g, h)−1 = ( g−1 , h−1 ). Ques-
tions about direct products will decompose into questions about the individual groups.

1.1.3 Symmetric Groups

Definition 5 (Cycle, Cycle Decomposition, Length, k-Cycle). A cycle is a string of integers
which represents the element of Sn which cyclically permutes these integers (and fixes all
other integers). The product of all the cycles is called the cycle decomposition. The length
of a cycle is the number of integers which appear in it. A cycle of length k is called a
k-cycle.

Theorem 4 (The order of a k-cycle is k.).

Proof. Let (i1 i2 . . . ik ) be a k-cycle. By checking each index, observe that (i1 i2 . . . ik )k = id.
For any d < k, note that (i1 i2 . . . ik )d (i1 ) = id+1 6= i1 , since d < k.

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Theorem 5 (Disjoint cycles commute.).

Proof. Let σ = (s1 s2 . . . sk ) and τ = (t1 t2 . . . tl ) be disjoint cycles. Consider an index si in

the first cycle and an index t j in the second. Then

σ (τ (si )) = σ(si ) = si+1 (3)

and
τ (σ(si )) = τ (si+1 ) = si+1 (4)
Repeating this argument for all indices shows that

στ = τσ (5)

Example 5. (236)(14) = (14)(236)

1.1.4 Matrix Groups (General Linear Groups)

  
a b
Example 6. Let GL2 (R) = a, b, c, d ∈ R, ad − bc 6= 0 and let the binary opera-
c d
tion be the multiplication of matrices. Let’s check that the axioms are satisfied so that it is
a group.

1. Associativity: Follows from basic properties of matrix multiplication.

 
1 0
2. Identity: Notice that is the identity element.
0 1

3. Inverse: The condition ad − bc 6= 0 ensures that each element has an inverse.

For completeness, we also need to check that the product of two invertible matrices is
again invertible (one quick proof of this uses the fact that taking a determinant is homo-
morphism. For instance det( A) = det( A) det( B). From this note that if both A and B
have non-zero determinants, then AB also has a non-zero determinant). Also observe
that this group is not abelian. More generally, for n ≥ 1, we can define
n o
GLn (R) = n × n matrix A det A 6= 0 (6)

1.2 Subgroups
Definition 6 (Subgroup). A subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if the follow-
ing axioms are satisfied

1. Identity: 1 ∈ H (we could also write 1G ∈ H).

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 2. Closed under products: h1 h2 ∈ H for all h1 , h2 ∈ H (in words, the binary operation
of G applied to elements of H keeps products in H).

3. Closed under inverses: h−1 ∈ H for all h ∈ H.

In this case we write H ≤ G. Observe that H is indeed a group.
Example 7 (Examples of Subgroups). The following are examples of subgroups.
1. Define H = {(123), (132), id} ⊂ S3 . Let’s check the 3 axioms required to be a sub-
group.

(a) Identity: Observe that id ∈ H.

(b) Closed under products: Define σ = (123). Then σ2 = (132) and σ3 = id.
Therefore, σ ◦ σ2 = σ3 = id ∈ H and so forth.
(c) Closed under inverses: Observe that (123)−1 = (321) = (132) ∈ H.

2. Define H = {λIn |λ ∈ R \ {0}} ⊂ GLn (R).

(a) Identity: Take λ = 1.

(b) Closed under products: Fix λ1 , λ2 ∈ R× . Then (λ1 I )(λ2 I ) = (λ1 λ2 ) I ∈ H.
(c) Closed under inverses: Observe that (λI )−1 = λ−1 I ∈ H.

3. Define H = {2, 4, 0} ⊂ Z/6Z.

(a) Identity: 0 is in the set.

(b) Closed under products: Note that 0 + 2 = 2 + 0 = 2 ∈ H, 0 + 4 = 4 + 0 = 4 ∈
H, 2 + 4 = 4 + 2 = 0 ∈ H, 2 + 2 = 4 ∈ H, and 4 + 4 = 2 ∈ H.
(c) Closed under inverses: Note that 2−1 = 4 ∈ H (because 2 + 4 = 0) and of
course 4−1 = 2 ∈ H.

4. Define H = {σn ∈ Sn |σ (n) = n} ⊂ Sn (the set of n-permutations which fix the last
index).

(a) Identity: id ∈ H because the identity permutation fixes the last element.
(b) Closed under products: Let σ, τ ∈ H. Then σ ◦ τ (n) = σ(τ (n)) = σ(n) = n.
Therefore στ also fixes the last element.
(c) Closed under inverses: Fix σ ∈ H. Since σ fixes n, it must also be that σ−1 fixes
n. In words, σ takes n to n, so σ−1 must also take n to n.

Example 8 (Non-example of Subgroup). Define H = {σ ∈ S3 |σ (1) ∈ {1, 2}} ⊂ S3 .

1. Identity: Satisfied.

2. Closed under products: Consider σ = (123). Then σ2 = (132). But here, σ(1) = 3.
Therefore this subset is not a subgroup.

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1.3 Homomorphisms
Definition 7 (Homomorphism). Let G, H be groups. A function φ : G → H is a homo-
morphism if for every a, b ∈ G, we have

φ( ab) = φ( a)φ(b) (7)

Note the the product ab on the left is computed in G and the product φ( a)φ(b) is com-
puted in H.

Example 9 (Examples of Homomorphisms). The following are examples of homomor-

phisms.

1. Let G = GLn (R), H = R× , φ : G → H. Define φ( A) = det( A).

2. Let G = Z/7Z, H = {z ∈ C : z7 = 1}. Define

2πia
φ( a) = e 7 (8)

Then
2πi ( a+b−7k)
φ( ab) = φ( a + b) = e 7

2πia 2πib
=e 7 e 7 e−2πik
2πia 2πib
= e 7 e 7 ·1
= φ( a)φ(b)

Observe that φ is injective and surjective. φ is an isomorphism.

3. Define φ : G → H for all g ∈ G, φ( g) = 1.

4. Define φ : R×
>0 → R, φ ( x ) = log( x ). Then

φ( xy) = log( xy) = log( x ) + log(y) = φ( x ) · φ(y) = φ( x ) + φ(y) (9)

Theorem 6 (Basic facts about homomorphisms). Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism.

Then

1. φ(1G ) = 1 H (the identity of G is mapped to the identity of H).

2. φ( x −1 ) = φ( x )−1 for all x ∈ G.

Proof. Observe that

1. 1 · φ(1) = φ(1) = φ(1 · 1) = φ(1)φ(1). Then the (right) cancellation law gives that
1 = φ (1).

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 2. φ( x −1 )φ( x ) = φ( x −1 x ) = φ(1) = 1 and φ( x )φ( x −1 ) = φ( xx −1 ) = φ(1) = 1.
Therefore, by definition, φ( x −1 ) = φ( x )−1 .

Example 10 (Example of facts about homomorphisms). Take σ = (123) ∈ S3 . Define

φ : Z/3Z → S3 by φ(t) = σt . Then φ(0) = id (we expected this from the above claim),
φ(1) = σ, φ(2) = σ2 .

Theorem 7 (Image of a homomorphism is a subgroup). Let φ : G → H be a homomor-

phism. Then Im(φ) = {φ( g)| g ∈ G } ≤ H.

Proof. Let’s check the axioms required for Im(φ) to be a subgroup.

1. Identity: Take 1 ∈ G, then φ(1) = 1 ∈ Im(φ).

2. Closed under products: φ( a)φ(b) = φ( ab) ∈ Im(φ).

3. Closed under inverses: φ( a)−1 = φ( a−1 ) ∈ Im(φ).

Therefore Im(φ) is a subgroup.

Example 11 (The group nZ). For n ≥ 1, define nZ = {k ∈ Z : k is divisible by n}.

Observe that nZ ≤ Z. Let’s check the axioms:

1. Identity: 0 ∈ nZ because 0 is divisible by everything.

2. Closed under products: If x, y are divisible by n, then xy will also be divisible by n.

3. Closed under inverses: If x is divisible by n, then − x is divisible by n.

Example 12 (Another homomorphism). Define φ : Z → Z/nZ by φ(k ) is the remainder

upon dividing k by n (clearly this remainder is in the set Z/nZ). Then φ is a homomor-
phism. We need to show that φ( a + b) = a + b.
Observations about this example: Note that for each k ∈ nZ, φ(k) = 0. Moreover
{k ∈ Z : φ(k) = 0} = nZ. This motivates the following definition.
Definition 8 (Kernel). Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then

ker(φ) = { g ∈ G : φ( g) = 1} (10)

(note that 1 is the identity of H).

Theorem 8 (Kernel of a homomorphism is a subgroup). Let φ : G → H be a homomor-

phism. Then ker(φ) ≤ G. That is, the kernel of φ is a subgroup of G.

Proof. Let’s check the 3 axioms required to be a subgroup:

1. Identity: Since φ is a homomorphism, we know that φ(1G ) = 1 H . Therefore 1G ∈

ker(φ).

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 2. Closed under products: Let a, b ∈ ker(φ). We want to show that ab ∈ ker(φ), which
means that φ( ab) = 1. Then

φ( ab) = φ( a)φ(b) = 1 · 1 = 1 (11)

Therefore ab ∈ ker(φ) so that ker(φ) is closed under products.

3. Closed under inverses: Let a ∈ ker(φ). Then

φ ( a −1 ) = φ ( a ) −1 = 1−1 = 1 (12)

Therefore a−1 ∈ ker(φ).

Example 13 (Examples of Kernels). The following are examples of kernels of homomor-

phisms:

1. The determinant is a homomorphism from GLn (R) to R× . Then

ker(det) = { A ∈ GLn (R) : det( A) = 1} (13)

2. φ : S3 → {±1} is a homomorphism. Define φ as

φ(123) = φ(132) = 1
φ(12) = φ(13) = φ(23) = −1
φ(id) = 1

Then ker(φ) = {(123), (132), id}.

1.4 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem

Example 14 (Equivalence Relation). Let G be a finite group and let H ≤ G. Define a
relation ∼ on G by a ∼ b if and only if there exists an h ∈ H such that a = bh. This
condition also means that b−1 a ∈ H. We show that ∼ is indeed an equivalence relation:

1. Reflexive (∀ a ∈ G, a ∼ a): One way to see this is to recall that since H is a subgroup,
we know that a−1 a = 1 ∈ H. Or simply, a = a · 1 and 1 ∈ H.

2. Symmetric (∀ a, b ∈ G, a ∼ b =⇒ b ∼ a): a ∼ b implies b−1 a ∈ H. We know that

then (b−1 a)−1 = a−1 b ∈ H. Therefore b ∼ a.

3. Transitive (∀ a, b, c ∈ G, a ∼ b, b ∼ c =⇒ a ∼ c): a ∼ b implies b−1 a ∈ H and

b ∼ c implies c−1 b ∈ H. H is a subgroup, so it’s closed under products. Thus
c−1 bb−1 a ∈ H or that c−1 a ∈ H. Therefore a ∼ c.

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Then let [ a] = {b ∈ G |b ∼ a} = {b ∈ G |∃h ∈ H, b = ah} = { ah|h ∈ H } = aH. G can be
written as a disjoint union of equivalence classes.
Definition 9 (Coset). Let H ≤ G and fix a ∈ G. Let

aH = { ah|h ∈ H }
Ha = {ha|h ∈ H }

These sets are called a left coset and right coset of H in G.

Write G/H for the set of left cosets { aH | a ∈ G }.
Example 15 (Cosets). If a = 1, then aH = 1 · H = H. And, for any a ∈ H, aH = H: First
observe that aH ⊂ H since H is a subgroup. Indeed if a, h ∈ H, then ah ∈ H. Next we’ll
show H ⊂ aH. Fix h ∈ H. We want to show that h ∈ aH, or that it can written in the form
a0 h0 where h0 ∈ H. To achieve this, write h = e · h = a( a−1 h). Note that a−1 h ∈ H since H
is a subgroup. Therefore h ∈ aH. Together these equivalences show that aH = H when
a ∈ H.
Theorem 9 (All left cosets of H have the same size). Let H ≤ G be groups and let a ∈ G.
Then |[ a]| = | aH | = | H |
Proof. We can give a bijection between the two sets to show they have the same number
of elements. To that end, define f : H → aH by f (h) = ah.
1. f is injective: Fix h1 , h2 ∈ H such that f (h1 ) = f (h2 ). Then ah1 = ah2 . Use the left
cancellation law see that h1 = h2 .

2. f is surjective: We need to show that for all h0 ∈ aH there exists an h ∈ H such that
f (h) = h0 . Consider h = a−1 h0 . Then f ( a−1 h0 ) = aa−1 h0 = h0 .
Thus f is a bijection. This result of course implies that | aH | = |bH | = | H | for all a, b ∈ H.
In words, all left cosets of H have the same size as H.
Theorem 10 (Lagrange). Let G be a finite group and let H ≤ G. Then | H | divides | G |.
Proof. Using the above claim, define f : H → aH by f (h) = ah. Then it follows that
|[ a]| = | aH | = | H |. We can write G as a disjoint union of equivalence classes. Let k be the
number of equivalence classes, and observe that they all have the same cardinality of as
H. Therefore | G | = k · | H |, so that | H | | G |.
Definition 10 (Index). If G is a group (possibly infinite) and H ≤ G, the number of left
cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G and is denoted by | G : H |. Alternatively,
| G : H | = | G/H | = |{ aH | a ∈ G }|. If G is finite, the | G : H | = ||H
G|
|
.

Example 16 (Index when G finite). Let G = S3 and H = {(123), (132), id}. H is a sub-
group. Since G is finite, we can calculate the index of H in G as

|G| 6
|G : H | = = =2 (14)
|H| 3

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Thus there are 2 left cosets of H in G. To write out G/H we need only find one other left
coset other than the trivial coset. To do this, we can pick an element of G that is not in H.
Then observe that
G/H = { H, (12) H } (15)
You can verify that (12) H = (13) H = (23) H.

Example 17 (Index when G infinite). R>0 ⊂ R× . Then |R× : R>0 | = 2. Recall that this
means that there are two left cosets of R>0 in R× . We can enumerate these as follows

R× /R>0 = {R>0 , (−1) · R>0 } (16)

We can make an observation about the left cosets of R>0 more generally:

aR>0 = sgn( a) · R>0 (17)

Example 18 (Index of Permutation Group). As a slight abuse of notation, let S3 be the set
of permutations in S4 for which the last index is fixed. Then, since S3 is finite

24
| S4 : S3 | = =4 (18)
6
Therefore S4 /S3 has 4 elements. To find the left cosets of S3 in S4 , look for elements of S4
that aren’t in S3 . Intuitively, these are the permutations that don’t fix 4. We can enumerate
the left cosets as

1. C1 = {σ ∈ S4 |σ(4) = 4} (this is the trivial coset)

2. C2 = {σ ∈ S4 |σ(4) = 3}

3. C3 = {σ ∈ S4 |σ(4) = 2}

4. C4 = {σ ∈ S4 |σ(4) = 1}

Note that we can write each of these cosets as (using C2 as an example): τS3 , where τ (4) =
3. We can pick any such τ that satifies this requirement, and the left cosets generated by
the different choices of τ will be the same.

Definition 11 (Normal Subgroup). We say that a subgroup H of G is normal if aH = Ha

for every a ∈ G. Write H E G. This means that the left and right cosets of a group of
equivalent.

Theorem 11 (Equivalent conditions to be a normal subgroup). Let N ≤ G. Then N E G

if one of the following holds:

1. ∀ g ∈ G, gN = Ng

2. ∀ g ∈ G, gNg−1 = N

12
 3. ∀ g ∈ G, gNg−1 ⊆ N

4. ∀ g ∈ G and ∀n ∈ N, gng−1 ∈ N

Example 19 (Non-example of a Normal Subgroup). Continuing the above example, let S3

be the set of permutations in S4 for which the last index is fixed [[Incomplete]].

Theorem 12 (The kernel of a Homomorphism is a Normal Subgroup). Let φ : G → H be

homomorphism. Then ker(φ) E G.

