A STUDIO MANUAL FOR CASTING BRONZE BY THE LOST-WAX METHOD.

Presented to

The Art Faculty

of
University of Minnesota, Duluth

by
Terry M. Anderson
for the degree of

Master of Arts

August 1974
Duluth, l:linnesota
 " TOPOG Rl\PHIC_ II II

24 x 18 inch bronze r elief

This bronze casting done by myself, portrays my fascina-

tion and delight towards th e method of lost-wax ca sting. It also

contai ns my inter e st in geol ogy , ae rial photography , and cartography.

Earth , air, and fir e ge nerat e the creation of the bronze through

the t echnic ; just as the earth, and its own evolution through a

a s i milar t echnic, is t he subject matter. For my s elf, the execu-

tion of t he br onze is s imilar to the geological manifestations of

t ectonics i t s el f ; hopef ully, giving to the vi ewer and mys elf a

glimpse of the magnet ude, sound nes s , and s ensuous r eality of the

earth.
 - CONTENTS -

Development of Casting . . 1

Introduction to the Method 3

What is the Value of the Process? 8

The Materials 10

Bronze . . 10
Wax . . 11
Plaster . . 12

The Plaster Mold 13

The Wax Pattern . . . . 20

Melting the Wax. . 20

Making the Pattern • 2()

The Sprue System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 22

Sprueing the Wax Pattern . . 22

Making the Sprues & Runners. 27
Examples of Sprue Systems . . 28

Investment 31

Types of Investment 31
Investing the Wax . 33

Burnout 42

Packing the Molds 43

Melting & Pouring 45

Care & Use of the Crucible . 45

Charging the Crucible With Bronze. • 45
Preheating the Charge Bronze . . . 46
The Crucible Rest . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
The Crucible Tongs & Shank 46
Melting the Bronze . . 47
Illustrations of the Pour 48

Patination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Patina Application 58
21 Patina Formula. 6()

Summary 63
Foot notes . 64

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 65
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF BRONZE CASTING

The technic employe d in casting bronze has little changed since Biblical

t imes, wh en Aaron cast his golden calf. Albeit the story of Aaron could be

my th, sufficient evidence remains to prove that bronze was cast in very

early historical times. Bronze bells and other castings have been f o und
·1
in China , their marks indicating t ha t they were cast circa 2000 B.C. Earlier
2
castings have been found in India, these dating from 5000 B.C. Seemingly

many major civilizations have evolved a technic · for bronze casting.

Before the casting technic was developed, bronze was hammered into

thin sheets, then beaten to conform to wooden or bituminous molds. The metal

surface could be tooled in great detail. This technic, although producing

fine results, had its drawbacks. The form had to be annealed and hanunered

many times, and total freedom of form was limited. The casting of metal

made possible larger, more substantial forms which could now be as fluid

in concept and design as the wax model would permit. The ori ginator of

the lost wax process remains anonymous. Most likely, early bronze forms

were e x clusively weapons or tools. Most of the technical advancements in

early metallurgy indicate the pursuit of a better weapon.

Most of the fine bronze articles of the past are lost. Invaders could

destroy the forms by bui lding a fire inside or out. Many other valuable

pieces we re lo a ded on camel or ship, destined for one of the great Med-

iterranean cit ies . Eventually, the prized bronzes reached the sovereign

city- Rome . This historical anal ysis well accounts for the prominent role. of

t he Italians h ave taken in bronze casting. Large quantities of bronze scrap

encouraged artists t o perpetuate their ideas in tha t medium. Thus, since

 -2-

the Bronze Age, man through all of his civilizations has produced bronze

articles. Because so many bronzes have been preserved, today 's museums

serve as virtual warehouses for them.

The process of lost wax casting was perpetuated and protected by

various craft guilds. Until recent times, sculptors knew nothing of the

technic. Before the knowledge of bronze casting was disseminated, the artist

would take his model to a foundry where it would be cast for him. The

artist remained uninformed as to the bronze casting method. The artist

of today finds advantage in learning the methods of bronze casting-not only

is it to his financial advantage; but he prefers to work out his aesthetic

feelings for technic himself. The once guarded secrets of casting are now

promulgated by artists, students and institutions of higher learning.

 -3-

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE METHOD

Before moving into the particular methods and problems of lost-wax

casting, a summerization of procedure is necessary. The form to be cast

is made of wax or a similar material that will burn out and leave little

residue. (Fig. 1) Here a head study has been made in wax; the thickness of

the wax is about 3/16".

Fig. 1 - The Wax Pattern Fig. 2 - The Sprue System and

Core Pins

(Fig. 2) The sprue system is attached to the wax pattern. Sprues and vents

in the shape of wax rods are attached to designated points on the wax form

and arranged in a manner to distribute the molten bronze rapidly and uniformly

to all parts of the mold with a minimum of turbulence. These wax rods range
 -4-

in size and form from 1/4" to l" in diameter, varying according to the

size of the casting and the amount of metal to be distributed. Because of

the weight and shrinkage of bronze, most castings are made hollow - the

wax form or pattern is also hollow. The thickness of the wax and con-

sequently, the bronze is about 1/8" - 3/16".

'

Fig. 3 - The Investment

(Fig. 3) The wax pattern with the sprue system attached is now enclosed in

a plastic refractory material-investment. Because the bronze will be hollow,

the investment must also be on the inside of the wax pattern. This core must

be anchored substantially in order to retain its proper position with relation

to the outside of the mold at two critical periods - after the wax support
 -5-

has been melted away and while the molten bronze is exerting heavy pressure

in filling the space between the inner core and the exterior mold. The

anchoring is achieved by core pins, or nails penetrating through the

wax and linking the mold and core once the wax is melted away.

(See Fig. 2)

Fi g . 4 - The Burnout of the Wax

 -6-

The entire assemblage is allowed to set up (the investment being partially

plaster) and is placed in a kiln or ov en. (Fi g . 4) The kiln should

surround the mold with a minimum of wasted space. The mold is then fired to

a temperature of around 1000 degrees F., or until the wa x and moisture are

completely driven out. Firing time may . range from one to two days, depending

on the sizes of and number of molds.

Fig. 5 - Packing the Mold and Pouring the

Bronze
 -7-

(Fig. 5) After being allowed to cool in the kiln, the mold is care-

fully placed in a pit or a large container of sand. Being slightly damp

and cohesive, the sand is tightly rammed into the space between the molds

and the container walls. The packed sand assists the mold when it is being

filled with molten bronze by helping resist the pressure and weight exerted

from the inflow of the metal being poured. After proper cooling the

casting is removed from the sand and investment mold and cleaned. Sprues,

core pins and core are removed; any holes are repaired and the surface is

tooled to a final finish. A patina (surface color) can then be applied.

Patinas can give a variety of color effects. The bronze surface is treated

to produce the various copper and iron compounds. Patinas are not applied

or superficial colors, but rather an actual modification of the surface and

an integral part of the bronze.

Keeping in mind the overview of the bronze casting process, one can

now consider the variables, which can be manipulated, often to one's

success or failure. This paper will narrow the range of variables to a

more tolerable lend.

 -8-

WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THE LOST-WAX PROCESS?

Bronze casting deals with much more than technical considerations.

Aesthetic implications of the method should also be looked into.

"I think technic is similar to vocabulary in terms of talking

and thinking. I don't think we can conceive verbally, I
mean, .without words to conceive with. I don't believe we
can create visually without the technical means already
absorbed, pre-absorbed or pre-programmed, •••...
In ' other words, if we know that metal has certain
characteristics such as flowing, we can !!think" then, or
we can conceive then, in terms of form, which result
from this." 3

Many arguments against the lost-wax casting process have been raised -

the method is absurdly indirect, it lacks integrity for material, bronze as

a contemporary material is dead, bronze is expensive, the technic is

tedious, etc. In most peoples minds, these are the drawbacks to the lost-

wax process. But, perhaps they are "overlooking" the method and missing

some of its inherent ideas.

Perhaps in the idea of "transition" lies the worth of the lost-wax process

the transition of ideas through material changes. For example, one can

begin by modeling an image in clay, a fluid, plastic material which will

take form very easily. From the clay image a plaster mold is made. This

process need not be tedious, but rather a whole dimension of positive and

negative imagery may arise. The original clay image of the modeled form can

remain whole and continuous by means of a complete mold. Parts of the

original form can be contrasted or joined (as male and female) by using only

disjoined parts of the mold. A rhy~hm of vibrant forms and. images can

be set up by the manipulation of parts of the mold, inherent in the

process of the mold is the essence of birth, of fetus and of womb and

death. A mold can be the continuation of a : sculptural idea.

 -9-

Following the concept of transition, a wax pattern is taken fro m the

mold. This wax will become the e xact form of the ori ginal clay . In other

instances, the wax can be treated directly. It can be flashed with a flame,

carved, bent or modeled. The wax pattern is then encased in a shell of

fire resistant material (investment) where it is melted out (hence lost-wax

process) leaving an empty cavity. The original image gone, only the fragile

shell remains after firing. The cavity is only made whole again when the

bronze is poured in.

There is a certain character to the process of lost wax. One can exper-

ience a richness in the qualities of plastic clay and moldable wax, the

negative mold, the fire of casting and the array of colors and textures

that can be achieved in the final bronze.

Hopefully, those who proceed to cast will enjoy the process equally with

the outcome, for in the process lie inherent ideas, new directions, and

a philosophy that can give soundness to the finished form.

 -10-

THE MATERI ALS

Bronz e

There are numerous metals that can be c a st. Traditiona lly and

for re a sons of strength, color, c a stability and resistance to corrosion,

bronze has been the preferred metal. Es sentially bronze is an alloy of

copper and tin. Small proportions of other metals are sometimes added for

reasons of physical streng th corrosion resistance or appearance. One

of the ancient bronze alloys consisted of 88 parts co pper, 10 parts tin and
4
2 parts zinc. The addition of tin and zinc give the copper a greater

tensile streng th. The standard bronze compositions of today are

similar in make-up.

Aluminum can be alloyed with copper. Lead can be added to lower the

melting temperature. Silv er can be added to change the colo r~ Each of the

many a lloy s of bronze is distinct. The melting temperature may vary greatly.

Some need fluxes when melted and most c annot be mixed one with the other.

It is very important that the composition of the alloy and its properties

b e understood before casting. Bronze should not be contaminated with any ether

metal, nor any other alloy of bronze, unless compatibility has been established.

The composition of scrap bronze should be ascertained before use. It should

be clean. In most cases, it is best to purchase new ingots, which cost little

more than scrap. They are guaranteed as to their composition. If problems

arise in the casting one can eliminate the meta l a s the source of the problem.

One alloy th a t should be stress ed for found a ry use is silicon bron ze.

It is very fluid when melt e d and will readily cast into thin, comp lex s e ctions.

This me tal do e s not form a heavy slag , nor does it n eed a flu x when melte d.

One thing that af f ects t h e castability of bronzes is the pre s ence of ox ide s.
 -11-

Tin (found in most alloys) readily forms tin oxide when melted. This oxide

forms quickly and will impede the fluidity of the metal. Silicon forms no

stable oxide when melted and silicon bronze is a relatively clean metal

when poured.
5 The composition of silicon bronze is essentially copper and

4% silicon. There may be small amounts of zinc ormaganese and other trace

elements.

Wax

Much time spent in lost wax casting is in the production of a

suitably finished wax pattern. There are two means of getting a wax pattern.

It can be made by molding the wax directly (direct wax casting) or by

taking a wax pattern from a mold (indirect wax casting).

Making a direct wax sculpture of any size is difficult because the

inside of the wax must be a predetirmined core. The core is made of a

refractory material to within what will be the end thickness of the bronze.

Wax is spread over the core to achieve this final thickness. Final

modeling is done on the wax. My emphasis will be given to the indirect method,

since many sculptures are not first conceived in wax, but rather in clay,

wood, plaster or other materials. From these materials a plaster mold is

made and a wax pattern is taken.

Two t ypes of wax are derived from petroleum ·- Paraffin and microcrystalline.

Microcry stalline is best suited for studio use. Paraffin is brittle and cracks

when bent. Microcrystalline waxes bend easily and are not brittle.

There are many varities of microcrystalline wax, with melting temperatures

ranging from 140 degrees F. to 200 degrees F. They can be softened by

being mixed with vasaline or petroleum jelly.

Much care should be exercised when working with any kind of wax. If wax
 -12-

is overheated it may ignite and cause severe burns. Microcrystalline wax

does not ignite until it reaches about 500 degrees F. As it melts at

a much lower temperature, it g ives allowance for a good saf ety margin.

Plaster

The use of gypsum or plaster as a sculptural material goes back 4500

years. Casts from faces and other parts .of the body have been found in
6
Egypt and date from 2400 B.C. From the Egyp tians through .the Greeks and to

the present day, pl as ter ranks as one of the most versatile materials of

the sculptor. One should try to understand some of its physical and chemical

properties. Plaster is CaS04 one-half H20 · or sulphat~ of calcium. It is

7
made from CaS04 - 2H20 or hydrated calcium sulphate. From looking at the

two equations, one c an see that plas ter is dehydrated gypsum. The sculptor

just re-adds the water - a bit of magic.

Plaster should always be adde d to water. Sprinkle dry plaster uniformly

over the surface of the water. Never drop in whole handfuls, as the result

will be a lumpy, hard to blend mixture. Keep adding until the water is completel~

saturated with plaster . Let stand untiL bubbling and saturation are complete.