Proof. (Easier Proof) We’ve already shown that ker φ is a subgroup of G. To show that it
is a normal subgroup, we will show that gkg−1 ∈ ker φ for all g ∈ G and k ∈ ker φ. This
is equivalent to showing that φ( gkg−1 ) = 1 for all g ∈ G and k ∈ ker φ. Then

φ( gkg−1 ) = φ( g)φ(k )φ( g−1 )

= φ ( g ) φ ( g ) −1
=1

Therefore gkg−1 ∈ ker φ for all g ∈ G and k ∈ ker φ, so that ker φ is a normal subgroup of
G.

Proof. (Harder Proof) We will show that for all a ∈ G,

a ker φ = { g ∈ G |φ( g) = φ( a)} = ker φa (19)

Let S = { g ∈ G |φ( g) = φ( a)} and fix and a ∈ G.

Let at ∈ a ker φ. Then
φ( at) = φ( a)φ(t) = φ( a) (20)
Thus a ker φ ⊂ S.
Next let g ∈ S. Therefore φ( g) = φ( a), so that φ( a−1 )φ( g) = 1 = φ( a−1 g). Therefore
− 1
a g ∈ ker φ, so that S ⊂ a ker φ.
The proof for the right cosets is similar. Together, these inclusions show that ker φ is a
normal subgroup.

1.5 Cyclic Groups

Definition 12 (Cyclic Group). A group H is cyclic if H can be generated by a single ele-
ment, i.e., there is some element x ∈ H such that H = { x n |n ∈ Z}. Write H = h x i and
say H is generated by x.
An alternative definition is: Let G be a group and fix x ∈ G. Let H be the subset of G
that contains all the powers of x. Then notice that H = { x n |n ∈ Z} is a subgroup of G
(the identity element must be in H since x0 = 1, H is closed under products since adding
exponents will keep us in H, and the inverse of x n is x −n , which is also in H). We call H
the subgroup of G generated by x, H = h x i, and H is cyclic.

13
Example 20 (Examples of Cyclic Groups). The following are examples of cyclic groups.
 
1 1
1. Let x = ∈ GL2 (R). Then
0 1
  
1 n
hxi = n∈Z (21)
0 1

You can see that taking positive powers of x continually increases the element in the
upper-right hand corner. Finally, observe that
 
−1 1 −1
x = (22)
0 1

Therefore the powers of the inverse of x are also included in h x i.

2. Let x = 3 ∈ Z/6Z. Then h x i = {0, 3}.

Theorem 13 (Every cyclic group is isomorphic to either Z or to Z/nZ for some n ≥ 1.).
For every group H for which there exists an x ∈ H such that H = h x i, there exists a
bijective homomorphism (i.e. an isomorphism) φ : H → C where C = Z or C = Z/nZ
for some n ≥ 1.

Proof. There are two cases to consider.

1. The powers of x are distinct: Define φ : H → Z by φ( x n ) = n. φ is bijective by

construction. To check that φ is indeed a homomorphism, observe that

φ ( x n · x m ) = φ ( x n+m ) = n + m = φ ( x n ) + φ ( x m ) (23)

2. The powers of x are not distinct: Suppose there is some m 6= n such that x m =
x n (without loss of generality assume m ≤ n). Then since x m = x n , we find that
x m x −m = x n x −m . Therefore x n−m = 1. Since there is some finite power of x that
equals the identity, let k be the order of x. Define φ : H → Z/kZ by φ( x m ) = r,
where r is the remainder upon dividing m by k. Surjectivity is clear by definition.
To show φ is injective, we can use the fact that since φ is a homomorphism, it is
injective if and only if ker φ = 1. Then

ker φ = { xr : φ( xr ) = 0}
= { xr : k divides r }
= { x kt : t ∈ Z}
= {1} (since k is the order of x)

14
Theorem 14 (Subgroups of cylic group). Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n. For every
m|n (m that divides n) there exists a unique subgroup H of G with | H | = m. Furthermore,
H is cyclic.

Proof. Assume that G = Z/nZ. This is without generality since G is a finite cyclic group,
and every finite cyclic group is isomorphic to Z/nZ. Definite H = h m n
i, Indeed, H =
( m −1) n
{0, mn , 2n
m,..., m }, and | H | = m.

1.6 Dihedral Groups

For each n ≥ 3, let Dn be the set of symmetries of the regular n-gon. A symmetry is
a rigid motion of the n-gon which takes a copy of the n-gon, moves this copy through
space, and places the copy back on the original n-gon so it exactly covers it.
In general, we consider two types of symmetries:

1. Rotational symmetries (denoted ρ)

2. Mirror symmetries (denoted by e). There is a distinction in the mirror symmetries

when n is even and when n is odd. When n is odd, the mirror symmetries (i.e. the
line of symmetry in this case) all have the same form of starting from a vertex and
going to the mid-point of the edge opposite of the vertex. When n is even, the lines
of symmetry either go from a vertex to a vertex or from a mid-point of an edge to
the mid-point of an edge.

For a regular n-gon, there are n rotational symmetries and n mirror symmetries. Therefore
| Dn | = 2n.

Example 21 (D3 , Symmetries of a Triangle).

Figure 1: The symmetries of an equilateral triangle

15
 Example 22 (D4 , Symmetries of a Square).

Figure 2: The symmetries of a square

Definition 13 (Dihedral Group, Dn ). In general, Dn is a group with 2n elements, where

the binary operation is composition. It contains two types of symmetries:

1. The rotation ρ is 2π 2 n −1 } .
n radians clockwise. The set of all rotations is h ρ i = {1, ρ, ρ , . . . , ρ

2. Let e be a vertical mirror symmetry. Then the set of all mirror symmetries is {e, eρ, eρ2 , . . . , eρn−1 }.

Theorem 15 (Important Identity for Dihedral Groups). ρe = eρ−1 .

We use this relation to make computations in dihedral groups.

Theorem 16. ρi e = eρ−i

Proof. By induction, using the above claim.

Example 23 (Uniqueness of rotations/mirror symmetries). Can two elements in the mir-

ror symmetry set be equal, or equal to an element in the set of rotations? No! Suppose
eρi = eρ j . Then ρi = ρ j , which implies i = j. Now suppose eρi = ρ j , which implies
e = ρ j−i . However this implies e is a rotation, which is nonsense.

Example 24 (Mirror Symmetries are a Coset). Observe that the set of mirror symmetries
is simply ehρi, thus they are a left coset of the cyclic group of rotations. Then

Dn /hρi = {hρi, ehρi} (24)

Since | Dn | = 2n and |hρi| = n, we know that by Lagrange’s theorem, [ Dn : hρi] = 2.

Example 25. In D5 , compute (simplify)

ρe7 ρeρ2 eρ−3 e−1 (25)

16
We know that ρe = eρ−1 , ρ5 = 1, and e2 = 1. Then, with the strategy of pushing e to the
left,

ρe7 ρeρ2 eρ−3 e−1 = ρeρeρ2 eρ2 e (ρ−3 = ρ2 , e−1 = e)

= ρeρeρ2 eρeρ−1
= ρeρeρ2 eeρ−1 ρ−1
= ρeρeρ2 ρ−1 ρ−1
= ρeρe
= ρeeρ−1
=1

1.7 Quotient Groups

Definition 14 (Quotient Group). Let G be a group and N E G (that is, N is a normal
subgroup of G). Let G/N = { gN | g ∈ G } be the set of left cosets of N in G. Then the
quotient group of G by N is the group ( G/N, ·), where · is the binary operation on G/N
defined for all g1 N, g2 N ∈ G/N by g1 Ng2 N = g1 g2 N.

Theorem 17. In the above definition, G/N is a group.

Proof. Binary operation well-defined: We need to check that · : G/N × G/N → G/N,
where ( g1 N, g2 N ) → g1 g2 N is well-defined (A function is well-defined if it gives the same
result when the representation of the input is changed without changing the value of the
input. In this context, we show that the definition of multiplication depends on only the
cosets and not on the coset representatives). Suppose that g1 N = g10 N and g2 N = g20 N,
so we want to show g1 g2 N = g10 g20 N. Then g1 N = g10 N ⇐⇒ ( g10 )−1 g1 ∈ N and
g2 N = g20 N ⇐⇒ ( g20 )−1 g2 ∈ N. We then want to show ( g10 g20 )−1 g1 g2 ∈ N. Then

( g10 g20 )−1 g1 g2 = ( g20 )−1 ( g10 )−1 g1 g2

= ( g20 )−1 ng2 (n = ( g10 )−1 g1 ∈ N)
= ( g20 )−1 ng20 ( g20 )−1 g2
= ( g20 )−1 ng20 n0 (n0 = ( g20 )−1 g2 ∈ N)
= ( g20 )−1 g20 n00 n0 (N is normal)
= n00 n0 ∈ N

Therefore the binary operation is indeed well-defined.

We now check the axioms required to be a group.

1. Identity: Observe that

1·N = N (26)

17
 2. Inverse: Observe that
( gN )−1 = g−1 N (27)
because
gNg−1 N = gg−1 N = N (28)

3. Associativity: Follows clearly from the associativity of G.

( g1 Ng2 N )( g3 N ) = ( g1 g2 N )( g3 N )
= g1 g2 g3 N
= ( g1 N )( g2 g3 N )
= ( g1 N )( g2 Ng3 N )

Therefore G/H is a group.

Example 26 (Examples of Quotient Groups). 1. R× /R>0 = {R>0 , (−1) · R>0 } ∼

= {±1}
2. Z/12Z = {0 + 12Z, 1 + 12Z, . . . , 11 + 12Z}

3. (Z/12Z)/{0, 4, 8} ∼= Z/4Z. Thus this quotient group has 4 elements (we can also
see this from Lagrange’s theorem). Also observe that this is a cyclic group.

1.8 Isomorphism Theorems

Theorem 18 (The First Isomorphism Theorem). If φ : G → H is a homomorphism of
groups, then G/ ker(φ) ∼
= Imφ.
Proof. Define f : G/ ker(φ) → Imφ by f ( a ker(φ)) = φ( a). We first show f is indeed well-
defined. To that end, pick a ker(φ) = b ker(φ). Therefore there exists some k ∈ ker(φ)
such that a = bk. Then

φ( a) = f ( a ker(φ)) = f (bk ker(φ)) = f (b ker(φ)) = φ(b) (29)

Therefore f is well-defined. We now show f is an isomorphism.

1. f is a homomorphism:

f ( a ker(φ)b ker(φ)) = f ( ab ker(φ))

= φ( ab)
= φ( a)φ(b) (φ is a homomorphism)
= f ( a ker(φ)) f (b ker(φ))

2. f is surjective: Let φ( a) ∈ Imφ. Then f ( a ker φ) = φ( a).

18
 3. f is injective:

ker( f ) = { a ker φ : f ( a ker φ) = 1 H }

= { a ker φ : φ( a) = 1 H }
= {ker φ}

Thus the kernel of f is trivial (the trivial left coset), so f is injective.

Therefore f is an isomorphism.

Intuition for this theorem:

• This is a more general version of the rank-nullity theorem.

• Given vector spaces V, W and a linear transformation A : V → W, this theorem says

dim(V/ ker A) = dim(range( A)) (30)

or that
dim(V ) − nullity( A) = rank( A) (31)

Example 27 (Examples of applications of first isomorphism theorem). Consider the fol-

lowing examples

1. sgn : R× → {±1}. This is indeed a homomorphism. By the theorem, we know that

R× / ker(sgn) ∼
= {±1} (32)

Then ker(sgn) = R>0 . This matches the previous example.

2. det : GL2 (R) → R× . The theorem implies

GL2 (R)/{ A ∈ GL2 (R)| det( A) = 1} ∼

= R× (33)

Theorem 19 (The Second or Diamond Isomorphism Theorem). Let H ≤ G and K E G.

Then HK/K ∼= H/H ∩ K.
Proof. Define f : HK/K → H/H ∩ K by

f (hkK ) = h( H ∩ K ) (34)

We’ll first show f is well-defined. Fix hk, h0 k0 ∈ HK such that hkK = h0 k0 K ∈ HK/K.
There h = h0 k̃ for some k̃ ∈ K. Then

h( H ∩ k ) = f (hkK ) = f (h0 k̃K ) = h0 ( H ∩ K ) (35)

Therefore f is well-defined, and we now show f is an isomorphism.

19
 1. f is a homomorphism:

f ( h1 k 1 K · h2 k 2 K ) = f ( h1 K · h2 K )
= f ( h1 h2 K )
= h1 h2 ( H ∩ K )
= h1 ( H ∩ K ) h2 ( H ∩ K )
= f ( h1 k 1 K ) f ( h2 k 2 K )

2. f is surjective: Clear by the definition of f .

3. f is injective: We’ll show the kernel of f is trivial (in this context, the trivial left
coset).

ker( f ) = { hk · K | f (hk · K ) = H ∩ K }
= {hk · K |h( H ∩ K ) = H ∩ K }
= {hk · K |h ∈ H ∩ K } (h( H ∩ K ) = H ∩ K ⇐⇒ h ∈ H ∩ K)
= {K }

1.9 Actions, Orbits, and Stabilizers

Definition 15 (Action). An action of a group G on X (or we say G acts on X) is a function
G × X → X, ( g, x ) → gx where

1. 1G x = x ∀x ∈ X

2. g(hx ) = ( gh) x ∀ g, h ∈ G, ∀ x ∈ X
Example 28 (Group Actions). 1. Set: Rn , Group: GLn (R), Action: ( A, v) → Av. In R2 ,
we can see that     
a b v1 av1 + bv2
= ∈ R2 (36)
c d v2 cv1 + dv2
Observe that the two axioms required to be an axiom are satisfied, since the identity
matrix preserves vectors and matrix/vector multiplication is associative.

2. Set: {1, . . . , n}, Group: Sn , Action: (σ, i ) → σ (i ). Observe that the two axioms are
satisfied. The identity permutation fixes an index and the composition of permuta-
tions is associative.

3. Set: G, Group: G, Action: ( g, h) → gh. The identity element of G maps 1G h = h and

since G is a group, multiplication is associative.

4. Set: G, Group: G, Action: ( g, x ) → gxg−1 . Let’s verify the axioms:

20
 (a) Suppose g = 1. Then (1, x ) → 1x1−1 = x.
(b) Observe that
g(h( x )) = g(hxh−1 ) = g(hxh−1 ) g−1 (37)
and
( gh)( x ) = ghx ( gh)−1 = ghxh−1 g−1 (38)

5. Set: Set of all subgroups of G, Group: G, Action: ( g, H ) → gHg−1 . We need to show

that gHG −1 is a subgroup if H is a subgroup (this shows that G × (subgroup) →
(subgroup)). Let’s verify the axioms required to be a subgroup:

(a) Identity: Note that 1 ∈ H since H ≤ G. Thus g1g−1 = 1 ∈ gHg−1 .

(b) Closed under products: Let ghg−1 , gh0 g−1 ∈ gHg−1 . Then

( ghg−1 )( gh0 g−1 ) = ghh0 g−1

= gh̃g−1 ∈ gHg−1 (H closed under multiplication)

(c) Closed under inverses: Note that ( ghg−1 )−1 = gh−1 g−1 ∈ H since H is closed
under inverses.

Therefore gHg−1 is a subgroup. Now, let’s verify the axioms to should this is indeed
an action [[?]]:

(a) 1gHg−1 = gHg−1

(b) ??

6. Set: Pairs of distinct elements from {1, . . . , n}, Group: Sn , Action: σ(i, j) = (σ(i ), σ ( j)).

Definition 16 (Orbit). Given x ∈ X the orbit of x is

O( x ) = Ox = { gx | g ∈ G } (39)

This is the set of all elements that can be reached from x by applying elements from G.

Example 29 (Examples of Orbits). 1. Let X = {1, . . . , n}. Suppose G = Sn . Then the

orbit of each element is the whole set, X.

2. H is normal if and only if all if its orbits only contain one element [[?]].

Definition 17 (Stabilizer, Isotropy Subgroup). Let X be a G-set and x ∈ X. The stabilizer

of x is
Gx = StabG ( x ) = { g ∈ G | gx = x } (40)
also called the isotropy subgroup of x.

Theorem 20 (The stabilizer of a group element is a subgroup). Gx ≤ G

21
Proof. We verify the three axioms required to be a subgroup:

1. Identity: Note that 1x = x, therefore 1 ∈ Gx .

2. Closed under products: Let a, b ∈ Gx . We need to show that ab ∈ Gx , or that

( ab) x = x. Then,
( ab) x = a(bx ) = ax = x (41)

3. Closed under inverses: Let a ∈ Gx . We know ax = x. Therefore, applying a−1 on

the left, we get that a−1 ax = a−1 x. This simplifies to x = a−1 x. Thus a−1 ∈ Gx .

Thus Gx is a subgroup.

Theorem 21 (Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem). There is a bijection

f : G/Gx → Ox (42)

In words, there is a bijection between the collection of all cosets of the stabilizer and the
orbit. In particular,
[ G : Gx ] = |Ox | (43)
(Recall we defined | G/Gx | to be [ G : Gx ]).

Proof. Define
f : G/Gx → Ox (44)
by
f ( gGx ) = gx (45)
We will first verify that f is well-defined. In this context, this means that the output of
the function does not depend on what representative from the left coset is chosen. To that
end, suppose gGx = hGx . We need to show that gx = hx. Equivalently, we need to show
that h−1 gx = x, or that h−1 g ∈ Gx (the stabilizer of x). However, this last characterization
follows directly from the assumption that

gGx = hGx (46)

We now show that f is surjective. This is clear from the definition of the function. To
get an element gx, we simply need to input g.
We now show that f is injective (note here that f is not a homomorphism. Thus we
cannot use the trick that f is injective if and only if its kernel is trivial). Suppose that
f ( gGx ) = f (hGx ). Hence, gx = hx, so h−1 gx = x. Therefore, h−1 g ∈ Gx , which implies
that gGx = hGx .

Example 30 (Examples of Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem). 1. Suppose D3 acts on the vertices

of a triangle. That is, G = D3 and X = { a, b, c}. Observe that Oa = { a, b, c}, be-
cause a rotation allows us to reach any other vertex starting from a. Next, Ga =

22
 {1, reflection at a}. Observe that

|G| 6
[ G : Ga ] = = =3 (47)
| Ga | 2

and
|Oa | = 3 (48)
Therefore the theorem holds.

2. Suppose S5 acts on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then

G5 ∼
= S4 (49)

In words, the stabilizer of 5 is simply the set of permutations that keep 5 fixed, which
is equivalent to the set of permutations of {1, 2, 3, 4}. Note that O5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
And
|S | 120
[ G : G5 ] = 5 = =5 (50)
| G5 | 24
and
|O5 | = 5 (51)
Therefore the theorem holds.

Definition 18 (Transitive action). We say that an action of G on X is transitive if for every

x, y ∈ X, there is an element g ∈ G such that gx = y. In words, this means that we can
arrive at y from x by applying an element from G.

Example 31 (Transitive actions). 1. The action of S5 on {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is transitive.

2. The action of GLn (R) on Rn is not transitive. Consider the zero vector. Then any
matrix we apply to the zero vector will still give us the zero vector. Thus, we cannot
reach another vector in Rn .

3. The multiplication action of G on itself is transitive. To get to y from x, we can apply

g = yx −1 .

Definition 19 (Action induces equivalence relation). The action of any group G on X

induces an equivalence relation by saying x ∼ y if there exists a g ∈ G such that gx = y.

Proof. We’ll show that this is indeed an equivalence relation. We need to verify three
axioms:

1. Reflexive: We want to show that x ∼ x. Let g = 1. Then 1 · x = x.

2. Symmetric: Suppose x ∼ y. We want to show that y ∼ x. Since x ∼ y, there exists a

g ∈ G such that gx = y. This implies x = g−1 y. Therefore y ∼ x.

23
 3. Transitive: Suppose x ∼ y and y ∼ z. We want to show that x ∼ z. By definition,
there exist g, h ∈ G such that gx = y and hy = z. Thus hgx = z. Since the binary
operation of G is closed, we know gh ∈ G, so that x ∼ z.

Remark 1. The equivalence class of x ∈ X is the orbit of x, Ox .

Theorem 22 (Action transitive iff one orbit). An action is transitive if and only if there
exists an x ∈ X such that Ox = X. That is, all elements of X have the same equivalence
class.

Proof. TODO

Definition 20 (Conjugation action, conjugacy classes, conjugate). Consider the action of

G on itself by g( x ) = gxg−1 . We call this the conjugation action. The equivalence classes
created by this action are called the conjugacy classes of G. We say that two elements in
x, y ∈ G are conjugate if they belong to the same conjugacy class.

Example 32. In S5 , the elements (12)(34) and (52)(13) are conjugate. In other words,
there exists a σ ∈ S5 such that

σ (12)(34)σ−1 = (52)(13) (52)

One σ that works is

σ(1) = 5, σ(2) = 2, σ (3) = 1, σ(4) = 3, σ (5) = 4 (53)

We can generate this σ by recalling that

σ(12)(34)σ−1 = σ(12)σ−1 σ(34)σ−1

= (σ(1)σ(2))(σ(3)σ(4))

Thus we want to choose a σ such that these two cycles are equivalent to the two given
cycles.

Definition 21 (Fixed points). For any element g ∈ G, let X g = { x ∈ X | gx = x }. In words,

this is the set of all elements in X such that g acts on them like the identity.

Example 33 (Fixed points). 1. Let G = D3 and X = { a, b, c} be the vertices of a trian-

gle. Then X = ∅. However, the set of fixed points of the reflection through c is
ρ

simply {c}.

24
 2. Let G = GL2 (R) and X = R2 . Then
 

0 1        
1 0 a 0 1 a a
X = ∈R |
2
=
b 1 0 b b
     
a b a
= ∈ R2 | =
b a b
(where the first and second coord are the same)
 
1
= span
1

Theorem 23 (Burnside). Let G act on X. Suppose that G, X are finite. Then,

1
N = # of orbits (equivalence classes) =
|G| ∑ |X g | (54)
g∈ G

Proof. Let’s count

|{( g, x ) : gx = x }| (55)
in two ways.

1. By counting "over G" (i.e. how many elements each g contributes): For each g, this
simply the number of points g fixes

∑ |X g | (56)
g∈ G

2. By counting "over X": For each x, this is how many elements g ∈ G that fix x:

∑ | Gx | (57)
x∈X

By the orbit-stabilizer theorem, we know that

|G|
= |Ox | (58)
| Gx |

25
 Therefore
|G|
∑ | Gx | = ∑ |Ox |
x∈X x∈X
1
= |G| ∑ |Ox |
x∈X
1
= |G| ∑ ∑ |Ox |
orbits elements
= |G| ∑ 1
orbits
= |G| N

Equating these two ways of counting the number of elements in the set proves the theo-
rem.
Exercise 6. In how many ways can one color the vertices of a square using 10 distinct
colors? Or, how many orbits are there for the action of D4 on the set of colorings of the
vertices of a square using the colors.
Solution 6. We can use Burnside’s theorem to complete this calculation.
Element g ∈ G |X g |
1 104 = 10000
ρ 10 (all vertices share same color)
ρ2 102 = 100 (opposite vertices share same color)
ρ3 10 (same as ρ)
Edge Reflection (x2) 102 = 100 (adjacent vertices across reflection line same)
Vertex Reflection (x2) 103 = 1000 (vertices not on reflection line same)
Then by Burnside’s Theorem, we know that

1
N= (10, 000 + 10 + 100 + 10 + 2 × 100 + 2 × 1000) (59)
8
Definition 22 (Free, faithful action). Let G be a group that acts on a set X.
1. The action is said to be faithful if for all x ∈ X

gx = x =⇒ g = 1 (60)

Thus the only element that acts like the identity is actually the identity g = 1. Alter-
natively,
∩ x ∈ X Gx = {1} (61)

2. The action is free if for all g ∈ G and for all x ∈ X

gx = x =⇒ g = 1 (62)

26
 Alternatively, this means all stabilizers are trivial. We have that for all x ∈ X,

Gx = {1} (63)

Or, any element which has a fixed point is the identity element.

Observations:

• If free, then faithful.

Example 34 (Free, faithful actions). 1. The action of G on itself by left multiplication is

free.

2. The action of Dn on the vertices of an n-gon is faithful but not free.

3. Suppose GL2 (R) acts on R2 . This action is not free, but it is faithful. It’s not free
because the zero vector is always mapped back to the zero vector.  Itis faithfulsince

1 0
Av = v implies A is the identity matrix (to see this, consider v = and v = ).
0 1

1.10 Multiplicative group of integers modulo n

Definition 23 (Coprime). An integer a is coprime to n if the only positive divisor of both
a and n is 1.

Definition 24 ((Z/nZ)× ).

(Z/nZ)× = {1 ≤ a ≤ n − 1| a coprime to n} (64)

n ≥ 2. This is called the multiplicative group of integers modulo n, where the binary
operation is multiplication and taking the remainder upon dividing by n.

n ((Z/nZ)× )
2 {1}
3 {1 , 2}
Example 35 ((Z/nZ)× ).
4 {1, 3}
5 {1, 2, 3, 4}
6 {1, 5}

Example 36 (Computations in (Z/nZ)× ). Suppose n = 5. Then we consider (Z/5Z)× .

1. 1 · 2 = 2

2. 2 · 3 = 1

3. 2 · 2 = 4

4. 3 · 3 = 4

27
Theorem 24 (Multiplication module n is a group). (Z/nZ)× is a group.
Proof. We verify the axioms:
1. Unit: The unit element is 1, since 1 is coprime to every number and acts an identity
under multiplication.

2. Inverse: Define a function for a fixed g ∈ (Z/nZ)× by f : (Z/nZ)× → (Z/nZ)×

where f ( x ) = gx. To show that g has an inverse, it suffices to show that f is surjec-
tive. If f is surjective, then there must exist some x ∈ (Z/nZ)× such that gx = 1.
However, since (Z/nZ)× is finite, it is enough to show that g is injective (so that f
must also be surjective.) suppose that gx = gy for some x, y ∈ (Z/nZ)× . Then, for
some α, β ∈ Z
gx − nα = gy − nβ (equality of integers)
this implies
g( x − y) = n(α − β) (65)
so that n divides g( x − y). Next, recall that n is coprime to g (by the definition of
the set/group), so n|( x − y). However, since x, y ∈ (Z/nZ)× , the difference in
absolute value of x and y must be less than n. This implies that x = y, which proves
injectivity.

Theorem 25 (Fermat’s Little Theorem). For a prime number p and 1 ≤ x ≤ p − 1, we

have x p−1 − 1 is divisible by p.
Proof. Note that x ∈ (Z/pZ)× (since p is prime and x is less than p). Let k be the order of
x and consider
h x i = {1, x, x2 , . . . , x k−1 } (66)
by Lagrange’s theorem, |h x i| divides |(Z/nZ)× |. Thus k divides p − 1 (because |h x i| is k
and|(Z/nZ)× | is p − 1, since p is prime). Then there exists some t such that p − 1 = k · t.
Thus
x p −1 = x k · t = ( x k ) t = 1t = 1 (mod p)

Theorem 26. Let p 6= q be odd primes. Then

(Z/pqZ)× ∼
= (Z/pZ)× × (Z/qZ)× (67)

Proof. Define a homomorphism φ : (Z/pqZ)× ∼ = (Z/pZ)× × (Z/qZ)× by taking re-

mainders for division by p and q separately.
Example 37. Suppose p = 3 and q = 5. Then φ(11) = (2, 1).
It suffices to check that φ : (Z/pqZ)× ∼
= (Z/pZ)× is a homomorphism. This requires
checking that ab reduces mod p to the product of the reductions of a and b.

28
Example 38. p = 3 and q = 5.
7 · 11 = 77 = 2 (68)
and
1·2 = 2 (69)
Next we’ll show φ is injective. We’ll show that ker φ is trivial.

ker φ = {1 ≤ a ≤ pq − 1|φ( a) = (1, 1)}

= {1 ≤ a ≤ pq − 1 p|( a − 1), q|( a − 1)}

= {1 ≤ a ≤ pq − 1 pq|( a − 1)}
= {1}

To show surjectivity, we’ll show that the domain and the range have the same size (we
can do this since we’ve already shown φ is injective.) Then

|(Z/pqZ)× | = ( p − 1)(q − 1) (70)

and
|(Z/pqZ)× | = pq − q − p + 1 (71)
because there are pq total possible elements, but q are divisible by p, p divisible by q, and
1 element (pq) that is divisible by both p and q.

Definition 25 (Permutation representation of action). Let G be a group that acts on {1, . . . , n}.
Associated to the action is a homomorphism λ : G → Sn , defined by

λ( g)(i ) = gi (72)

where the RHS is the action of g on i, i ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

We need to confirm that λ is indeed a homomorphism.

Proof.

λ( gh)(i ) = gh(i )
= g(h(i )) (since action)
= λ( g)(h(i )) (definition of λ)
= λ( g)(λ(h)(i )) (definition of λ)

For completeness, we should also check λ( g) is indeed a permutation for every g ∈ G.

Proof. Incomplete (some weird proof with the inverse?)

29
Theorem 27. If λ : G → Sn is a homomorphism, we can define an action of G on {1, . . . , n}
by
g(i ) = λ( g)(i ) (73)
Proof. We check the two conditions required to be an action:
1. 1(i ) = λ(1)(i ) = id(i ) = i

2. gh(i ) = λ( gh)(i ) = λ( g)(λ(h)(i )) = λ( g)(h(i )) = g(h(i ))

Example 39. Let D4 action of the vertices of a square. We can enumerate the values of the
homomorphism λ : D4 → S4 .
1. λ(id) = id

2. λ(ρ) = (1234)

3. λ(ρ2 ) = (13)(24)

4. λ(ρ3 ) = (1432)

5. λ(e) = (12)(34)

6. and so on
Theorem 28. Under the above assumptions: λ is injective if and only if the action of G on
X (which we can think of as {1, . . . , n}) is faithful.
Proof. Since λ is a homomorphism, we can prove it is injective by showing its kernel is
trivial. Then
ker λ = { g ∈ G |λ( g)(i ) = i ∀i ∈ X } (74)
Hence, ker λ = {1} if and only if the action is faithful.
Theorem 29 (Cayley). Let G be a group of order n. Then, there exists an injective homo-
morphism φ : G → Sn .
Proof. Consider the action of G on itself by (left) multiplication. Associated to this action
is a homomorphism φ : G → Sn . This action is free (shown in homework), and therefore
faithful, so φ is injective by the above claim.
Example 40. Take G = Z/3Z = {1, 2, 3} (where 3 = 0). Then φ : G → S3 has elements
1. φ(3) = id

2. φ(2) = (132) (since 1 + 2 = 3 and 3 + 2 = 5 = 2 and 2 + 2 = 4 = 1)

3. φ(1) = (123)
Theorem 30. If | G | = n, then G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sn . Indeed φ : G →
Im(φ) ⊂ Sn .

30
1.11 p-Groups
Definition 26 (p-Group). Let p be a prime number. G is a p-group if | G | is a power of p.
Theorem 31 (Cardinality of set of fixed points of action of set on p-group equals cardinal-
ity of set mod p). Let G be a p-group that acts on a finite set X. Let X G = ∩ g∈G X g where
X g = { x ∈ X | gx = x }, that is those x ∈ X such that for all g ∈ G, gx = x. Then p divides
| X | − | X G |, that is
| X G | ≡ | X | (modp) (75)
Proof. Let x1 , . . . , xm be the representatives for the orbits of G on X (recall that the the
disjoint union of orbits of these representatives cover X). Let’s partition these elements
into those in X G and those not. Thus suppose that x1 , . . . , xk ∈ X G and xk+1 , . . . , xm 6∈ X G .
Then
m k m
|X| = ∑ |O(xi )| = ∑ |O(xi )| ∑ |O( x j )| (76)
i =1 i =1 j = k +1

Then
k
∑ |O(xi )| = |X G | (77)
i =1
and by the orbit-stabilizer theorem
m m
|G|
∑ |O( x j )| = ∑ | Gx j |
(78)
j = k +1 j = k +1

Notice that | G | is divisible by p. Further, | Gx j | must be divisible by p since it is a subgroup

of G (this follows from Lagrange’s theorem). Therefore, | X | equals | X G | plus the sum of
things divisible by p, so that we must have that p divides | X | − | X G |.
Theorem 32 (A p-group has a non-trivial center). Let G be a p-group. Then Z ( G ) 6=
{1}. In words, there has to be a non-trivial element of the group that commutes with
everything else.
Proof. Let X = G and consider the action of G on X by conjugation. By the above theorem,
we know that p divides | X | − | X G |. Therefore since p divides | X |, we must have that p
divides | X G |. Now

X G = { x ∈ X |∀ g ∈ G, g( x ) = x }
= { x ∈ X |∀ g ∈ G, gxg−1 = x }
= { x ∈ X |∀ g ∈ G, gx = xg} = Z ( G )

We always have that 1 ∈ Z ( G ). Now since p divides | X G |, we must have that Z ( G ) 6= {1},
since no prime p divides 1.
Corollary 1 (Group of order p2 abelian). Let p be a prime number and let G be a group of
order p2 . Then G is abelian.