Prope rly mixed, plaster will set u p in 20 minutes. Mixing should be done

from the bottom as this will ke ep air bubbles from being trapped in the mix.

Excessive mixing should be av oided as i t causes the plaster to set too

quickly. If the plaster i s mix ed dur ing its setting phase, it will not

harden . Vigorous mix in g using hot water, or using a rich mixture of

plaster to water caus es the pl as ter to set quickly. Minimal, gen tle mixin&

cold wa ter and the use o f less plaster wi ll ret ard the setting time.
 -13-

THE PLASTER MOLD

Molds are made for several reasons - to transfer the form into wax,

to make duplicate copies' or as an integral part of the finished concept.

Traditionally, mold making has been an important part of the sculptor' s

repretoire. Today the tendency is to seperate technic from the creative

process. This development only hinders the sculptor, limiting his freedom

of expression , narrowing his direction and ~onfini~g his imagination

for lack of knowledge.

The form to be cast in a plaster mold should be studied to find the

simplest and most apparent divisions. This will indicate how to make

the mold easy to remove and re-assemble to pour the wax pattern.

/ '

Plate 1
 -1 4-

The figure (1) is made of solid wax, about 7 inches high. A mold is

being made from it so t he fi gure can be made hollow and in duplicate. A

clay wall surrounds the fi gure where th e re are no undercuts. This assures

that f irs t piece of the plaster mo ld will release easily. The clay sh im is

a uniform !z" wide.

Plat e 2

( 2) About one cup of plaster is mixed. The first coat, carefully

painted on,prevent s a ir entrapment.

(3) A number "9" tool is used to apply the plaster as it begins to

se t.
 -15-

Plate 3

Plate 4

I
 -16-

(4) The same tool smooths the surface as the plaster reaches a "frosting-

like" consistency.

(5) The first piece has hardened in about 20 minutes. The cl ay h as been

removed and the next piece will be made. Notice the undercut in b etween

the two arms . It prevents the whole back from being made in one piece.

Plate 5

(6) A piece has been made in this portion of the back. Two keys have been

carved to prevent _ the piece from shifting when it is connected to the back

piece. A separatormust be used to keep the pieces from sticking to gether.

A non detergent soap solution works well - Fels Naptha or Ivory Snow.

Green soap or clay slip works well also. The separator is brushed over the

plaster. After it soaks in for a few seconds, any excess is brushed away to

prevent its goin g into solution with the plaster where it is applied .
 -17-

Soap mix ed with plas ter prevents plaster hardening.

Plate 6

(7 & 8) After the b vo pieces have been soaped, the third piece is applied

over the back. The whole process continues until the mold is complete.
 - 18-

Plate 7

Plate 8
 -19-

T
Plate 9

(9) \fnen the plaster is set, the pieces can be removed. There will be some

resistance. Pouring hot water into the seams softens and relieves the resis-

tance of the wax. Clean the pieces out with a soft brush. Any concave errors

in the mold can be filled with soft clay. For wax pouring, a ~" hole is

carved in one of the top mold pieces. The hole can later be repaired with

wax. A wax pattern can now be taken from the mold.

 -20-

THE WAX PATTERN

Melting the Wax

If the wax is solid in the pan,melt a small area of wax on the ed ge of

the pan before putting it directly over the burner. This will relieve

the tension of the expanding, melting wax at the bottom of the pan and allow

its coming to the surface instead of exploding. Rapid melting and high

heat are not necessary. Wax does not conduct heat well. If the melted

wax starts to make a boiling sound, water is pr esent in the wax. This can

be very dangerous since it causes the wax to bubble and spatter. The noise

also indicates a temperature which is, in most c ases, too hot. Another indicato

of ex cess temperature in microcrystalline wax is odor. At working temperatures

0 0
(between 200 -::- 275) the wax is almost odorless. At excess temperatures it

gives off oily fumes.

Making the Pattern

There are 3 methods for making a wax pattern, pouring, painting and

a combination of both. In all cases the plaster mold must be wet or the

hot wax will stick to the plaster surface. After the mold has soaked in

water, remove it and sponge off any excess surface water. Bind the mold

pieces together with clamps, rubber bands or rope. If the seams between the

mold pieces are not snug , clay can be pushed into the seam. Pour the mold

full of hot wax, then immediately pour the wax back out. A wax layer of

1/16" will have built up on the surface. If the wax from this first

pour had been left in the mold too long it would have hea ted up cert a in thin

or delicate areas of th e plas ter mold. The deposition of wax in these areas

would then become t hinner and thinner. The wax temperature in this fi r s t

pour is fairly hot, so as not to make chill or ripple marks on the mold

surface from rapid cooling. Now l et the pan of hot wax cool of f, so
 -21-

that when it is poured in the mold,it does not remelt the first wax coat.

Pour this cooler wax back into the mold. Slowly rotate the mold as the

wax is poured back out to ge t a uniform wax coating on the mold. When

pouring the wax back out make sure it does not gurgle, as this slight

vac uum may cause the warm wax inside the mold to collapse on distort.

Sometimes in a complex mold an air vent with a removable plug is used to

facilitate filling and emptying the mold of wax. The process is repeated

until the desired thickness is achieved. Remember that the thickness of

the wax will be the thickness of the bronze. The mold is then placed

in cold water to cool, the pieces are carefully pulled off the wax pattern.

Good results can also be achieved by brushing the wax into the mold.

The best brush to use is a natural bristle brush. A nylon brush would melt.

Tne essential idea in brushing is to apply the brushful of wax quickly

b efore it fre eze s. Never keep brushing after the wax starts to t hic::en.

Start slapping the brus hfuls of hot wax on the mold from the bottom up.

This helps avoid lapping lines. If the brush can not be gotten into the

mold, the individual pieces of the mold can be separately painted with a

thin l aye r of wax. The edges are then trimmed of the pieces put together, and

hot wax poured in as in the first method.

When. the mold is taken off the wax can be given its final repairs

or retouchings. Johnson's paste wax works well for filling bubbles, pits

or undesirable cavities on the surf a ce of the wax. The wax pattern is now

re a dy fo r sprueing.
 -22-

THE SPRUE SYSTEM

Sprueing the Wax Pattern

The sprue system is to the wax pattern as the veins and arteries are to

the human body. This system provides the channels for the wax to run out of

the mold and for the introduction of the molten metal during casting.

(Fig. 6) Following is an example of a sprue system for a head to be cast in

bronze. To better underst and the casting process, one should become, dcquainted

with the terms and the function of each.