31
Proof. Consider Z ( G ). By Lagrange’s theorem, we must have that | Z ( G )| = p, p2 (the
above theorem rules out 1. The only other possible divisors are p and p2 since p is prime).
There are two cases to consider.

1. Case 1: | Z ( G )| = p2 . Then Z ( G ) = G. Thus since Z ( G ) is abelian, G is abelian.

2. Case 2: | Z ( G )| = p. Then by Lagrange’s theorem, | G/Z ( G )| = p G/Z ( G ) is cyclic

(since Z ( G ) is normal), Thus G is abelian.

This same result need not hold for higher powers of p. For example, consider D8 .
23 = 8. But | D8 | is not abelian.

Theorem 33 (Cauchy). Let G be a finite group and suppose that p | G | for some prime p.
Then there exists an element of order p in G.

Proof. Let’s start by proving the simple case of p = 2. Therefore | G | is even. We can pair
each element in G with its inverse. Note that 1 = 1−1 so the identity element is paired
with itself. Since | G | is even, there must exist 1 6= g ∈ G such that g = g−1 . Then g2 = 1.
Thus there exists an element of order 2.
Let’s now prove the general case. Define the set X as

X = {( g1 , . . . , g p )| g1 g2 · · · g p = 1, g1 , g2 , . . . , g p ∈ G } (79)

Then Z/pZ acts on X by a( g1 , . . . , g p ) by cyclic rotation of a times of ( g1 , . . . , g p ) where

a ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}.

Example 41 (Example of Cauchy’s Theorem). Consider G = S5 . If p = 3, then (123) is an

example of an element with order 3. If p = 5, then (12345) is an example of an element
with order 5.

Summary of p-Groups
1. Any group of order p is cyclic.

Theorem 34 (Correspondence Theorem). Let G, H be groups, and let φ : G → H be a

group homomorphism. Then there exists a correspondence (i.e. a bijection)

{Subgroups K of G containing ker φ} ⇐⇒ {Subgroups L of H contained in Im(φ)}

given by K 7→ φ(K ) and L 7→ φ−1 ( L). In addition, let K1 and K2 be subgroups of G

containing ker(φ) and L1 and L2 subgroups L of H contained in Im(φ).

1. K1 ≤ K2 =⇒ φ(K1 ) ≤ φ(K2 )

2. L1 ≤ L2 =⇒ φ−1 ( L1 ) ≤ φ−1 ( L2 )

32
and

1. K1 ≤ K2 =⇒ [K2 : K1 ] = [φ(K2 ) : φ(K1 )]

2. L1 ≤ L2 =⇒ [ L2 : L1 ] = [φ( L2 ) : φ( L1 )]

Proof.

Theorem 35 (Corollary of Correspondence Theorem). Let G be a group and let N E G.

Then the subgroups of G/N are all of the form R/N for some N ≤ R ≤ G. Moreover,

[ G : R] = [ G/N : R/N ] (80)

Proof.

Theorem 36 (Sylow’s Theorem). Let p be a prime number, let G be a finite group, and let
pn be the largest power of p that divides | G |. Then G contains a subgroup P of order pn .
P is called a p-Sylow subgroup of G.

Proof. Todo.

Example 42 (Example of 2-Sylow subgroup of S4 ). What is a 2-Sylow subgroup of S4 ? We

are looking for a subgroup of S4 which contains 8 elements. A natural candidate is D4
acting on the vertices of a square. This action gives rise to a homomorphism λ from D4
to S4 . Further, this homomorphism is injective (and also recall that this action should be
faithful). Hence Imλ ≤ S4 of order 8.

Example 43 (Example of 3-Sylow subgroup of Z/45Z). What is a 3-Sylow subgroup of

Z/45Z? We are looking for a subgroup with 9 elements (since 32 = 9 is the largest power
of 3 that divides 45). Note that

h5i = {0, 5, 10, 15, . . . , 35, 40} (81)

is a subgroup of order 9.

Theorem 37 (p-Sylow subgroups are conjugate). Let G be a finite group and let P, Q be
p-Sylow subgroups of G. Then there exists g ∈ G such that gPg−1 = Q.

Proof. Recall that

gPg−1 = { gtg−1 |t ∈ P} (82)
Let P act on X = G/Q by

t( gQ) = tgQ, (t ∈ P, g ∈ G ) (83)

Also note that

|G|
|X| = (84)
| Q|

33
is not divisible by p (since | Q| is the largest power of p that divides | G |). Then

X p = { x ∈ X |∀t ∈ P, tx = x }
= { gQ|∀t ∈ P, tgQ = gQ}
= { gQ|∀t ∈ P, g−1 tg ∈ Q}
= { gQ|∀t ∈ P, t ∈ gQg−1 }
= { gQ| P ⊆ gQg−1 }

By Theorem 31, | X p | is also not divisible by p. Further X p 6= ∅. Therefore there exists a

g ∈ G such that P ⊂ gQg−1 . Then

| gQg−1 | = | Q| (conjugation is a bijective operation)

= | P| (since both p-Sylow subgroups)

This implies that gPg−1 = Q.

Observations about this theorem:

1. If the group is abelian, then the Sylow subgroups are unique.

Corollary 2 (p-Sylow subgroup unique if and only if normal subgroup.). Let G be a finite
group and let P be a p-Sylow subgroup of G. Then P is a unique p-Sylow subgroup if and
only if P E G.

Theorem 38 (Sylow’s Theorem (General)). Let G be a finite group and p a prime. Suppose
that pr divides | G |. Then G has a subgroup H of order pr . Moreover, every subgroup of
order pr is contained in a Sylow subgroup.

Proof. Todo.

1.12 Commutator Subgroups

Definition 27 (Commutator). Let G be a group and let x, y ∈ G. The commutator of x, y
is
[ x, y] = x −1 y−1 xy (85)

Definition 28 (Commutator subgroup). Let G be a group. Notation: Let A, B ⊆ G. Then

[ A, B] = h[ a, b]| a ∈ A, b ∈ Bi (86)

Then the commutator subgroup of G is

G 0 = [ G, G ] = h[ a, b]| a, b ∈ G i (87)

34
2 Ring Theory
2.1 Ring Basics
Definition 29 (Ring). Let A be a set with two binary operations: addition and multiplica-
tion. A is called a ring if:
1. A is an abelian group under addition:

(a) Addition associative: For all a, b, c ∈ A, ( a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

(b) Additive identity: There exists a 0 ∈ A such that for all a ∈ A, a + 0 = 0 + a =
a.
(c) Additive inverse: For all a ∈ A, there exists a b ∈ A such that a + b = b + a = 0.
(d) Addition commutative: For all a, b ∈ A, a + b = b + a.

2. Multiplication associative: For all a, b, c ∈ A, ( a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

3. Multiplicative identity: There exists 1 ∈ A such that for all a ∈ A, 1 · a = a · 1 = a.

4. Multiplication distributive: For all a, b, c ∈ A

(a) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.
(b) (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

Example 44 (Examples of Rings). The following are examples of rings:

1. A = Z = {0, ±1, ±2, . . .}.

2. A ∈ Mn×n (R) = {n × n matrices over R}.

3. A = R

4. A = Z/nZ = {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}, n ≥ 2.

5. A = R[ x ] = {∑in=1 ai xi | ai ∈ R} (the ring of polynomials with real coefficients).

Definition 30 (Commutative Ring). A ring is called commutative if for all a, b ∈ A, ab =
ba.
Definition 31 (Field). A commutative ring is called a field if for all a 6= 0, a ∈ A, there
exists a b ∈ A such that ab = ba = 1.
Let a ∈ A where A is a ring. Then we have the following simple claims:
Theorem 39 (0 · a = 0).

0 · a = (0 + 0) · a (0 additive identity)
= 0·a+0·a (distributivity)

Then cancellation gives 0 = 0 · a.

35
 Suppose − a is the additive inverse of a.

Theorem 40 (− a = (−1) · a). We want to show that (−1) · a is the additive inverse of a.
To that end

a + (−1) · a = 1 · a + (−1) · a (1 multiplicative identity)

= (1 + −1) · a (distributivity)
= 0·a
=0

2.2 Matrix Rings

Definition 32 (GLn ( F )). Let F be a field (e.g., F = R, Q, C, Z/pZ (p prime)). Then

GLn ( F ) = {n × n matrices over F with non-zero determinant} (88)

GLn ( F ) is clearly a group (under matrix multiplication).

Example 45 (GLn (Z/pZ)). Let F p = Z/pZ, where p is a prime number. Take p = 3 and
n = 2 and consider GL2 (F3 ). As an example of multiplication in this ring, consider
    
1 0 2 1 2 1
= (89)
1 2 1 0 1 1

Exercise 7 (Cardinality of GL2 (F p )). What is | GL2 (F p )| where F p = {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}.

Solution 7. Recall that

  
a b
GL2 (F p ) = a, b, c, d ∈ F p , ad − bc 6= 0 (90)
c d

We’ll count the number of matrices in this set as follows:

1. First observe that both a and b cannot be 0 (if they were, the matrix would not be
invertible). Thus, with this constraint imposed, there are p2 − 1 ways to choose a
and b.

2. Next, when choosing c, d, we need to ensure that ad − bc 6= 0. Since either a 6= 0 or

b 6= 0, we can as assume without loss of generality that a 6= 0. Thus, this means that

b
d 6= ·c (91)
a
This imposes no restrictions on c, so that there are p ways to choose c. This clearly
imposes one restriction on potential values of d, so that there are p − 1 ways to
choose d.

36
 3. In sum, we find that
| GL2 (F p )| = ( p2 − 1) p( p − 1) (92)

Exercise 8 (p-Sylow subgroup of GL2 (F p )). What is a p-Sylow subgroup of GL2 (F p ), and
is it unique?

Solution 8. To find the order of a p-Sylow subgroup, we need to find the largest power
of p that divides the order of GL2 (F p ). As calculated above, p divides | GL2 (F p )| (but no
larger power does). Cosider the subgroup defined by
  
1 a
a ∈ Fp ≤ GL2 (F p ) (93)
0 1

However, this p-Sylow subgroup is not unique. Indeed, we can find another p-Sylow
subgroup by taking the transpose of each matrix in the above subgroup. We can also
recall that a p-Sylow subgroup is unique if and only if it is a normal subgroup, and this
subgroup is not normal.

2.3 Subrings, Homomorphisms of Rings, and Ideals

Definition 33 (Subring). Let A b a ring. We call R ⊂ A a subring if the following condi-
tions are satisfied:

1. Additive and multiplicative identity: 0, 1 ∈ R.

2. Closed under addition: For all a, b ∈ R, a + b ∈ R.

3. Closed under multiplication: For all a, b ∈ R, ab ∈ R.

4. Closed under inverses (addition): For all a ∈ R, − a ∈ R.

We then write R ≤ A.

Remark 2. If we know that −1 ∈ R, then we don’t need condition 4 above, since we can
use 3 to ensure the additive inverses are in R.

Example 46 (Example of subrings). Z ≤ Q ≤ R ≤ C ≤ C[ X ]

Definition 34 (Homomorphism of rings). Let A, B be rings. A function φ : A → B is

called a homomorphism of rings if for all a, b ∈ A the following conditions are satisfied:

1. φ( ab) = φ( a)φ(b)

2. φ( a + b) = φ( a) + φ(b)

3. φ(1 A ) = 1B

37
Remark 3. In groups, this final condition immediately follows from the fact that group
elements have inverses, However, rings needn’t have multiplicative inverses, so we need
this final condition.

Remark 4. Observe that (from 2) φ(0) = 0 where the 0 on the LHS is the additive identity
of A and the 0 on the RHS is the additive identity of B.

Example 47 (Examples of homomorphisms of rings). The following are examples of ho-

momorphisms of rings:

1. Polynomial evaluation homomorphism: φ3 : R[ X ] → R where φ3 ( f ) = f (3).

2. Inclusion: i : Z → R by i ( a) = a.

3. Reduction mod p: φ : Z → F p . Consider p = 7. Then φ(100) = 2.

Definition 35 (Kernel of homomorphism of rings). Suppose A, B are rings and let φ : A →

B be a ring homomorphism. Then

ker(φ) = { a ∈ A|φ( a) = 0} = φ−1 {0} (94)

Theorem 41 (Homomorphism of rings injective injective if and only its kernel is trivial).
Suppose φ is a homomorphism of rings. Then φ is injective if and only if ker(φ) = {0}.

Example 48 (Kernel of homomorphism of rings). Consider the polynomial evaluation

homomorphism: φ0 : R[ X ] → R where φ0 ( f ) = f (0). Then
n
ker(φ0 ) = { ∑ ai xi | ai ∈ R} (95)
i =1

That is, all polynomials without a constant offset.

Definition 36 (Ideal). A subset I of a ring R is called an ideal if the following conditions

are satisfied:

1. Additive identity: 0 ∈ I, which assures I is non-empty.

2. Closed under addition: For all a, b ∈ I, a + b ∈ I.

3. Multiplication by elements of ring keeps us in ideal: For all r ∈ R and a ∈ I, ar, ra ∈

I.

Example 49 (Examples of Ideals). The following are examples of ideals.

1. For any ring R, R and {0} are ideals.

2. R = Z and I = {Even integers}. Note that 0 is an even integer, the sum of two even
integers is an even an integer, and the product of an even integer and any other
integer is an even integer.

38
 3. We can generalize this last example to any multiples of a certain integer (the last
example was multiples of 2). R = Z and I = nZ = {kn|k ∈ Z}, n ∈ Z.

4. R = { f : R → R, f continuous} and I = { f ∈ R| f (0) = 0}. First note that

R is a commutative ring, with the identity element being f ( x ) = 1 for all x ∈ R
(note that multiplication is defined pointwise). This ideal is the kernel of a ring
homomorphism. Indeed, let φ : R → R, where φ( f ) = f (0). Then ker(φ) = I.

Theorem 42 (Field has only 2 ideals: the trivial ideal and the field itself.). If R is a field,
then its ideals are R and {0}.

Proof. First note that in a field, 0 6= 1. Let {0} 6= I ⊆ R be an ideal. Take an 0 6= x ∈ I.

Since R is a field, x has a multiplicative inverse: there exists an a ∈ R such that ax = 1.
Then since I is an ideal and a ∈ R, ax = 1 ∈ I. But then for all r ∈ R, r = r × 1 ∈ I, since
r ∈ R and 1 ∈ I. Thus I = R, since I ⊆ R, but for all r ∈ R, r ∈ I.

Theorem 43 (There are only 2 ideals in Mn×n (R)).

Theorem 44 (Kernel of homomorphism of rings is an ideal of the ring which is the domain
of the homomorphism). Suppose A, B are rings and let φ : A → B be a ring homomor-
phism. Then ker(φ) is an ideal of A.

Proof. We verify the 3 conditions:

1. Identity: 0 ∈ ker(φ) because ker(0) = 0.

2. Addition: Take a, b ∈ ker(φ). We want to show that ( a + b) ∈ ker(φ), which means

that φ( a + b) = 0. To show this,

φ( a + b) = φ( a) + φ(b) = 0 + 0 = 0 (96)

3. Multiplication: Take a ∈ ker(φ) and r ∈ A. We want to show that ar, ra ∈ ker(φ), or

that φ( ar ) = φ(ra) = 0. To show this,

φ( ar ) = φ( a)φ(r ) = 0 · φ(r ) = 0 (97)

and
φ(ra) = φ(r )φ( a) = φ(r ) · 0 = 0 (98)

Theorem 45 (Ideal is an additive normal subgroup). Suppose A is a ring and I is an ideal

of A. Then I is an an additive normal subgroup A.

Proof. I is an ideal, so it is a subgroup of the ring under addition. By the definition of

a ring, the elements of A under addition are an abelian group. Thus a subgroup of an
abelian group is normal, so I is normal.

39
Definition 37 (Multiplication on A/I). Let A be a ring and I ⊂ A an ideal. We define
multiplication on A/I by
( I + a)( I + b) = I + ab (99)
Further, A/I is a ring.

Theorem 46. Suppose φ : A → A/I is a homomorphism of rings where φ( a) = I + a.

Then
ker(φ) = I (100)

Proof. We prove this statement directly:

ker(φ) = { a ∈ A|φ( a) = 0}
= { a ∈ A|φ( a) = I + 0 = I } (I is the trivial element of the quotient)
= { a ∈ A| I + a = I }
= {a ∈ I }
=I

2.4 Practice
Exercise 9. Is (Z/14Z)× cyclic?

Solution 9. Recall that

(Z/14Z)× = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13} (101)
1 clearly can’t generate the group. Try 3:

31 = 3
32 = 9
33 = 13
34 = 11
35 = 5
36 = 1

Thus the group is cyclic since it is generated by 3.

Remark 5. Recall the following theorem: If G is a cyclic subgroup, then if m divides | G |,

then G has a unique (cyclic) subgroup of order m. Thus, if we can find more than one
subgroup of a particular order, then the group cannot be cyclic.

Exercise 10. How many subgroups does Z/20Z have?

40
Solution 10. Z/20Z is a cyclic subgroup of order 20. Thus it has a unique subgroup for
each integer which divides the order of the subgroup. The divisors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20,
so 6 subgroups.
Exercise 11. Let G, H be finite groups. Suppose that | G |, | H | are coprime (that is, no
number apart from 1 which divides both). Let φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Show
that for all g ∈ G, φ( g) = 1.
Solution 11. We need to show that Im(φ) = 1. We know that 1 H ∈ Im(φ), so this also
implies that | Im(φ)| = 1. We know that Im(φ) ≤ H. So by Lagrange’s Theorem, | Im(φ)|
divides the size of H. The first isomorphism theorem implies that

|G|
= | Im(φ)| (102)
| ker(φ)|

Hence | Im(φ)| divides | G |. Coprimality assumption implies that | Im(φ)| = 1.

Exercise 12. Let G be a group, take g ∈ G. Define

CG ( g) = { x ∈ G | xg = gx } (103)

Solution 12. CG ( g) is clearly a subset. We need to verify 3 axioms:

1. Identity: 1 ∈ CG ( g), since 1g = g1 for all g ∈ G.

2. Closed under products: Take a, b ∈ CG ( g). We want to show that ab ∈ CG ( g). Take
g ∈ G.
( ab) g = a(bg) = a(bg) = ( ag)b = ( ga)b = g( ab) (104)

3. Closed under inverses: Let a ∈ CG ( g). We want to show that a−1 ∈ CG ( g).

a−1 g = a−1 g1 = a−1 gaa−1 = a−1 aga−1 = 1ga−1 = ga−1 (105)

Exercise 13. Write

(12)(134)(13)(25) (106)
as a product of disjoint cycles.
Solution 13. Pick a number and see where it goes.

(1425)(3) (107)

Exercise 14. Let G, H be groups and let φ : G → H be a surjective homomorphism.

Suppose that G is abelian. Prove that H is abelian.
Solution 14. Let a, b ∈ H. Thus there exists x, y ∈ G such that φ( x ) = a and φ(y) = b.
Then
ab = φ( x )φ(y) = φ( xy) = φ(yx ) = φ(y)φ( x ) = ba (108)

41
Exercise 15. Show that Z/12345Z is not an integral domain.
Solution 15. 12345 is divisible by 5. Hence there exists t ∈ Z such that 5t = 12345.
Therefore, in Z/12345Z, 5t = 0, but 5, t 6= 0. Thus the group is not an integral domain.
Exercise 16. Let G be a finite group acting transitively on a finite set X with | X | > 1. Show
that there exists g ∈ G such that gx 6= x, for all x ∈ G.
Solution 16. We want to show that there exists a g ∈ G such that X g = ∅ (thus, no x
fix g). Equivalently, there exists a g ∈ G such that | X g | < 1. By Burnside’s theorem, the
number of orbits of the action of G on X is
1
N=
|G| ∑ |X g | (109)
g∈ G

Since the action is transitive, there is only one orbit. Thus,

|G| = ∑ |X g | (110)
g∈ G

For the identity element g = 1,

|X g | = |X| > 1 (111)
But to make the average less than 1, we meed to have a set with less than one element.

3 Practice Quizzes
The course did not give solutions to any practice quizzes, questions etc., so be wary of
the solutions I’ve written below.

3.1 Quiz 1
Exercise 17. Give an example of σ ∈ S3 such that σ has order 3.
Solution 17. Consider σ = (123). Then σ2 = (132) and σ3 = (1)(2)(3). Therefore, σ1 6= 1,
σ2 6= 1, but σ3 = 1. Therefore, by definition, σ has order 3.
Exercise 18. Give an example of τ ∈ S5 such that τ has order 6.
Solution 18. Consider τ = (123)(45). Then τ 2 = (132)(4)(5), τ 3 = (1)(2)(3)(45), τ 4 =
(123)(4)(5), τ 5 = (132)(45), τ 6 = (1)(2)(3)(4)(5).

3.2 Quiz 2
Exercise 19. Let τ ∈ S6 . Show that

τ · (54132) · τ −1 = (τ (5)τ (4)τ (1)τ (3)τ (2))

42
Solution 19. We can show this element by element. Observe that

τ · (54132) · τ −1 (τ (5)) = τ · (54132)(5) = τ (4) (112)

This shows that τ · (54132) · τ −1 maps τ (5) to τ (4). Similarly,

τ · (54132) · τ −1 (τ (4)) = τ · (54132)(4) = τ (1) (113)

τ · (54132) · τ −1 (τ (1)) = τ · (54132)(1) = τ (3) (114)
τ · (54132) · τ −1 (τ (3)) = τ · (54132)(3) = τ (2) (115)
τ · (54132) · τ −1 (τ (2)) = τ · (54132)(2) = τ (5) (116)

Therefore τ · (54132) · τ −1 = (τ (5)τ (4)τ (1)τ (3)τ (2)).

Exercise 20. Let G be a group and fix g ∈ G. Define φ : G → G by φ( x ) = gxg−1 . Show φ

is an isomorphism.

Solution 20. 1. φ is a homomorphism: Fix x, y ∈ G. Then

φ( xy) = g( xy) g−1

= gxg−1 gyg−1
= φ( x )φ(y)

2. φ is injective: Fix x, y ∈ G, and suppose φ( x ) = φ(y). Then

φ( x ) = gxg−1 = gyg−1 = φ(y) (117)

Then use the right and left cancellation laws we get that x = y.

3. φ is surjective: Fix y ∈ G and consider x = g−1 yg. Then

φ( g−1 yg) = g( g−1 yg) g−1 = y (118)

Therefore, for all y ∈ G, we can find an x = g−1 yg such that φ( x ) = y.

3.3 Quiz 3
Exercise 21. Let G be a group and define φ : G → G by φ( g) = g−1 for g ∈ G. Show that
φ is a homomorphism if and only if G is abelian.

43
Solution 21. First suppose φ is a homomorphism. Let a, b ∈ G. Then

ab = (b−1 a−1 )−1

= φ ( b −1 a −1 )
= φ ( b −1 ) φ ( a −1 )
= ( b −1 ) −1 ( a −1 ) −1
= ba

Thus G is abelian.
Next suppose G is abelian. Fix a, b ∈ G. Note that ab = ba. Now,

φ( ab) = ( ab)−1 (definition of φ)

= b −1 a −1
= a −1 b −1 (G abelian)
= φ( a)φ(b)

Thus φ is a homomorphism, since for all a, b ∈ G, φ( ab) = φ( a)φ(b).

Exercise 22. Define H = {σ ∈ S5 : {σ (1), σ (2), σ(3)} ∈ {1, 2, 3}}. Show that H ≤ S5 and
calculate [S5 : H ].

Solution 22. Observe that H is a set of permutations that fix 4 and 5. We need to check
the three subgroup axioms:

1. Identity: the identity permutation also fixes 4 and 5.

2. Closed under products: The product (under composition) of two permutations that
fix 4 and 5 will also fix 4 and 5.

3. Closed under inverse: same as above.

| S5 |
Since S5 is a finite group, we can use Lagrange’s theorem to find [S5 : H ] = |H|
.
|S5 | = 5! = 120. Then | H | = 3! × 2! = 12. Therefore [S5 : H ] = 10.

3.4 Quiz 4
Solution 23. Let G be a group and let H, K / G. Show that HK / G, where HK = { hk|h ∈
H, k ∈ K }. Show HK is a subgroup and normal.

Exercise 23. We first check the three axioms needed to be a subgroup:

1. Identity: Since H, K both subgroups, they each contain the identity. Thus, 1 ∈ H, 1 ∈
K, so 1 ∈ HK.

44
 2. Closed under products: Let a, b ∈ HK. Thus there exist h, h0 ∈ H and k, k0 ∈ K such
that a = hk and b = h0 k0 . Since K is a normal subgroup in G, we know that for all
k ∈ K and h0 ∈ H ⊆ G, there exists and h̃ ∈ H such that kh0 = h̃k. Thus,

hkh0 k0 = hh̃kk0 (119)

Since H, K are each subgroups, they are closed under multiplication. Thus, hh̃kk0 =
h00 k00 ∈ HK for some h00 ∈ H and k00 ∈ K. Thus HK is closed under products.

3. Closed under inverses: Let g = hk ∈ HK. Then g−1 = (hk)−1 = k−1 h−1 . Since K is
a normal subgroup in G, for all k−1 ∈ K and h−1 ∈ H, there exists a h̃ ∈ H such that

k−1 h−1 = h̃k−1 (120)

Therefore g−1 = h̃k−1 ∈ HK. Thus g−1 ∈ HK, so that HK is closed under inverses.

Next we show the subgroup is normal. Let a = hk ∈ HK and fix g ∈ G. Then

ghkg−1 = ghg−1 gkg−1 = ( ghg−1 )( gkg−1 ) (121)

Since H, K are normal in G, we can find a h̃ and k̃ such that ghg−1 = h̃ and gkg−1 = k̃.
Thus, ghkg−1 = h̃k̃ ∈ HK. Thus, gag−1 ∈ HK for all a ∈ HK. Thus HK is a normal
subgroup of G.

Exercise 24. Show that S3 is not cyclic.

Solution 24. Cyclic groups are abelian. S3 is not abelian, so not cyclic.

Exercise 25. Show that the subgroup of rotations is normal in Dn (n ≥ 3).

Solution 25. Let P be the cyclic subgroup of rotations. Let l ∈ P. Thus, l ∈ ρ j for some j.
We will show that glg−1 ∈ P for all g ∈ Dn . There are two cases to consider. First suppose
that g is a mirror symmetry. Then g = eρi for some i. In this case,

eρi ρ j (eρi )−1 = eρi ρ j ρ−i e−1

= eρi ρ j ρ−i e
= eρ j e
= ρ− j ee
= ρ− j ∈ P

since P cyclic and ρ ∈ P. For the second case, suppose g is rotation. Thus g = ρi for some
i. Then
ρi ρ j ρ −i = ρ j ∈ P (122)
Thus gρ j g ∈ P for all g ∈ Dn , so that P is a normal subgroup.

45
3.5 Quiz 5
Exercise 26. Let H be a subgroup of {1, ρ, . . . , ρn−1 }. Show that H E Dn .

Solution 26. We will show that for all g ∈ Dn and for all h ∈ H, ghg−1 ∈ H. We will
prove this by cases (whether g is a rotation or a mirror symmetry). Further, since h ∈ H,
we know that h = ρi for some i ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}.

1. Case 1: g is a rotation. Then g = ρ j for some j ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}. Then

ghg−1 = ρ j ρi ρ− j = ρi ∈ H (123)

2. Case 2: g is a mirror symmetry. Then g = eρ j for some j ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}. Then,

ghg−1 = (eρ j )ρi (eρ j )−1

= eρ j ρi ρ− j e−1
= eρ j ρi ρ− j e
= eρi e
= eeρ−i
= ρ −i ∈ H (since H is a subgroup, contains inverses)

Exercise 27. Let τ be a reflection (a mirror symmetry). Show that G = {1, τ } ≤ Dn but
{1, τ } 6E Dn .

Solution 27. We first show that G ≤ Dn . Therefore we must verify the three axioms.

1. Identity: Clearly 1 ∈ G.

2. Closed under products: Observe that

(a) 1 · τ = τ ∈ G
(b) τ · 1 = τ ∈ G
(c) 1 · 1 = 1 ∈ G
(d) τ · τ = τ 2 = 1 ∈ G since τ is a mirror symmetry, we know τ 2 = 1.

3. Closed under inverses: Note that 1−1 = 1 ∈ G. Since τ is a mirror symmetry, we

know τ = τ −1 ∈ G.

To show that G is not a normal subgroup, we will find an element g ∈ Dn such that

46
gτg−1 6∈ G. Suppose g = τρ. Then

gτg−1 = τρτρ−1 τ −1
= τρτρ−1 τ
= τρρττ
= τρ2 τ 2
= τρ2

But we needn’t have that τρ2 ∈ G.

3.6 Quiz 6
Exercise 28. Let G be a group that acts on a set X. Take G = GL2 (R) and X
 = R .
2

0 −1
The actions is A(v) = Av where A ∈ GL2 (R) and v ∈ R2 . Let H = h i. Find
1 0
 
1
O .
2
Solution 28. Observe that the generator of H is a rotation. Thus the orbit is simply given
by        
−2 −2 2 2
, , , (124)
1 −1 −1 1
Exercise 29. Let G be a group acting on a set X and let x, y ∈ X. Suppose that for some
g ∈ G we have gx = y. Show gGx g−1 = Gy .

Solution 29. We show two inclusions.

1. ⊆: First let h ∈ Gx . We want to show that ghg−1 ∈ Gy , so that ghg−1 (y) = y. Then

ghg−1 (y) = gh( x ) (g( x ) = y implies x = g−1 (y))

= g( x ) (since h ∈ Gx )
=y

Therefore gGx g−1 ⊆ Gy .

2. ⊇: Fix h ∈ Gy . We want to show that h ∈ gGx g−1 , or that there exists some h0 ∈ Gx
such that h = gh0 g−1 . Let h0 = g−1 hg, and we’ll show h0 ∈ Gx . Then

g−1 hg( x ) = g−1 h(y)

= g −1 ( y ) (since h ∈ Gy )
=x

Thus h0 ∈ Gx . This implies thath = gh0 g−1 ∈ gGx g−1 so that gGx g−1 ⊇ Gy .

47
3.7 Quiz 7
Exercise 30. In how many ways can we color the vertices of a 5-gon using 10 colors, up
to equivalence.

Solution 30. We apply Burnside’s formula, where N is the number of colorings (i.e. the
number of orbits) and G = D5 :
1
| G | g∑
N= |X g | (125)
∈G

We’ll solve this question for an arbitrary number of colors k. Consider a rotation. All the
vertices must have the same color. Thus there are k possible colorings for a rotation, and
there are 4 non-trivial rotations. Since 5 is odd, all mirror symmetries are alike, in that
the mirror symmetry goes through a vertex and the mid-point of the opposite edge. For
a 5-gon, this mirror symmetry allows for k3 colorings. Thus, in sum we have

1 5
( k + 4 × k + 5 × k3 ) (126)
10

3.8 Quiz 8
Exercise 31. Show that (Z/13Z)× is cyclic.

Solution 31. Notice that 2 generates the group.

Exercise 32. Show that (Z/15Z)× is not cyclic.

Solution 32. Recall that if G is a cyclic subgroup, then if m divides | G |, then G has a unique
(cyclic) subgroup of order m. Note that |(Z/15Z)× | = 8. 2 divides 8 so if (Z/15Z)× is
cyclic, then it must have a unique subgroup of order 2. However, we can find two. Con-
sider {1, 14} and {1, 4}. Each of these is a cyclic subgroup of order 2, therefore (Z/15Z)×
is not cyclic.

3.9 Quiz 9
Exercise 33. Let G be a subgroup, let P be a subgroup of G of order 21, and let Q be a
subgroup of G of order 40. Show that P ∩ Q = {1}.