 - 23-

- pou.ir\ 'lllj C. LLf

. _ _ _ _ _-J:il· _ _ /:+ i ~ u e.nt
- dir--1 +~

- t'\~'/\ Si>Y'u..e
- .Oh V'\ V\ \<e..'r ba..ll
~- .rhl-'e5lMe)r\\

V°' u...V\\f\ er
c...o y..e, pl V)

Fig . 6
 -24-

The pouring cup should be of adequate width and depth to minimize the

danger of hot metal spilling, as well as to reduce the loss of needed metal

to fill the mold. Its size should be a minimum of 3 inches wide and 2

inches deep. The cup can be carved from or molded into the soft investment

material.

As the metal is poured into the mold, the .air-vents allow the gases and

air to escape from within the mold cavity. The vents must always be attached

to all of the highest isolated portions of the wax system, so that no air

is trapped in the cavities as the metal is poured. Air vents should come

out of the mold at least two or more inches away from the pouring cup, lest

any spills from the pouring cup plug the air vents.

Because the air vent directly connects to the head, the dirt trap

aids in preventing dirt or broken investment particles from falling into

this head cavity.

The metal flows down through the sprue, reaches the bottom of the system

and starts to flow upward throught the runners and into the head. The sprue

should have at least twice the volume of the runners it feeds. For attach-

ment, the sprue should be positioned at least an inch away from the sculptural

from but not so far away as to make the mold excessively large - this would

result in a waste of investment and make the mold heavy.

The shrinker ball is sometimes used at the top of a wax form to act

as a reservoir of hot metal. Because of its larger volume, it feeds the

hot metal back into the head as shrinkage occurs. Notice that a runner coming

from the sprue· connects to the ball. This positioning ensures that -t:ha-t the

ball contains hotter metal than any area below it.

The investment or refractory material, surrounding the wax system is

 -25-

structurally weak after firing. It therefore should extend around the

outetmo-st wax area by at least an inch.

The gate is the point of attachment between the runner and the head.

This attachment should be smaller in diameter than the diameter of the

runner itself, thereby forcing or spraying the metal into the cavity or

form. This minimizes any chance of shrinkage from the head back into the

runner. The small diameter of the gate makes the runner easier to remove after

casting. The gate's small diameter also ensures that the sprue system is

kept full of molten metal, which reduces the chances of air getting into

the head.

The runners or risers connect from the sprue to the head and feed the

metal into the form as the sprue fills from the bottom. Each runner is always

slanted upwards from the sprue. This ensures that the metal does not spill

from the sprue into the form as it flows down to the bottom of the wax

system. As a result of this arrangement, metal will only enter the

runners as it rises up the mold, pushing all of the air out in front of it.

The core pins secure the outer investment to the inner investment, or core.

The heavy core inside the head may need 8 to 10 eight penny nails to keep

it in place when the wax is burned out. Pins are sometimes used in very

small light cores. One sh ou ld make sure that when a core pin is positioned,

it is in a place where it is easy to remove and repair.

After it is melted in the firing, the wax runs out through the drain in

the mold. Once the wax is gone, it furnishes a cavity, so the hot kiln air

can circulate through the mold.

 -26-

The following are some of the major considerations in setting up a

sprue system:

*If possible, the wax used to make the sprue system should melt at

a lower temperature than the wax in the sculptural form. This

lessens the danger of cracking the mold from the expanding wax during the

burnout cycle. This procedure also facilitates rapid drainage of the wax

from the mold with less absorption of the wax into the investment mold.

*The diameter of the wax sprues should be greater than the thickness of

the wax pattern section being fed.

*The length of the sprues and runners should be kept as short as possible,

length being relative to diameter. The longer they are, the larger their

diameter must be in order to prevent solidification of the metal in them

before it reaches the form itself.

*There is no set formula for spruing. The number of sprues and their

points of attachment to the form depend entirely on the shape and size of the

form. Each separate heavy section of the form requires its own sprue,

runner arrangement. Study the form very carefully to determine the

best set-up for drainage, escape of gas and air through the vents, the place-

ment of core pins and the even flow and solidification of the metal.

*Always construct the sprue system so that it is smooth and uniform,

otherwise pieces of investment material may fall into the molten metal as it

passes.

*Make the sprue system triangular or somewhat angular in shape instead of

round. This prevents metal, when it is poured, from swirling and sucking in

air.
 -27-

*Some compromise will undoubtedly have to be made in the placement

of th e runners and core pins to facilitate metal flow and make the runners

and nails accessable for removal and cleaning after casting.

Making the Sprues and Runners

(10) The triangular sprue can be cast in a one piece plaster mold. When

pouring the wax into the plaster mold mak~ sure .that the wax is not too hot -

wax will often burn and stick to the mold if poured under improper conditions

The smaller round runners and vents can be extruded from a caulking gun

or rolled out by hand.

Plate 10
 -28-

Examples of Sprue Syst em

(1 1) The sprue system i s set up in a manne r similar to the diagram of

the head. The metal is f e d indirectly into the mold cavity from the bottom

o f th e sprue and up throu gh the runners. The core pins or nails, have

already been pushed throug h th e 1/8 inch thickness of wax. A ~ inch hole

was made through the wax form so that the investment could be poured into

th e core. The hole was then covered · over with wax to restore the original

forra.

Plate 11

This method of pref illing the core works well if the core is small and

li gh t. As th e weight and size of the core ~~ncrease with l a rger sculptures ,

it is necessary to fill th e interior core and out side inve s tme nt at the s ame

ti me so as not to collapse or burst th e wax form. This can b e don e by

cutting holes, one at th e bott om and one at the top of th e wax form to
 -29-

release the air. The core can then be filled at the same time as th e outside

when the investment is poured over the wax system. The holes in the cast form

can be welded shut.

Plate 12

(12) This represents a simplified, indirect spruing method. One sees only

two runners and they are at the bottom. The metal must run completely

through the sprue and up the entire form before it solidifies. As long as the

form is small and the metal is poured at a high temperature, this method

works very well. Additional runners, although they are not always needed,

ensure that the form will fill completely before solidific~tionof the metal.

It has been said, that if in doubt about the distance the metal will flow,

sprue it.
 -30-

Plate 13

(13) Shown here is the direct method of casting. The metal is poured

directly into the form and only one vent and drain have been added. This system

when cast, filled perfectly· After cleaning the metal, however, it could

be seen that small particles of investment had broken off into the molten

flow causing pits and .blemishes on the bronze surface. This occurred because

of the extreme agitation of the metal when it entered the mold and the air

tried to flow out. It is likely when using this method that areas of

investment wash out or break away b ecause the metal must always flow over the

same surface until the entire mold is filled.

 -31-

INVESTMENT

Types of Investment

The investment must be able to withstand the temperature and pressure

of the bronze. Plaster is used as a binder. Material such as sand, grog or

silica flour are added to the plaster to withstand the thermal shock. There

are many mixtures that work well. The most widely used is 1 part plaster, 1

part silica flour and 1 part sand.

Other mixtures that I have tried are as follows:

1 plaster - 1 silica flour - 1 silica sand: This mixture works very well and

should be considered basic.

1 plaster - 2 silica flour - 1 silica sand: Because of the additional flour,

the investement was slightly chalky and more prone to cracking.

1 plaster - 2 silica flour: This mixture proved to be too chalky and soft.

The sand is needed to add a binding strength.

1 plaster - 1 silica flour - 1 grog (ground up fire brick): The grog proved

to be superior to silica sand because its particles were angular and sharp

and gave the mixture a better cohesive strength. Silica sand particles are

roundand smooth. A drawback to grog is that it is four times more expensive

than silica sand.

1 plaster - 1 silica flour - 1 silica sand - 1/3 of 1 Hydracal: Hydracal

is a very strong gypsum cement. I had hoped that it would furnish more

strength than just plaster but after firing it proved to be much weaker than

plaster alone.

1 plaster - 2 silica sand: This mixture was somewhat brittle and cracked, if

handled carefully it could work well. Clean washed sand from the gravel

\
 -32-

pit worked as well as the silica sand.

Fibrous mat e rials can also be added to the mixture to add strength.

Commercial investments add small amounts of fibrous talc or asbestos to the

basic mixture.

Luto can be used with the basic mixture. It is previously used or

fired investment material that has been crushed up and sifted. As Luto

already contains the basic mixture minus the binding power of plaster, it

can be substituted in part for sand and flour. The normal setting time of

the basic investment is 15 to 20 minutes. When Luto is used, the setting

time drops to about 4 minutes.

When working with any investment material, always wear a dust mask.

Water constitutes about 40% of the investment material mixture, or about

3 of 7 parts of the investment material. Water is placed in the container

first. The plaster is slowly added, followed by the silica flour and then

the sand. Let the mixture stand to soak for a minute and then mix slowly

by hand until it is of uniform consistency. If the consistency is too thin,

the sand will settle to the bottom. If it is too thick, it will not pour

well and will not properly coat the wax system.

 -33-

Inve s tin g the Wax

Plate 14

(14) It is a good practice to prepare the wax surface by painting on a

thin mixture of 1 part liquid soap and 3 parts alcohol . .The alcohol will

cause the mixture to dry quickly and the soap will lessen the chances of

air bubbles adhering to the wax surface when the investment is poured.

(15) The wax system is mounted on a clean surface. The two wax systems on

the left are supported by a small mound of investment which has been

thickened with luto. The two on the right were able to support themselves

by their sprue systems, which were stuck to the table top with hot wax.
 -34-

Plate 15

(16) A wire mesh or chicken wire is placed around the supported wax form. This

structure reen:fiorces the fragile investment.

Plate 16
 - 35-

Plate 17

(17) A strip of linoleum or tin is placed around the wire to contain the

liquid investment.

(18) Wire is wrapped around t he linole um and clay is pressed around the bottom

to keep the investment securely contained. The investment can now be mixed

and poured. Try to pour the investment down the edge of the container

in such a manner so as not to mix air bubbles into it, or break down the

wax system.
 - 36-

Plate 18

Plate 19
 -37-

(19) Another method of investing was used on this irregularly shaped relief.

(20) A luto wall was built up around the entire piece, almost to the top. It

is an inch in thickness and to within a ~ inch from the inside wax.

By being able to use luto and produce an investment mold that exactly

follows the contour of the wax system, this method wastes very little material.

To make the wall, a basic batch of investment is made. Luto is added until

the mixture is thick enough to be manipulated into a wall. The small sticky

luto locks are laid one upon the other until the wall is made. As this mixture

hardens quickly, many small batches

should be made. When the wall is

hard, a layer of chicken wire is

wrapped and tightened firmly a-

round it.

Plate 20

-----------::~)
 ·-3 8-

_ _ _ _ _J

Plate 21

(21) The whole surface is covered with more of the same_ investment until

all of the holes are filled and the chicken wire is securely covered.

(22) Enough basic investment is mixed to fill the mold cavity and "cap

off ·" the top of the mold. This mixture does not contain the luto, which

accounts for its lighter value in the photo. ·

(23) A pouring cup is carved into the investment. the drain and vents are

scraped clean.
 -39-

Pla te 22

Plate 23
 -40-

(24) The molds are loaded into the kiln for wax burn out and curing. If

th e mold has been allowed to dry for several days, it should be wet down

with water. This assures that as the -.kiln temperature rises, th e wax will

run out of the drain r ather than be abso rbed into the investment. In most

cases th e molds are supported on bricks. Angle irons are run under the

drains and out of the kiln to remove the molten wax.

Plate 24

This is done so that all of the wax does not burn up inside the kiln,

prolonging the firing and producing unnecessary soot.

 -41-

Plate 25

(25) The fire bricks are placed tightly together around the mold to form

a kiln, the lid of the kiln secured. Any loose investment or dirt around the

pouring coup is vacuumed away. This same cleaning should also be done after

the firing cycle.

 -42-

THE BURNOUT

The ideal temperature to be reached is 1000 degrees F. When reached, it

can be held until total wax burnout occurs. The investment itself is dry at

500 degrees. The higher temperature is needed to burn off all of the wax

residue.

The length of the firi~g cycle depends greatly upon the thickness of

the molds. Generally, burnout takes between 24 and 48 hours. Burnout need

not neceessarily be complete at reaching 1000 degrees F. If there is any

visible burning or dark soot around the pouring cup, the temperature should

be held until the burning stops and the dark soot changes to a white ash .

The kiln is turned off and allowed to cool slowly to about 300 degrees t F.

Later it is di.smantled. The molds are ready to be buried in the sand pit

for casting.
 -43-

PACKING THE MOLDS

The sand in the casting pit aids in supporting the fragile investment

molds during pouring. Plain sand will not be firm enougt to furnish the support.

The sand is mixed with small amounts of fine clay and ball clay. Some

naturally occurring sands do have the necessary cohesive quality. To be

always ready for casting, the sand should be covered and kept moist. Too

much moisture in the sand could cause the water to soak into the mold and

come in contact with the molten metal. Too little moisture will keep the

sand from packing properly. The right amount of moisture should just hold

the sand together when squeezed in one's fist. A hole dug in the sand pit

a~comodates the largest mold. The smaller molds are added, the sand being

built up until the tops of all of the molds are at the same level. The

sand is not packed all at once, but in layers of one or two inches at a time.

This ensures the mold's firm encasement by the sand.

When packing, areas around the bottom of the mold deserve special

attention. They are likely places for the metal to exert pressure and burst

through the mold. The sand can be packed by foot, or with small lengths; of

wood or pipes to make it firm. When packing, one should not hit or pat

or do anything which might damage the mold.

(26) The sand has been packed to the top of the molds. During the entire

process the pouring cup and air vents should be covered with a paper and a

brick to prevent spillage of sand into the mold's cavities. · Before casting,

the covers are removed.