Solution 33. First notice that 21 and 40 are coprime. Next, we know that the order of
an element in a group must divide the order of a group (immediate consequence of La-
grange’s theorem). Thus P can have elements with orders 1, 3, 7, 21. Q can have elements
with orders 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40. Thus the only commen element to both P and Q can be
the identity element.

Exercise 34. In how many (inequivalent) ways can one color the vertices of a regular
hexagon (6-gon) using 10 colors?

48
Solution 34.

Solution 35. Let G be a group. Let x, y ∈ G be two elements that belong to the same
conjugacy class, and let φ : G → A be a homomorphism to an abelian group A. Show
that φ( x ) = φ(y). Now suppose G = GL2 (R). Are
   
0 1 1 0
and (127)
1 0 1 1

in the same conjugacy class?

Exercise 35. Since x, y are in the same conjugacy class, there must exist some g ∈ G such
that gxg−1 = y. Then

φ(y) = φ( gxg−1 )
= φ ( g ) φ ( x ) φ ( g −1 )
= φ ( g ) φ ( x ) φ ( g ) −1
= φ ( g ) φ ( g ) −1 φ ( x ) (since A is abelian)
= φ( x )

Take φ to be the determinant homomorphism. If the matrices are in the same conju-
gacy class, they must have the same determinant. The determinants are -1 and 1 respec-
tively. Thus they are not in the same conjugacy class.

Exercise 36. Define   

 1 a b 
H=  0 1 c a, b, c ∈ R
 (128)
0 0 1
 

Show that H is a subgroup of GL3 (R) and that Z ( H ) is isomorphic to R.

Solution 36. We check the 3 axioms required to be a subgroup:

1. Identity: The identity matrix is unit upper triangular.

2. Closed under products: The product of two unit upper triangular matrices is also
unit upper triangular.

3. Closed under inverses: The inverse of a unit upper triangular matrix is also a unit
upper triangular matrix.

We next demonstrate an isomorphism between Z ( H ) of R.

3.10 Quiz 10
Exercise 37. Given an example of a 5-Sylow subgroup of S10 . Is it unique?

49
Solution 37. In the expansion of 10!, there are two powers of 5: 5 and 10. Thus, a 5-Sylow
subgroup of S10 will have 52 = 25 elements. Take two disjoint 5-cycles: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and
(6, 7, 8, 9, 10). Now consider the subgroup generated by these two cycles:

H = h(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(6, 7, 8, 9, 10)i (129)

Each element will be of the form (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)m (6, 7, 8, 9, 10)n where m, n ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
Disjoint cycles commute. Thus the subgroup has 25 elements.
The subgroup is not unique. A p-Sylow subgroup is unique if and only if H E G. Take
(16) ∈ S10 . Then consider

(1, 6)(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(6, 7, 8, 9, 10)(6, 1) (130)

This permutation sends 1 to 7, which can’t happen with a permutation in H since the
cycles are disjoint.
Exercise 38. Give an example of a 3-Sylow subgroup of D6 . Is it unique?
Solution 38. D6 has 12 elements. The highest power of 3 that divides 12 is 1, so we are
looking for a subgroup of size 3. We can take a subgroup of rotations:

H = {1, ρ2 , ρ4 } (131)

This is indeed a subgroup since it contains the identity, is closed under products, and
closed under inverse. This subgroup is normal, so it is unique.

3.11 Quiz 11
Exercise 39. Show that the ring Z × Z is not an integral domain.
Solution 39. A commutative ring is an integral domain if for all a, b ∈ R, ab = 0 =⇒ a =
0 or b = 0. Consider the element (0, 1) and (1, 0). Then their product is (0, 0), but neither
is the additive identity.
Exercise 40. Show that the collection of polynomials whose coefficients sum up to 0 (call
this set I) is an ideal in R[ X ].
Solution 40. We need to check three conditions:
1. Additive identity: Notice that the polynomial 0 has coefficients that add up to 0.
Thus 0 ∈ I.

2. Closed under addition: Let a = ∑in=0 ai xi and b = ∑im=0 xi be two polynomials whose
coefficients add up to 0. WLOG, assume n ≥ m. The the sum of the coefficients of
a + b is
m n
∑ ( a i + bi ) + ∑ ai = 0 (132)
i =0 i = m +1

50
 3. Multiplication by elements of ring keeps us in ideal: Let r ∈ R] X ]. Note that a
polynomial evaluated at 1 gives us the sum of the coefficients. Thus

(ra)(1) = r (1) a(1) = r (1) · 0 = 0 (133)

and similar for ar.

Exercise 41. Show that R[ X ]× = R[ X ].
Solution 41. The inverses of polynomials of order higher than 1 are not polynomials. So
only 0th order polynomials (i.e., constants or real numbers) are invertible.
Exercise 42. Show that any field is an integral domain.
Solution 42. Let A be a field. A field is a a commutative division ring. Thus every non-
zero element of A is invertible. So, take two elements x, y ∈ A, non-zero, such that xy = 0.
Then
xy = 0 =⇒ x −1 xy = x −1 0 =⇒ y = 0 (134)
which is a contradiction. So y must be zero, implying A is an integral domain.
Exercise 43. Show that Z has only one subring.
Solution 43. Let A be a subring of Z. We show A = Z. It’s clear that A ⊆ Z. Now we
show Z ⊆ A. Let z ∈ Z. Since 0, 1 ∈ A (by definition of subring), 0 − 1 = −1 ∈ A. But
then 1 + 1 = 2 ∈ A. By induction, we can construct any positive or negative integer.
Exercise 44. Show that Z× = {±1}.
Solution 44. It’s clear that the only integers with inverses that are also integers are ±1.
Exercise 45. Show that Z/123456789Z is not an integral domain.
Solution 45. Notice that 123456789 is divisible by 3. Thus there exists some t < 123456789
such that 3t = 123456789 = 0. Thus, there exist non-zero elements whose product is 0.
Therefore the ring is not an integral domain.
Exercise 46. Show that Z/7Z is an integral domain.
Solution 46. Any field is an integral domain, so we show that Z/7Z is a field. First
not that Z/7Z is a commutative ring. Now we show that each non-zero element has a
multiplicative inverse. Indeed,

1·1 = 1
2·4 = 8 = 1
3 · 5 = 15 = 1
6 · 6 = 36 = 1

Thus Z/7Z is a commutative division ring, so it is a field.

51
Exercise 47. Let φ : A → B be a homomorphism of rings. Suppose that A is a field, and
that B is nontrivial. Prove that φ is injective.

Solution 47. A homomorphism is injective if and only if its kernel is injective. Suppose
there is a non-zero element a ∈ ker(φ). Then φ( a) = 0. Since A is a field, a has an inverse,
call it b. Then
1 = φ(1) = φ( ab) = φ( a)φ(b) = 0 · φ(b) = 0 (135)
which is a contradiction since B is nontrivial (so 0 6= 1).

Exercise 48. Show that for any ring A there exists a unique homomorphism τ : Z → A.

Solution 48. We will construct a ring homomorphism and show it must be unique. By
definition, we must have that
τ (1) = 1 (136)
Since a homomorphism must preserve addition, we must have that

f (0) = f (0) + f (0) (137)

Thus cancellation gives that

f (0) = 0 (138)
Next,
0 = f (0) = f (1 + −1) = f (1) + f (−1) (139)
Therefore
f (−1) = − f (1) = −1 A (140)
Now take a positive integer n:
n = 1+···+1 (141)
Thus we must have that (using repeatedly that ring homomorphisms preserve addition)

f ( n ) = f (1) + · · · + f (1) (142)

so that
f (n) = 1 A + · · · + 1 A = n (143)
And a negative integer can be written as

f ( n ) = −1 A + · · · + −1 A (144)

Thus we must have that

f (n) = n (145)
which shows that the ring homomorphism must be unique.

52
4 Practice Exercises
4.1 Practice 1
Exercise 49. Show that the group S3 is not abelian.
Solution 49. To show that S3 is not abelian, we must find an a, b ∈ S3 such that ab 6= ba.
To this end, consider the permutations a(1) = 2, a(2) = 3, a(3) = 1 and b(1) = 1, b(2) =
3, b(2) = 2. Then, a(b(1)) = 2 but b( a(1)) = 3. Therefore, ab 6= ba, so S3 is not abelian.
Exercise 50. Is the set R of real numbers with the binary operation of subtraction a group?
Solution 50. No. The associativity axiom fails. To see this, observe that 3 − (2 − 1) = 2
but (3 − 2) − 1 = 0.
Exercise 51. Let G be a group, and take some g ∈ G. Show that the function f from G to
itself defined by f ( x ) = gx is injective (one-to-one).
Solution 51. Recall that f is injective if for all a, b ∈ G, a 6= b, we have that f ( a) 6= f (b).
For the sake of reaching a contradiction, let a, b ∈ G, a 6= b, but suppose that f ( a) = f (b).
Then ga = gb, by the definition of f . By the Cancellation Law, we must have that a = b, a
contradiction.
Exercise 52. Give an example of σ ∈ S3 such that σ 6= 1 and σσ 6= 1.
Solution 52. Consider σ(1) = 2, σ (2) = 3, σ (3) = 1. Then, σσ (1) = 3. Therefore, σσ 6= 1.
Exercise 53. Is the set of positive real numbers with the binary operation of multiplication
a group?
Solution 53. Yes. Associativity follows from the associativity of the reals. The identity
element is 1. Since we’ve excluded 0, each positive real does have an inverse.
Exercise 54. Show that the set G = {z ∈ C : z7 = 1} is a group under multiplication.
Solution 54. We check each of the axioms:
1. Associativity: This follows from the associativity of C.
2. Identity: Observe that 1 ∈ G since 17 = 1. Fix g ∈ G, and under multiplication,
g ? 1 = 1 ? g = g. Therefore, G has an identity.
3. Inverse: First observe that 0 6∈ G since 07 = 0. The inverse of z ∈ G is simply z−1 .
Since z ∈ G, we know that z7 = 1. Then, z−7 = 1−1 = 1. Therefore, z−7 ∈ G since
z−7 = 1. Then zz−1 = 1, and the inverse of each z ∈ G is also in G.
4. Closure of binary operation: Let a, b ∈ G, so that a7 = b7 = 1. Then ( ab)7 = a7 b7 =
1. Therefore ab ∈ G. (Remark: To show that ab ∈ G, we need to prove that ( ab)7 = 1.
Therefore, in our proof, we can start with ( ab)7 directly.)
Exercise 55. Let G be a group in which gg = 1 for each g ∈ G. Show that G is abelian.
Solution 55. To show that G is abelian we must prove that for all a, b ∈ G, ab = ba. To
that end, fix a, b ∈ G. Then aabb = a2 b2 = 1 ? 1 = 1 = ( ab)2 = abab. Then by cancellation
we have that ab = ba.

53
4.2 Practice 2
Exercise 56. How many elements does the group S3 × Z/5Z have?
Solution 56. S3 has 3! = 6 elements. Z/5Z has 5 elements. Thus S3 × Z/5Z has 6 × 5 =
30 elements.
Exercise 57. Find the order of all elements in Z/10Z.
Solution 57. |0| = 1 (the order of an element is 1 iff that element is the identity). |1| = 10,
|2| = 5, |3| = 10, |4| = 5, |5| = 2, |6| = 5, |7| = 10, |8| = 5, |9| = 10.
Exercise 58. What is the order of the permutation (135)(26)(4798) in S10 ?
Solution 58. The order of a permutation is the lcm of the lengths of the cycles in its cy-
cle decomposition. Here, the cycle lengths are 3, 2, and 4. Therefore the order of this
permutation is 12.
Exercise 59. Let σ ∈ Sn be a k-cycle, and let τ ∈ Sn . Prove that τστ −1 is also a k-cycle.
Solution 59. Let σ = (i1 i2 . . . ik ). We claim that τστ −1 = (τ (i1 )τ (i2 ) . . . τ (ik )) (which is
also a k-cycle). We can calculate each element of τστ −1 to show that this is true. Consider
how τστ −1 acts on τ (i1 ):

τστ −1 (τ (i1 )) = τ (σ(i1 )) = τ (i2 ) (146)

Thus τστ −1 sends τ (i1 ) to τ (i2 ). A similar pattern holds for the other indices.
Exercise 60. Let σ ∈ Sn be a k-cycle. Is σ2 necessarily a k-cycle?
Solution 60. No. Consider this simple counterexample: (1234). Then σ2 = (13)(24). σ2
is not a k-cycle.
Exercise 61. Let G be a group, and let g ∈ G be an element of order d. Show that the order
of g−1 is also d.
Solution 61. There are two cases to consider. First suppose that | g| = ∞. For the sake of
reaching a contradiction, suppose that | g−1 | < ∞. Thus for some m < ∞ we have that
( g−1 )m = 1 (this is the smallest m for which this is true). But then,

gm = g−1·m·−1 = (( g−1 )m )−1 = 1−1 = 1 (147)

This is a contradiction. Therefore if | g| = ∞, then | g−1 | = ∞. In the second case, we

suppose that | g| = d and | g−1 | = c. We then show that c = d. First,

( g d ) −1 = ( g −1 ) d = 1 (148)

Therefore c ≤ d. Next,

gc = ((gc )−1 )−1 = (( g−1 )c )−1 = 1−1 = 1 (149)

Therefore d ≤ c. Together we get that d = c.

54
4.3 Practice 3
Exercise 62. Let G, H be groups, and let φ : G × H → G be the function defined by
φ( g, h) = g. Show that φ is a surjective homomorpishm.
Solution 62. First show that φ is a homomorphism. To see this, fix ( g1 , h1 ), ( g2 , h2 ) ∈
G × H. Then, φ( g1 g2 , h1 h2 ) = g1 g2 = φ( g1 , h1 )φ( g2 , h2 ). Thus φ is a homomorphism.
Next show φ is surjective. That is, we must show that for all g ∈ G, there exists a ( g0 , h0 ) ∈
G × H such that φ( g0 , h0 ) = g. To see this, consider ( g, h0 ). Then φ( g, h0 ) = g. By the
same logic, φ is clearly not injective. Consider ( g1 , h1 ) and ( g1 , h2 ) where h1 6= h2 . But
φ( g1 , h1 ) = g1 = φ( g1 , h2 ). This demonstrates an instance for which a1 6= a2 but φ( a1 ) =
φ ( a2 ).
Exercise 63. Let φ be the function which maps every A ∈ GLn (R) to the transpose of its
inverse. Show that φ is an isomorphism from GLn (R) to itself.
Solution 63. First show φ is a homomorphism. Fix A, B ∈ GLn (R). Then

φ( AB) = (( AB)−1 ) T
= ( B −1 A −1 ) T
= ( A −1 ) T ( B −1 ) T
= φ( A)φ( B)

Next show φ is injective. That is, we will show that φ( A) = φ( B) implies A = B. Then

φ( AB) = φ( A)φ( B) = φ( A)φ( A)

Thus
( A −1 ) T ( B −1 ) T = ( A −1 ) T ( A −1 ) T (150)
Use the left cancellation law to show that ( B−1 ) T = ( A−1 ) T . This implies that A = B.
Next show φ is surjective. That is, we must show that for all B ∈ GLn (R) there exists an
A ∈ GLn (R) such that φ( A) = B. Consider A = ( B T )−1 . Then

φ(( B T )−1 ) = ((( B T )−1 )−1 ) T (151)

=B (152)

Therefore φ is an isomorphism.
Exercise 64. Let p be a prime number, and let G be a group of order p. Show that G has
exactly two distinct subgroups.
Solution 64. Lagrange’s Theorem tells us that if H is a subgroup of G, then | H | divides
| G |. Therefore the only possible orders for subgroups of G are 1 and p. Now note that G
can only have one subgroup of order 1. This follows because the identity element must

55
be in every subgroup. Next note that no subgroup can have an order greater than p since
a subgroup must be a subset of G. Clearly the only subgroup of G with order p is G itself.

Exercise 65. Show that H = {σ ∈ S5 : {σ (1), σ (2)} = {1, 2}} ≤ S5 , count the number of
elements in it, and verify that Lagrange’s theorem holds in this case.

Solution 65. It’s fairly clear that H is a subgroup of G. Then, the number of elements in
H is 2! × 3! = 12. The number of elements in S5 = 5! = 120. Observe that 120/12 = 10.
Thus Lagrange’s theorem holds.