 - 44-

·.,

Plate 26
 -45-

}!ELTING AND POURING

The Care and Use of the Crucible

Crucibles are made of two basic compositions - the clay graphite-

ceramic bounded and the silicon carbide bonded type. Both use the refractory

materials graphite and silicon for heat conduction and for structural strength.

Due to its greater heat conductivity and its greater strength, the silicon

carbide crucible is the most desirable. Either type of crucible can be

used for melting bronze. However, different metals should not be melted in

the same crucible. This practice will cause contamination in the melt and

make it difficult to get a good casting. A different crucible should be

used for each metal melted.

In the care of the crucible, several factors are important. Before:

use, inspect each crucible for cracks and damage. New crucibles should be

properly annealed before use. Annealing relieves all strains set up during

the manufacturing process. Full elastic properties to withstand thermal

shock are also developed. To anneal the crucible, make sure it is dry and

then place it in the furnace. Adjust the burners to idle, or the lowest

heat for the first 10 minutes. Increase the burner setting gradually

to raise the furnace to a red heat. The total heating period should be

about 45 minutes. After this the crucible can be put into use.

Charging the Crucible with Bronze

The crucible is cha r ge d with metal before the furnace is started. Sprues

or clean scrap are charged first, while ingots or bars are charged last. Never

wedge metal tightly into the crucible, as the crucible may crack as the

bronze expands in heating. Any metal added to a molten mass should be dry,

or an explosion may occur because of the steam generated. Ingots should be

thoroughly dry, and added gently to the molten charge with tongs.
 - 46-

Preheating Charge Bronze

It is not a good practice to preheat scrap or bars by placing them across

the exhaust port in the lid of the furnace, or on the lid. The metal may

melt or pieces may fall in, a l lowing molten metal to run down inside the

furnace lid and walls. The metal is oxidized very rapidly and attacks

and deteriorates the refractory furnace lining. Ingots and scrap can be

placed around the lid ;for preheating well away from the exhaust port.

Yne Curcib l e Rest

The crucible rest supports the crucible on the floor of the furnace. It

is usually of the same material as the crucible. The rest positions the

crucible at the proper height in the combustion chamber and prevents it

from contacting the cooler furnace floor. The diameter of the rest should

be slightly larger than the bo t tom of the crucible. At times it is difficult

to separate the crucible from the rest. A separating material. such as z. sheet

of corrugated card board can be placed between the two before the furnace is

started . After it burns, the remaining carbon will make separation easier.

The Crucible Tongs and Shank

The crucible of bronze is lifted out of the furnace and held for pouring .

Crucible tongs and shanks are tools necessary for handling the crucible

during melting and pouring. The tongs are used to place the crucible in

the furnace and to withdraw the crucible of molten metal at the close

of the melting period. After the crucible has been with drawn from the

furnace, it is placed into a pouring shank, or holder, which aids in pouring

the metal into the molds. Both tools should fit the specific size of the

crucible being used. This prevents damage to the crucible. Hazards related

to melting and pouring bronze are minimized by proper use and understanding

of th e crucible tools.
 -47-

Melting the Bron ze

Preheat the melt on low for about 10 minut e s. After this warm up

stage, the burner can be adjusted to maximum until the atmosphere is slightly

reducing, with stringers of flame in the exhaust. Then the fuel should be

closed to a setting where traces of flame just disapp e ar. The burner should

be adjusted to develop as close to a neutral atmosphere as possibl.e , so

combustion is completed within the melting chamber of the furnace. For

best furnace performace, the air valve should be adjusted to the full open

position. It is very important to remove the residual moisture, grease,

oil and other organic substances prior to charging. These contaminating mat-

erials, at high temperatures, give off water vapor, carbon monoxide, hydrogen,

and carbon which are absorbed directly into the molten metal. Over heating

the melt should be avoided. The possibility of gas absorption increases with

higher temperatures. Pouring temperatures for different alloys vary. One

should never exceed by 100 degrees the correct pouring temperature.

The residual heat of the metal mass and crucible will be enough to sustain

the temperature through pouring. Equally important is the amount of

time spent in the furnace. Once the melt has reached temperature for

removal, it should not be retained in 1the kiln. Holding a heat in the

furnace exposes the metal to the oxidizing effects of the atmosphere. When

pouring the metal into the mold, it should be done smoothly and without any

interval.
 -48 -

Illu s tra tions of the Pour

Plate 27

(27) The clean scrap is added prior to starting the furnace . One should

not wedge the material in tightly nor let it rest above the top of the crucible

,/

Plate 28
 -49-

(2 8) The furn a ce is start ed. The rema inder of the metal is added through

t he port of the lid with tongs. Some scraps and ingots are preheating on the

e dge of th e kiln.

Plate 29

(29) As the melt progresses, the last ingots are carefully added; they should

not be dropped into the crucib le.

 -50-

Plate 30

(30) The melt takes about one hour. During this time the molds have been

packed and ~re ready to pour.

Pla t e 31
 -51-

(31) After an hour has gone by , the temperature is checked with a pyrome t er .

Insert the bottom p a rt (below the weld mark) of th e pyrometer into the metal.

Befo re it is put directly into the molt e n mass, allow the temperature to

ris e to 500 degrees F.

- - - - - - -1 Plate 32

(32) The lid of the kiln is opened and the crucible tongs used to lift

out th e crucible, which is then placed in the pouring shank. Each member of

the pouring crew wears safety gear - a long sleeved shirt, an apron, asbestos
'
gloves, leggings and a face viser. Because of the extreme weight, the hoist

is used in this pouring. The slag is b e ing skimmed off of the rnetal.(33)
- 52-

Pla te 33 ·

Pl a te 34
 -53-

(3 4) The crucible is guided to the mold and the metal poured at a moderate speed.

One should try not to spill and keep th e pouring cup full until the metal

can be see n to rise out of the air vents. If any metal is left in the

crucible after the casting, it is poured into an ingot mold, or pocket

made in the sand.

Plate 35

(35) Before placing the crucible back into the furnace, the slag is scraped

from its walls and bottom.

 -54-

Plate 36

(36) The crucible is placed back into the furnace and allowed to slowly cool
 -55-

(37) After about 15 minutes

the molds can be removed. All

of the sand is remoistened,

cleaned of investment and

placed back into the pit.

Plate 37
 -56-

Plate 38

(38) The wire on the mold is cut and pulled off. The invPstment usually breaks
away.

Plate 39
 -57-

(39) The bronze can be tapped with a hammer to knock off any remaining

materials, then cooled in water which further cleans the metal.

PATINATION

Bronze has been gilded ·with gold, notably by the Greeks, silvered,

embellished by the use of enamels, and inlaid with other metals by the

Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Persians. It has been electroplated and

camouflaged by patination. Some sculptors even attempted to use the clean,

golden color of the metal itself.