Exercise 66. Let A be an abelian group, and define φ : A → A by φ( a) = a2 . Show that φ

is a homomorphism.

Solution 66. Fix a, b ∈ G. Then

φ( ab) = ( ab)2
= ( ab)( ab)
= a2 b2 (since A is abelian)
= φ( a)φ(b)

Exercise 67. Let G, H be groups, and let φ : G → H be a homomorphism. Show that φ is

injective if and only if ker(φ) = {1}.

Solution 67. First suppose φ is injective. Since f is a homomorphism, the identity element
e of G is mapped to the identity element e0 of H. Thus φ(e) = e0 . Let g ∈ ker(φ). By
definition φ( g) = e0 . Thus since φ is injective, we have that φ(e) = φ( g) implies that
e = g. Therefore the kernel is trivial.
Now suppose ker(φ) = {1}. Fix g1 , g2 ∈ G such that φ( g1 ) = φ( g2 ). Then

φ( g1 g2−1 ) = φ( g1 )φ( g2−1 ) (φ is a homomorphism)

= φ ( g1 ) φ ( g2 ) − 1 (property of homomorphism)
=1

Therefore g1 g2−1 ∈ ker(φ). Since we assumed ker(φ) = {1}, it must be that g1 g2−1 = 1.
This implies that g1 = g2 .

Exercise 68. Let G be a finite group with | G | > 2. Show that there are at least two distinct
isomorphisms from G to itself.

Solution 68. Incomplete.

4.4 Practice 4
Exercise 69. Let H, K be normal subgroups of the group G. Show that H ∩ K is also a
normal subgroup of G.

56
Solution 69. We will use this equivalent characterization of normal subgroups: For every
g ∈ G we have gHg−1 ⊂ H. Let x ∈ H ∩ K (we know this intersection is nonempty). Then
the normality of H and K implies for all g ∈ G, gxg−1 ∈ H ∩ K. Therefore g( H ∩ K ) g−1 ⊂
H ∩ K so that H ∩ K is normal.

Exercise 70. What is the index of the subgroup 3Z in Z?

Solution 70. [Z : 3Z] = 3. To see this, enumerate the left cosets of 3Z as follows:

3Z = {. . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .}
1 + 3Z = {. . . , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, . . .}
2 + 3Z = {. . . , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, . . .}

Exercise 71. Let H be a subgroup of G. Show the following conditions are equivalent.

1. H is a normal subgroup of G.

2. For every g ∈ G we have gHg−1 = H

3. For every g ∈ G we have gHg−1 ⊂ H

Solution 71. 1 =⇒ 2: Since H is normal we have that for all g ∈ G, Hg = gH. This
implies that H = gHg−1 .
2 =⇒ 3: This holds trivially.
3 =⇒ 1: We have that for every g ∈ G, we have gHg−1 ⊂ H. Let h ∈ H and g ∈ G.
Then
gh = ghg−1 g = h0 g ∈ Hg =⇒ gH ⊂ Hg (153)
Similarly,
hg = gg−1 hg = gh0 ∈ gH =⇒ Hg ⊂ gH (154)
Therefore, these two inclusions show that gH = Hg.
1 =⇒ 3: Suppose gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. Fix g ∈ G and h ∈ H. We want to show
that ghg−1 ∈ H. To that end

ghg−1 = gg−1 h0 = h0 ∈ H (155)

Therefore gHg−1 ⊂ H.

Exercise 72. Let H ≤ G and K E G be groups, and define the set

HK = { hk : h ∈ H, k ∈ K } (156)

show HK ≤ G.

Solution 72. We need to verify the three axioms required to be a subgroup:

1. Identity: Observe that 1 ∈ H ∩ K. Therefore 1 ∈ HK.

57
 2. Closed under Products: Since K is normal, we know for all g ∈ G, gK = Kg. This
implies that for all g ∈ G and k ∈ K, there exists a k0 ∈ K such that gk = k0 g.
Now consider hk, h0 k0 ∈ HK. We want to show their product is also in HK. Notice
that in the product hkh0 k0 , the middle term kh0 can be written as h0 k00 for some k00 ∈
K. Therefore we can now consider the product hh0 kk00 . Since H and K are both
subgroups, then hh0 = h̃ ∈ H and kk00 = k̃ ∈ K. Therefore by the definition of HK,
h̃k̃ ∈ HK.

3. Closed under Inverses: Let hk ∈ HK. We want to show that (hk)−1 = k−1 h−1 ∈ HK.
Using a similar technique as above, the normality of K implies that we can find a
k0 ∈ K such that k−1 h−1 = h−1 k0 . Therefore k−1 h−1 = h−1 k0 ∈ HK.

This three properties show that HK is a subgroup of G.

Exercise 73. Let H be the subset of upper-triangular matrices GL2 (R). Show that H is a
subgroup of GL2 (R). Is it a normal subgroup?

Solution 73. We need to verify the three axioms required to be a subgroup:

 
1 0
1. Identity: Clearly is an upper triangular matrix.
0 1
   
a b d e
2. Closed under Products: Let and be two upper triangular matrices.
0 c 0 f
Their product is     
a b d e ad ae + b f
= (157)
0 c 0 f 0 cd
which is clearly an upper triangular matrix.
 
a b
3. Closed under Inverse: Let be an upper triangular matrix. Its inverse is
0 c
 
1 c −b
(158)
ac 0 a

which is also an upper triangular matrix.

Therefore H is a subgroup of GL2 (R).

H is not a normal subgroup. We showed that an equivalent condition for being a
subgroup is that H must be closed under conjugation by elements of G. It’s easy to find
examples of conjugation which lead to matrices that are not upper triangular. Thus H is
not a normal subgroup.

Exercise 74. Let G be a finite group, and let H be a nonempty subset of G such that for
any a, b ∈ H we have ab ∈ H. Show that H is a subgroup of H.

Solution 74. We need to verify the three axioms required to be a subgroup:

58
 1. Identity: Proved in (3).

2. Closed under Products: This follows by the hypothesis of the claim.

3. Closed under Inverses: Since H is assumed nonempty, take an element x ∈ H. Since

H is closed under products, we must have that all of the powers of x are in H. That
is, x, x2 , x3 , x4 , . . . ∈ H. Since G is assumed finite and H is a subset of G, H must
also be finite. Therefore there must exist powers of x that are equal (pigeonhole
principle). Let m, n ∈ N be the first such powers such that x m = x n , and without
loss of generality, assume m > n. Next observe that x m = x n implies x m−n = 1 ∈ H
(this shows the identity is in H) which implies x m−n−1 = x −1 . Since m > n, we know
that m − n > 0 or equivalently that m − n ≥ 1. There are two cases to consider:

(a) m − n = 1: In this case x m−n−1 = x1−1 = 1 = x −1 ∈ H.

(b) m − n > 1: In this case m − n − 1 > 0, so that x m−n−1 = x −1 ∈ H since x m−n−1
is a positive power of x and H is closed under products.

Exercise 75. Let H be the subset of matrices in GL3 (R) whose determinant is positive.
Show that H is a normal subgroup of GL3 (R), and describe GL3 (R)/H.

Solution 75. We first verify that H is indeed a subgroup by verifying the three axioms:

1. Identity: The identity matrix has determinant 1, which is positive.

2. Closed under products: Take any A, B ∈ H. Recall from linear algebra that det( AB) =
det( A) det( B) > 0. therefore H is closed under taking products.

3. Closed under inverses: Take any A ∈ H. Recall from linear algebra the det( A−1 ) =
1
det( A)
> 0. Therefore H is closed under inverses.

These three points show that H is indeed a subgroup.

To show that H is a normal subgroup, we will use the equivalent characterization that
H is closed under conjugation by elements of G. Take any A ∈ G and B ∈ G. Then
det( A) det( B)
det( BAB−1 ) = det( B)
= det( A) > 0. Therefore H is closed under conjugation by
elements of G so that H is a normal subgroup.

Exercise 76. Say that a subgroup M of a group G is maximal if M ( G and for every
subgroup H of G that contains M we have either H = M or H = G. For each of the
following conditions on a finite group G, decide whether it implies that G is cyclic.

1. G has exactly one maximal subgroup.

2. G has exactly two maximal subgroups.

3. G has exactly three maximal subgroups.

Solution 76.

59
4.5 Practice 5
Exercise 77. Write down the order of each element in D8 .
Solution 77. Geometrically, it’s clear that all the (8) mirror symmetries of D8 have order
2 (we can undo a reflection by reflecting again). We can also show this as follows. Fix an
i such that 0 ≤ i ≤ 8. Then

(eρi )(eρi ) = eρi ρ−i e = e2 = 1 (159)

Therefore |eρi | = 2.
The orders of the rotational symmetries are as follows

|1| = 1
|ρ| = 8
| ρ2 | = 4
| ρ3 | = 8
| ρ4 | = 2
| ρ5 | = 8
| ρ6 | = 4
| ρ7 | = 8

Exercise 78. Define a function φ : Dn → {±1} by φ( x ) = 1 if x is a rotation and φ( x ) = −1

otherwise. Show that φ is a homomorphism.
Solution 78. Proof by cases.
Exercise 79. Let G be a group, and let

Aut( G ) = { f : G → G | f is an isomorphism} (160)

be the set of all isomorphisms from G to G. Show Aut( G ) is a group under the binary
operation of composition of functions.
Solution 79. Observe that Aut( G ) is a subset of the set of all permutations of G. Therefore,
we will prove that Aut( G ) is a subgroup of G.
Exercise 80. Let G be a group, and let

Z ( G ) = {z ∈ G |zg = gz for all g ∈ G } (161)

be the set of all elements in G which commute with all other elements. Define a function
f : G → Aut( G ) by
( f ( g))( x ) = gxg−1 (162)

60
Show that f is a homomorphism and that Ker ( f ) = Z ( G )

Solution 80. First show f is a homomorphism. Fix x, y ∈ G. Then,

( f ( g))( xy) = gxyg−1

= gxg−1 gyg−1
= ( f ( g))( x )( f ( g))(y)

Next,

Ker ( f ) = { g ∈ G |( f ( g))( x ) = x, ∀x ∈ G}
= { g ∈ G | gxg−1 = x, ∀ x ∈ G }
= { g ∈ G | gx = xg, ∀ x ∈ G }
= Z(G)

Exercise 81. Let G be a group, let K E G, and let H ≤ G. Show that K ∩ H E H.

Solution 81. Since K is a normal subgroup of G, we know that

gkg−1 ∈ K ∀k ∈ K, ∀ g ∈ G (163)

Further, since H is a subgroup, we know if is closed under products. Fix x ∈ H ∩ K.

gxg−1 ∈ H ∀ x ∈ H ∩ K, ∀ g ∈ H (164)

But since x ∈ K, we know that gxg−1 ∈ K. Therefore gxg−1 ∈ H ∩ K ∀ x ∈ H ∩ K, ∀ g ∈

H, so that K ∩ H E H.

Exercise 82. How many subgroups does a cyclic group of order 30 have?

Solution 82. For a finite cyclic group, we know there exists a unique subgroup for each
divisor of the order. Thus, the divisors of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30. The cyclic group of
order 30 has 8 subgroups.

4.6 Practice 6
Exercise 83. Let G be a group, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Define a function

φ : G → G/N (165)

by φ( g) = gN. Show that φ is a homomorphism, and that ker(φ) = N.

61
Solution 83. We’ll first show that φ is a homomorphism. Let a, b ∈ G. Then,

φ( ab) = abN
= aNbN (definition of multiplication on quotient groups)
= φ( a)φ(b)

Thus φ is a homomorphism. Next,

ker(φ) = { g ∈ G |φ( g) = 1}
= { g ∈ G | gN = N }
= {g ∈ N}
=N

Therefore ker(φ) = N.

Exercise 84. Let G be a group, and let g ∈ G. Show that

{1, g} E G (166)

if and only if g ∈ Z ( G ).

Solution 84. ⇒ Suppose G 0 = {1, g} E G. Then, g0 G 0 = G 0 g0 for all g0 ∈ G. We can

explicitly write out these left and right cosets: g0 G 0 = { g0 , g0 g} and G 0 g0 = { g0 , gg0 }.
Therefore, it must be that g0 g = gg0 . This shows that g ∈ Z ( G ). Another proof is as
follows: Since {1, g} E G, we know that g0 g( g0 )−1 ∈ {1, g} for all g0 ∈ G. There are two
cases to consider. Suppose g0 g( g0 )−1 = 1. Then g0 g = g0 , or g = 1. Therefore g ∈ Z ( G ).
In the second case, suppose g0 g( g0 )−1 = g. Then g0 g = gg0 . Thus g ∈ Z ( G ).
⇐ Suppose g ∈ Z ( G ). Then gg0 = g0 g for all g0 ∈ G. Therefore, g0 g( g0 )−1 = g ∈ {1, g}.
Similarly, g0 1( g0 )−1 = g0 ( g0 )−1 = 1 ∈ {1, g}. Therefore {1, g} E G.

Exercise 85. For any group G, show that G/Z ( G ) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut( G ).

Solution 85. We will use the First Isomorphism Theorem to prove this statement. Let
φ : G → Aut( G ) by
φ( a) = aga−1 (167)
First show φ is a homomorphism. To see this, fix a, b ∈ G, then for all g ∈ G,

φ( ab)( g) = ( ab) g( ab)−1

= abgb−1 a−1
= aφ(b) a−1
= φ( a) ◦ φ(b)

therefore φ is a homomorphism. Now we’ll show that ker(φ) = Z ( G ). However this is

62
simple to see because

ker(φ) = { a ∈ G | aga−1 = g}
= { a ∈ G | ag = ga}
= Z(G)

Therefore, by the first isomorphism theorem, we have that

G/ker (φ) ∼
= Im(φ) (168)

or in this context
G/Z ( G ) ∼
= Inn( G ) (169)

Exercise 86. For the action of GL2 (R) on R2 , find the orbit of each v ∈ R2 .

Solution 86. There are two cases to consider. Suppose v = 0 (the zero vector). Then Ov =
{0}. For v 6= 0, since each matrix in GL2 (R) is invertible, we know that the nullspaces
of these matrices are trivial. Conversely, v 6= 0 implies the action cannot map v to 0.
Therefore, Ov = R2 {0}.

Exercise 87. For the action of GL2 (R) on R2 describe the stabilizer of each v ∈ R2 .

Solution 87. Everything stabilizes the zero vector. For a non zero vector v, it is stabilized
by the matrix which has it as an eigenvector with corresponding eigenvalue of 1.

Exercise 88. Let G be a group, and let G act on itself by (left) multiplication. Show that
the stabilizer of each element is trivial.

Solution 88. This follows from the fact that the identity element of G is unique. Thus,
1 · g = g and uniqueness implies the stabilizer of each element of G is trivial.

Exercise 89. For the action of the dihedral group D4 on the vertices of a square, determine
the size of a vertex stabilizer.

Solution 89. The size of a vertex stabilizer is 2: the identity element and the mirror sym-
metry which passes through the opposite vertex. All other symmetries do not fix a vertex.

4.7 Practice 7
Exercise 90. In how many ways can one color the vertices of a 5-gon using 7 colors?

Solution 90. Let’s first consider the fixed points of the mirror symmetries. Since a pen-
tagon has an odd number of vertices, all of its mirror symmetries are of the form vertex to
midpoint. Therefore, all mirror symmetries will behave the same. By the figure below, we
see that we need vertices 2 and 5 to have the same color, 3 and 4 to be the same color, and
1 can be another color. Therefore, there are 73 fixed colorings for each mirror symmetry
(of which there are 5).