We have a long historical tradition of placing immense value on items

from antiquity. Many bronzes from the past have obtained a rich patina through

their aging. The natural aging process of bronze has resulted in the

practice . of making sculptures look old, of antiquing them. One should not

dismiss the worth of this endeavor. A sculptor is not just antiquing,

but recalling the long and rich h eritage of bronze work. Emulating or

reiterating the past is much a part of contemporary sculpture.

Another approach to patination is the technical one. Here the sculptor

can explore three different surfaces. First, a surface could remain just as

it came from the casting , usually being covered by a brownmottled fire scale.

After the sprues are cut off bright spots are on the surface. The surface

would remain this. way. A second approach would be to tone down thebright

spots to match the fire scale. A third method would be to brighten up the

whole surface until none of the "clean up" blemishes showed. The technical

approach is simple, direct and expresses the "cast" character of the metal.

The last approach involves a patina, or any surface that best integrates

the form and cont ex t of the sculpture. Se emingly , this is the most

pragmatic approach.
 -58-

The choice of final color or surface treatment remains with the

sculptor. A purist would have no ground to stand on, because the color and

appearance of the bronze is in a constant state of change through oxidation .

Therefore, it is misleading to assume that there is a color or surface that the

metal should have.

To seek integrity for the surface of the sculpture then, is not to decide

if there should be a patina or not, but rather what the sculptor feels to be

the adequate, integrating patina that will harmonize with his sculptural

form.

Patina Application

When applying a patina, it should be kept in mind that some of the

gases released are toxic ~specia:lly· if the chemcial contains a chloride

which can break down into chlorine gas . One should make sure that the area is

well vented.

There are three methods of patina application - cold and hot application

with a brush, or dipping and by fuming the surface with chemical vapors. The

same chemicals can react quite differently in each case. Fuming can be very

time consuming and at the mercy of many variables, so discussion here will

mainly pursue the direct application methods.

Before patination, the surface of the bronze should be cleaned with a

mild solution of nitric acid. It should then be wire brushed under running water

to further clean the surface and remove any acid residue. Sand blasting the

surface works well also, but may tend to mute some of the surface detail.

The patina solution is brushed over the entire surface and allowed to dry.

Faster drying and more stable colors can be facilitated by use of a torch .

As the bronze gets hotter and more applications of the solution are made,. the

patina becomes more substantial and opaque. The application process can be
 -59-

stopped at any time depending, upon th e desired patina. After th e

application is complete and the bronz e ha s cooled, the surface can be rubbed

with paste wax, or .a beeswax- kerosene solution. This application will bring

out the color and protect the surface from undergoing any further change through

oxidation.

Ferric nitrate and ammonium sulphide are common compounds that are readily

available and easy to work with. Once applied they are fairly stable and

will produce a wide range of colors.

Ferric, or iron nitrate can easily be made with ~itric acid and nails.

Place about a pound of nails in a two quart glass jar. Add to this

about a one inch depth of full strength nitric acid. No severe reactions

will occur in the absence of water. Then · add two cups of water. Be sure

to do this outside in an open area, as noxious ,gases are given off in the chemical

reaction. After the bubbling and fuming have stopped, fill the jar with water and

let stand for 24 hours. The nails can then be removed and the remaining brown

sludge used as ferric nitrate. For use, the sludge is again diluted with 5

to 10 parts more water, or unitl one finds the solution working to satisfaction.

Slowly brush the ferric nitrate on the cool bronze surface. It will

be gin to yellow the metal. As heat and more applications of the solution are

made, the patina will build up and intensity, going through color stages of

t an to brown. When more heat is applied, the brown will turn to a cordovan

red. Even shop dust can b e collected and applied with the solution to change

and mottle the color.

Ammon ium sulphide can be used in conjunction with ferric nitrate to achieve

blacks or shaded areas on the bronze. The ammonium sulphide should be diluted

with wate r to change its color intensity.

The previous technic represents only a minute portion of the vast multitude
 -60-

of combinations an d intricacies of patination. Following are 21 basic

8
formul ae for pa tinati on. Mos t can be applied c o ld or built ,up through the

addition of heat.

21 Patina Formula

y 1. Blue

Sodium Hyposulphite 60 Grams

Nitric Acid 4 Grams
Water 1 Quart

The Metal should be dipped into the solution.

2. Yellow Green
Parts By Wt.
Sodium Thiosulphate 1
Iron Nitrate 8
Water 128

The solution is brushed on clean surface until a crusty green appears. (An
inexpensive paintbrush is recommended since it wil1. have :o-15 e aiscarded after use.
Afterwards dip the bronze for six minutes in diluted nitric acid. Remove the
bronze, wash and dry.

3. Brown

The recipe is the same as the former, the only difference b eing the lengt h
of time brushing the solution on. In this case, brush until brown appears.

4. Antique Green

One Quart of Water 40 Grams

Cupric Nitrate 40 Grams
Ara:rronium Cho loride 40 Grams
Calcium Chloride 40 Grams

5. Matte Brown

Barrium Sul phide 1 ounce

Potassium Sulphide ~ ounce
Ammonia 2 Fluid ounces
Water 4 to 5 Quarts

, 6. Yellow Green
Parts by Weight.
Ammonium Ch l o ride 7
Copper Ac eta te 4
Water 8

Brus h on to s urf ace .

7. Li gh t to Dark Brown

Ferric Ni trate 1 Teaspoonful

Water ~ Quar t.
 -61-

( 7 Continued)
Heat the Bronze and apply the liquid.

8. Brown to Bla ck
Parts by Weight
Antimony Sulphide 2
Sodium Hydroxide 4
Hater 255

Heat th e liquid and apply.

9. Brm·m to Black

Potas sium Sulphide A few crystals

er
~fa t !z Quart
Heat the liquid and apply.

10. Early Stage of the following recipe is purple.

11. Additional application and chemical action turns the bronze light green.
Parts by Weight
Sodium Chloride 5
Ammonia 4
Ammo nium Chloride 5
Glacial Acid 4
Hater 32

Brush to surface

12. Antique Green

Parts by Weight
c Copper Sulphate 12
Ammonium Chloride 2
Water 125

13 . Black.
Parts by Weight
Copper Carbonate 2
Ammonium Carbona te 4
Sodium Carbonate 1
Water 32

Hea t t he solution to a boil . The bronze should be immersed. The solution should
be stirred .

14. Green

Cupric Nitr a te 1 t eas poonful

Water !z Quart
Heat the bronze and a pply the solution
 -62-

15 . Brown to Black

Ammo nium Sulphide 1 Tea spoonful

Hater 12 Quart
Heat t he bronze and apply the solution.

v 16. Antique White

Bismuth Nitrate 2 Teaspoonfuls

Water 12 Pint
Heat the bronze and apply the solution.

17. Verde
Parts by Weight
Copper Nitrate
,
..L

Ammonium Chloride 1
Calcium Chloride 1
Water 32

Immerse the bronze into solution until dull green appears.

v 18. Golden Yellow

Sodium Thiosulphate ~ Ounce
Ferric Nitrate 2 Ounces
Water 1 Quart

Heat solution to a boil. Dip bronze object.

v 19. Blue

Potassium Sulphide 15 Grams

Ammonium Chloride 200 Grams
Water 1 Quart

Brush to surface.

2 0 . Deep Rust Red

Co pp er Nitrate 48 Grams .
Sal Ammoniac 48 Grams
Calcium Chloride 20 Grams
Copper Sulfate 10 Grams
Oxalic Acid 10 Grams
Water 4 Fluid Ounces

Brush to surface for the color. Then dip into diluted nitric acid solutions
(one pa rt acid to 8 pa rts water) for one half hour, remove wash and dry . In
the above, the wron g combinations will give a deep d a rk green.

21. Blue Green

Parts by Weight.
Copper Sulfate 5 Ounces
Cup ric Acetate 5 Ounces
Copper Carbona te 5 Ounces
Wa ter 128

Di p t he bron ze into the solution.

 -63-

SUMMARY

I hope this paper will aid the beginning student and introduce him to the

possibilities of bronze casting by the lost-wax method.

There are numerous books and publications on the methods of bronze casting.

Many of them are conflicting and out of date. This paper draws upon their

concurrencies, and tries to simplify their conflicting ideas. The chapters

dealing with the sprue system and types of investment should be regarded as

experimental on my part. There are many ways to approach these technics; they

can be further explored through reading and experimentation.

Host of my experience has not come through reading, but from working in

a foundry. For that experience I wish to thank Paul Granlund, sculptor, with

whom I worked for a year; and Boyd Christensen, sculptor and instructor at

the University of Minnesota in Duluth.

 -64-

- FOOTNOTES -
1 John }lill, Studio Bronze Cas ting: Lost Wax Me thod
(New York: Praeger , 1970), p.l.

2 rbid.

3sculpture Casting Conference, First Conference Proceeding.

(Kansas, 1960), p.14.

4Jules Struppeck, The Creation of Sculpture

(New Ydrk: Ho l t, 1952), p . 89.

5Third Casting Conference (1964), p. 28.

6carl Clarke, Molding and Casting

(Maryland: Standard Arts Press, 1946), p. 47.

7rbid., p.57.

8John Brzostosk, "The Patination of Bronzes," Craft Horizons,

(Nov./De c., 1965), p. 34.
 -65-

B I BL I 0 GRAP HY

Baldwin, , John. Contemporary Sculpture Techniques.

New York: Reinhold, 1967.
This book does not directly cover lost-wax casting, but contains
many related and applicable areas.

Brzostoski, John. " The Patination of Bronzes,"

Craft Horizons, (Nov./Dec., 1965).

Burnham, Jack. Beyond Modern Sculpture.

New York: G. Braziller, 1969.

Campbell, L. and Millikan, Moria. "The Craft of Bronze Casting."

Craft Horizons, (Jan/Feb., 1963), 26-34.
This is a very good article; much of it is a summation of
the 1962 Bronze casting conference in Kansas.

Casson, Stanley. The Technique of Early Greek Sculpture. New York: Hacker
Art Books, 1970.

Choate, Sharr. Creative Casting.

New York: Crown Publishers, 1966.
This is a very comprehensive book on casting, but deals mostly
with jewelry and precious metal casting.

Clarke, Carl. Metal Casting of Sculpture.

Butler, Maryland: Standard Arts Press, 1948.
This is a very good foundery manual, although somewhat outdated.

Clarke, Carl. Molding and Casting.

Maryland: The Standard Arts Press. 1946.
This is one of the finest books dealing with mold making and
plaster technics.

Clarke, Geoffrey. A Sculptor's Manual.

New York: Reinhold, 1968.
Chapter 2 deals with foundery methods and briefly introduces
some new methods.

Cody, Edwin. Precision Investment Casting.

New York: Reinhold, 1948.
This book is for industrial casting, but has some useful tables
and information.

Coleman, Ronald. Sculpture. A Basic Handbook for Students. Iowa:

Wm. Brown Co. 1968
A very good guide for the beginning caster. It contains good
illustrations, and the text is easy to follow.

Engineering Societies Library. Bibliography on Precision Casting by the Lost-Wax

Process. New York, 1949.

Harvey, T. Fundamentals of Investment Casting. Indianapolis: U.S. Naval

Technical Publications, 1958.
This book is an engineers manual used for industrial applications.
It contains useful information on the properties of the various
investment materials.
Hoffman, Malvina. Sculpture Inside and Out. New York: Van Nostrand, 1970.
This book contains very good illustrations of the lost-wax process
and the text is short and precise.

Investment Casting Institute. Investment Casting Engineering and Design

Manual. Chicago: Investment Casting Institute, 1957.

Irving, Donald. Sculpture; Material & Process.

New York: Van Nostrand, 1970.
This is a very good, well illustrated technical manual. Chapter 6
(on lost-wax casting) is excellent.

Hiller, Alec. Tradition in Sculpture. New York:

The Studio Publications, 1949.
The book attempts to look at the "high points" in the history of
sculpture with the view of a craftsman rather than an art historian.

~til ls, John. Studio Bronze Casting: Lost-Wax Method.

New York: Praeger, 1970.
This manual is p'r obably the foremost book on the lost-wax process.

~~~~~~· The Technique of Sculpture.

New York: Reinhold, 1965.
Chapter 9 contains a condensed version of Mill's other excellent book

Putnam, Brenda. The Sculpture's Way.

New York: Watson-Guptill Pub., 1948.
This is a very good guide to mold making and is well illustrated.

Rich, Jack. The Materials and Methods of Sculpture.

New York: Oxford University Press, 1947.
Chapter 6 is an excellent guide to metals and their properties.
It has few illustrations, but has a very comprehensive text on
metal technics.

Savage, George. A Concise History of Bronzes.

New York: Praeger, 1968.
It presents a 4,000 year history of bronze sculptures. It also
contains information on early casting methods.

Sculpture Casting Conference. Proceedings of the First Conference.

University of Kansas, Kansas, 1960.
The proceedings from the conferences are extremely informative.
They pres ent new methods and a vast array of technical information.

Proceedings of the Second Conference, 1962.

Proceedings of the Third Conference, 1964.

Proceedings of the Fourth Conference, 1966.

Strupp eck , Jules. Th e Creation of Sculpture. New York: Holt, 1952.

Vntrac ht, Opp:. Metal Techniques for the Craftsme n. Garden City, New York:
Doubleday & Co., 1948.
(Continue d)
(Continued) This book is an excellent guide for all metal technics.

Wood, Rawson. Investment Casting for Engineers.

New York: Reinhold, 1952.