63
 Figure 3: Pentagon Mirror Symmetries

Now let’s consider the rotations. For ρ, all vertices must be the same color. Thus,
there are 7 fixed colorings for ρ. Actually, for a pentagon, all rotations must consist of a
single cycle (except the identity), so there are 7 fixed colorings for each rotation. The iden-
tity permutation fixes everything, so there are 75 possible colorings. Then by Burnside’s
theorem, the solution is
1 5
(7 + 4 × 7 + 5 × 73 ) (170)
10
Exercise 91. Verify by direct calculation that Burnside’s formula for the number of orbits
holds for the action of D4 on the vertices of a square.
Solution 91. By inspection, there is only one orbit. The identity element has 4 fixed points.
Then, the rotations have no fixed points/vertices. The two mirror symmetries that con-
nect a vertex to a vertex each have two fixed points/vertices. The remaining two mirror
symmetries (which go from midpoint to midpoint) have no fixed points. Therefore, by
Burnside’s formula, the number of orbits N of the action of D4 on the vertices of a square
is
1
(4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 2) = 1 (171)
8
Exercise 92. Let a group G act on itself by conjugation. Show that the action is faithful if
and only if Z ( G ) = {1}.
Solution 92. → Suppose the action is faithful. This means that if gxg−1 = x for all x ∈ G,
then g = 1. Then

Z ( G ) = { g ∈ G | gx = xg ∀x ∈ G}
−1
= { g ∈ G | x = gxg ∀x ∈ G}
= {1} (since the action is faithful)

← Suppose Z ( G ) = {1}. Consider a g ∈ G such that gxg−1 = x for all x ∈ G. This

implies gx = xg for all x ∈ G, and that g ∈ Z ( G ). Therefore g = 1, so that the action is
faithful.

64
Exercise 93. Let G be a group such that G/Z ( G ) is cyclic. Then G is abelian.
Solution 93. Since G/Z ( G ) is cyclic, there exists an x ∈ G such that G/Z ( G ) = h xZ ( G )i.
Now fix g ∈ G. There must be some m ∈ N such that gZ ( G ) = ( xZ ( G ))m = x m Z ( G ).
This implies that ( x m )−1 g ∈ Z ( G ), so that there must exist some z ∈ Z ( G ) such that
( x m )−1 g = z. This implies g = x m z. Now consider another element h ∈ G. by the same
logic, there must exist an n ∈ N and z0 ∈ Z ( G ) such that h = x n z0 . Then

gh = x m zx n z0
= x m x n zz0 (since z ∈ Z ( G ))
= x m+n z0 z (combine powers and z0 ∈ Z ( G ))
= x n+m z0 z
= x n x m z0 z
= x n z0 x m z
= hg

Therefore G is abelian.
Exercise 94. Let G be a group acting on a set X and let x, y ∈ X. Suppose that for some
g ∈ G we have gx = y. Show gGx g−1 = Gy .
Solution 94. We show two inclusions.
1. ⊆: First let h ∈ Gx . We want to show that ghg−1 ∈ Gy , so that ghg−1 (y) = y. Then

ghg−1 (y) = gh( x ) (g( x ) = y implies x = g−1 y)

= g( x ) (since h ∈ Gx )
=y

Therefore gGx g−1 ⊆ Gy .

2. ⊇: Fix h ∈ Gy . We want to show that h ∈ gGx g−1 , or that there exists some h0 ∈ Gx
such that h = gh0 g−1 . Let h0 = g−1 hg, and we’ll show h0 ∈ Gx . Then

g−1 hg( x ) = g−1 h(y)

= g −1 ( y ) (since h ∈ Gy )
=x

Thus h0 ∈ Gx . This implies thath = gh0 g−1 ∈ gGx g−1 so that gGx g−1 ⊇ Gy .
Exercise 95. Let G be a group that acts transitively on a set X. Show that for every x, y ∈
X, we have Gx ∼= Gy .
Solution 95. We can apply the above exercise to notice that Gy = gGx g−1 , where g( x ) = y
(this g exists by transitivity). We then define a function φ : Gx → Gy = gGx g−1 by

65
φ(h) = ghg−1 . We claim that φ is an isomorphism (that is is a homomorphism which is
injective and surjective).

Exercise 96. Let G be an abelian group that acts transitively and faithfully on a set X.
Show that the action is free.

Solution 96.

4.8 Practice 8
Exercise 97. Write explicitly the injective homomorphism from (Z/2Z) × (Z/2Z) to S4
given by Cayley’s theorem.

Solution 97. Motivated by the proof of Cayley’s theorem, we should consider the action
of G on itself by (left) multiplication. Observe that (Z/2Z) × (Z/2Z) has 4 elements:
{(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 1)}. Also note that S4 permutes 4 elements. This motivates label-
ing the 4 elements in (Z/2Z) × (Z/2Z) and using left multiplication to create permuta-
tions of elements. For example, call the elements 1, 2, 3, and 4. Then

2 + 1 = (0, 1) = 2
2 + 2 = (0, 0) = 1
2 + 3 = (1, 1) = 4
2 + 4 = (1, 0) = 3

And we can view this as the permutation (12)(43).

3 + 1 = (1, 0) = 3
3 + 2 = (1, 1) = 4
3 + 3 = (0, 0) = 1
3 + 4 = (0, 1) = 2

And we can view this as the permutation (13)(42).

4 + 1 = (1, 1) = 4
4 + 2 = (1, 0) = 3
4 + 3 = (0, 1) = 2
4 + 4 = (0, 0) = 1

And we can view this as the permutation (14)(32). Finally applying (0, 0) results in the
identity permutation.

Exercise 98. Show that the group (Z/11Z)× is cyclic.

Solution 98. Observe that the element 2 generates (Z/11Z)× .

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Exercise 99. Show that the group (Z/8Z)× is not cyclic.

Solution 99. Recall that (Z/8Z)× = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Therefore |(Z/8Z)× | = 4. We’ll demon-
strate two subgroups of order 2, which shows that the group cannot be cyclic. Consider
{1, 3} and {1, 5}. Both of these are (cyclic) subgroups of order 2, which means that
(Z/8Z)× cannot be cyclic, since for each m which divides the order of (Z/8Z)× , we
must have a unique subgroup of order m.

Exercise 100. Find the inverse of each element in (Z/13Z)× .

Solution 100. Make multiplication table.

4.9 Practice 9
Exercise 101. Write explicitly the elements of Z ( D4 ) and of Z ( D5 ).

Solution 101. More generally, the center of the Dihedral Group Dn is trivial when n is
odd. When n is even, the center consists of the identity element together with the 180
degree rotation of the polygon.

Exercise 102. Let G be a group of order 60 that has a normal subgroup of N of order 10.
Show that G has a subgroup of index 2.

Solution 102. (Sketchy) By Lagrange’s theorem,

|G| 60
| G/N | = = =6 (172)
|N| 10

Then, Cauchy’s theorem guarantees the existence of an element H ≤ G/N with order 3
(since 3 divides 6). Note that H is a subgroup of order 3. The index of this subgroup in G
is then
|G| 1 6
[ G/N : H ] = · = =2 (173)
|N| |H| 3

Exercise 103. Let G be an abelian group of order divisible by 14. Show that G has an
element of order 14.

Solution 103. By Cauchy’s theorem, we know there exists an element x of order 2 and an
element y of order 7. We then claim that xy has order 14. This result generalizes. If G is
an abelian group, and x and y are elements of G with orders m and n respectively, then
if m and n are relatively prime, the order of the element xy is mn. We’ll prove this more
general statement. Note that

( xy)mn = x mn ymn (since G is abelian)

= ( x m )n (yn )m
=1

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Thus the order r of xy divides mn. Given that r is the order of xy, we also know that

1 = ( xy)r = xr yr (since G abelian)

Further

1 = 1n = xrn yrn = xrn . (since yn = 1)

Thus the order of x, m, divides rn. An analogous argument shows that the order of y, n,
divides rm. Thus we get that mn divides r since m and n are relatively prime. Therefore
r = mn, so that the order of xy is mn.
In the context of this problem, since 2 and 7 are relatively prime, we know that the
order of xy is 14.

Exercise 104. Write explicitly the conjugacy classes of D6 and D7 .

Solution 104. More generally, we can calculate the conjugacy classes of Dn as follows.
The identity element always forms its own conjugacy class {1}. Consider a rotation ρk .
First conjugate by another rotation ρm :

ρm ρk ρ−m = ρk

Next conjugate by a reflection eρm :

eρm ρk (eρm )−1 = eρm ρk ρ−m e−1

= eρm ρk ρ−m e
= eρk e
= eeρ−k
= ρ−k

Thus, if n is odd, there will be n− 1

2 conjugacy classes of size 2 that contain a rotation and
its inverse rotation (i.e. {ρ±i }). If n is even, there will be n2 − 1 conjugacy classes of size 2
that contain a rotation and its inverse rotation.
Consider the reflection e. First conjugate by the rotation ρm :

ρm eρ−m = ρm ρm e
= ρ2m e
= eρ−2m

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Next conjugate by another reflection eρm :

eρm e(eρm )−1 = eρm eρ−m e−1

= eρm eρ−m e
= eρm ρm ee
= eρ2m

Thus, if n is odd, the reflections all fall in the same conjugacy class. If n is even, the
reflections will fall into two conjugacy classes: the reflections where the rotation is an
even power and the reflections where the rotation is an odd power.
For the specific cases requested:

D6 : {1}, {ρ, ρ5 }, {ρ2 , ρ4 }, {ρ3 }, {e, eρ2 , eρ4 }, {eρ, eρ3 , eρ5 }
D7 : {1}, {ρ, ρ6 }, {ρ2 , ρ5 }, {ρ3 , ρ4 }, {e, eρ, . . . , eρ6 }

4.10 Practice 10
Let G be a group and let H ≤ G.
Exercise 105. Show that
NG ( H ) = { g ∈ G | gHg−1 = H } (174)
is a subgroup of G. We say that NG ( H ) is the normalizer of H in G.
Solution 105. It is clear that NG ( H ) is a subset of G. We need to check three axioms:
1. Identity: clearly 1H1−1 = H, since 1 ∈ H.

2. Closed under products: let a, b ∈ NG ( H ). Then aHa−1 = H and bHb−1 = H. Then,

( ab) H ( ab)−1 = abHb−1 a−1 = aHa−1 = H (175)

3. Closed under inverses. let a ∈ NG ( H ). Then

aHa−1 = H =⇒ a−1 aHa−1 = a−1 H

a−1 aHa−1 a = a−1 Ha
a−1 Ha = H

Exercise 106. Show that H ⊆ NG ( H ).

Solution 106. Let h ∈ H. Note that h ∈ G. Then,

hHh−1 = H (176)

since h ∈ H. Thus h ∈ NG ( H ).

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Exercise 107. Show that NG ( H ) = G if and only if H / G.
Solution 107. Suppose NG ( H ) = G. Thus gHg−1 = H for all g ∈ G. This is precisely
the definition of normality. Suppose H / G. Then gHg−1 = H for all g ∈ G, or that
NG ( H ) = G.
Exercise 108. Give an example where H = NG ( H ).
Solution 108. Suppose G = S4 and H = S3 a subset of G (i.e., permutations that fix a
certain element). Notice that [ G : H ] = 4. There are four elements in NG ( H ) (the three
permutations that leave one element fixed and the identity). Thus H + NG ( H ).
Other: Let P be a p-Sylow subgroup pf G. Let H be a subgroup of G containing NG ( P).
Then NG ( H ) = H. We already know H ⊆ NG ( H ). Let a ∈ NG ( H ). since P ⊆ NG ( P) ⊆ H,
we know
aPa−1 ⊆ aHa−1 = H (177)
(since a ∈ NG ( H )). Thus P and aPa−1 are Sylow subgroups of H, and hence conjugate.
Thus there is some b ∈ H such that bPb−1 = aHa−1 . Then (b−1 a) P(b−1 a)−1 = P and
b−1 a ∈ NG ( P) ⊆ H. Thus a ∈ H, since B ∈ H.
Exercise 109. Suppose that H is a p-Sylow subgroup of G. Show that NG ( NG ( H )) =
NG ( H ).
Solution 109. Use the previous exercise with H = NG ( P). Then NG ( NG ( H )) = NG ( H ).
Exercise 110. Number of p-Sylow subgroups of G is [ G : NG ( H )].
Solution 110. Sylow subgroups are conjugate. And number of conjugates is equal to the
index of the normalizer of the subgroup.
Exercise 111. Find a 2-Sylow subgroup of S5 and a 5-Sylow subgroup of S24 .
Solution 111. S5 has order 120. The highest power of 2 that goes into 120 is 23 = 8. Thus
we are looking for a subgroup of order 8. Recall that S5 permutes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Further,
D4 permutes {1, 2, 3, 4} and has 8 elements. Thus, D4 is a 2-Sylow subgroup of S5 .
Next, S24 has order 24!. In the expansion of 24!, there are 4 terms divisible by 5: 5, 10,
15, 20. Thus, a 5-Sylow subgroup will have order 54 . Take the disjoint cycles

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (6, 7, 8, 9, 10), (11, 12, 13, 14, 15), (16, 17, 18, 19, 20) (178)

Now consider the group generated by the product of these cycles

h(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)(6, 7, 8, 9, 10)(11, 12, 13, 14, 15)(16, 17, 18, 19, 20)i (179)

Each element in this subgroup will be of the form

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) a (6, 7, 8, 9, 10)b (11, 12, 13, 14, 15)c (16, 17, 18, 19, 20)d (180)

where a, b, c, d ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Thus the subgroup has 54 elements.

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4.11 Practice 11
Exercise 112. Let A be a commutative ring. We say that a ∈ A is invertible if there exists
some b ∈ A such that ab = 1. Denote by A× the subset of invertible elements in A.

1. Show that A× is abelian group.

2. Show that A is a field if and only if A× = A \ {0}.

3. Show that R[ X ]× = R× .

Solution 112. We prove each statement as follows:

1. Check group axioms. Contains multiplicative identity and associative since a ring.
Inverses are assumed to exist. Closed under products?

2. Suppose A is a field. Then each non-zero element has to be invertible.

3. Any non-degenerate polynomial does not have an inverse that is also a polynomial.

Exercise 113. Let S be a set, and let P(S) be the collection of all subset of S. Show that
P(S) is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operations of symmetric difference
and intersection.

Solution 113. Let symmetric difference correspond to addition and intersection corre-
spond to multiplication. We’ll first show that P(S) is an abelian group under addition:

1. Identity: S∆∅ = (S − ∅) ∪ (∅ − S) = S ∪ ∅ = S

2. Associativity: ( X∆Y )∆Z = X∆(Y∆Z )

3. Inverse: X∆X = ∅

4. Commutativity: “symmetric difference”.

Next we check multiplication:

1. Commutativity: Intersection commutative

2. Associativity: Intersection associative

3. Identity: Suppose E is the universe. Then S ∩ E = S.

4. Distributivity with respect to addition:

( X∆Y ) ∩ Z = (( X − Y ) ∪ (Y − X )) ∩ Z
= (( X − Y ) ∩ Z ) ∪ ((Y − X ) ∩ Z )
= ( X ∩ Z − Y ∩ Z ) ∪ (Y ∩ Z − X ∩ z )
= ( X ∩ Z ) ∆ (Y ∩ Z )

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Exercise 114. Let A be a commutative ring. We say that A is an integral domain if ab = 0
holds for some a, b ∈ A only in case a = 0 or b = 0.

1. Show that Z is an integral domain.

2. Show that any field is an integral domain.

3. Show that R[ X ] is an integral domain.

4. Show that every finite integral domain is a field.

5. Is P(S) an integral domain?

Solution 114. We prove each item in turn:

1. Follows from basic properties of integers.

2. Let F be a field and let x, y ∈ F be non-zero. Suppose that F is not an integral

domain, and that xy = 0. Then,

xy = 0 =⇒ z−1 ( xy) = 0 =⇒ y = 0 (181)

which is a contradiction.

3. Suppose not. Suppose there exists p, q ∈ R[ X ] non-zero such that pq = 0. Suppose

p is order m and q is order n. Then consider the coefficient on the highest power,
x m+n , which is called am bn . This is non-zero by assumption, so the product of the
polynomials can’t be zero (R is an integral domain).

4. Let F be a finite integral domain. F is already assumed to be a commutative ring,

so we need to show that it has multiplicative inverses. Let r ∈ F, r 6= 0. We show
r −1 ∈ F. Consider the map f : F → F defined by f ( x ) = rx. We show that f is
injective. To that end, fix x, y 6= 0 such that f ( x ) = f (y). Thus rx = ry, which
implies r ( x − y) = 0. Since F is an integral domain and r 6= 0, we must have that
x = y. This shows injectivity, and finiteness implies surjectivity. Thus, there exists
some x ∈ F such that f ( x ) = rx = 1, which shows that r −1 ∈ F. Thus F contains
multiplicative inverses for non-zero elements, and is thus a field.

5. No. We can find subsets that are non-empty whose intersection is empty.

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