C}LA.

PTER4

RADARAI\D TRAI{SDUCER

{.1Radar
{.1.1Introduction
An object detectionsystemwhich uses radio waves to determinethe range,the
ahitude,the directionandthe speedof objects.
Radaroperatesby radiatingelectromagneticenergyand detectionthe returnedfrom
rcflectingobjects(targets)the word RADAR is the contractionof the words Radio
Detectionand Ranging.The natureof the echosignalprovidesinformationaboutthe
target.
The information providedby radar includesthe bearing and range (and therefore
position)of the objectfrom the radarscanner.It is thususedin manydifferentfields
wherethe needfor suchpositioningis crucial.The first useof radarwas for military
purposes: to locateair and groundand seatargets.This evolvedin the civilian field
into applicationsfor aircraft,ships,androads.
Radaroperatesby radiatingelectromagneticenergyand detectingthe echoreturned
from the reflecting objects(targets).The word RADAR is the contractionof the
words: Radio Detection and Ranging. The nature of the echo signal provides
informationaboutthe target.

Figure4.1 RadarDisplay

{.1.2 Applications
The first useof radarwas for military purposes:to locateair. Groundand seatargets
this evolvedin the civilian field into applicationsfor aircraft,ships,and roads.

34
Aircrafts are equippedwith radardevicesthat warn of aircraft or other obstaclesin
or approachingtheir path, display weatherinformation, and give accuratealtitude
readings.The first commercialdevicefitted to aircraftwas a 1938Bell Lab.uniton
someUnited Air Lines aircraft. Such aircraft can land in fog at airportsequipped
with radar-assistedground-conholledapproachsystemsin which the plane's flight
is observedon radarscreens while operatorsradiolandingdirectionto the pilot.
Marine radarsareusedto measurethe bearinganddistanceof shipsto prevent
collisionwith otherships,to navigate,andto fix their positionat seawhenwithin
rangeofshoreor otherfixed references suchasislands,buoys,andiightships.In
port or in harbor,vesseltraffic serviceradarsystemsareusedto monitorand
regulateshipmovements in busywaters.
Geologistsusespecialized ground- penetratingradarsto mapthe compositionof the
Earth'scrust.
Meteorologists useradarto monitorprecipitationandwind. It hasbecomethe
primarytool for short-termweathersuchasthunderstorms. Like Tornadoes, winter
storms,precipitation types,etc.Geologistsusespecialized ground- penetrating
radarsto the mapthe compositionof Earth'scrust.
Policeforcesuseradargunsto monitorvehiclespeedson the roads.

4.1.3The Radar Equation

Theradaris functionof thetransmitted powerthe antennagainandthereceiver
sensitivityassuminghatthe radiatedpower by the antennapt is radiateduniformly in
all directionthepowerper unit areaat arrangeR will be :
Powerdensity= pt/4tcRz (4.1)
Most Radarhavendirectiveantennawith eain:
Gain: Cr 4nAeltz (4.2)
The powerdensityin a particularantennapointingdirectionis:
Pre 1nR2 (4.3)
The Targetinterceptsandreflectsa partof this energy.Thisreflectedpowerdepends
on the targetcrosssectionalthe areaA
The Powerdensityof the reflectedpower from the targetwhen it arrivesat the radar
antennais givenby :
P renlgnRz)z (4.4)
AssumeThat the areacapturingthis energyis equalto the effectiveareaof the
hansmittingantennaandhencethe power of the reflectedsignalat the radaris :
P;eoAe erenffi )z
^ =-
(+ttRz)2 (4nR2)z
(4.s)
where
Pt : transmitterpower
Gt = gain of the transmittingantenna
Ar = effectiveaperture(area)of the receivingantenna
c = radarcrosssection,or scattering coefficient,ofthe target
Rr = distancefrom the transmitterto the target
R, = distancefrom the targetto the receiver.

35
4.1.4Radar TransmissionMethods
Radarsystemis normallydivided into operationalcategoriesbasedon energy
transmissionmethods.Up to this point, we havementionedonly the pulse,method
Althoughthe pulsemethodis the
to illustratebasicradarconcepts.
of transmission
mostcommonmethodof transmittingradarenergy, two othermethodsare
sometimes usedin specialapplications, Thesearethe Continuous-Wave (CW)
methodandthe FrequencyModulation(FM) method.All threebasictransmission
methodsareoften fuither subdividedto designatespecificvariationsor
combinations.

4.1.4.1Continuous- Wave Method

Whenradio-frequencyenergytransrnittedfrom a fixed point continuouslystrikesan
objectthat is eithermovingtowardor awayfrom the sourceof the energy,the
frequencyof thereflectedenergyis changed.This shift in frequencybetweenthe
uansmittedand reflectedenergyindicatesboth the presenceandthe speedof a
movingtarget.

Figure4.2 ContinuousWaveBlock Diagram

4.1.4.1.1DopplerEffect
A commonexampleof the DopplerEffect in action is the changingpitch of the
whistleof an approaching train. The whistle appearsto changepitch from a high
tone,asthetrain approaches, to a lowertone as it movesawayfrom the observer.As
the train moves away, an apparent increasein frequency(an increasein pitch) is
heard;as the train moves away, an apparentdecreasein frequency(a decreasein
pitch variationis known as the DopplerEffect. Let's examinethe reasonfor this
apparentchangein pitch Assume that the transmitteremits an audio signal at a
frequencyof 60 hertzandthat the transmitteris travelingat a velocity of 360 feet per
second(fps) .At the end of I second,the transmitterwill havemovedfrom point P to
point Pl as shownin view A of Figure3.3. The total distancefrom point P ti the
observeris 1.080feet.Thevelocityof soundis 1.080feetper second;thus,a sound
emittedat pointP will reachthe observerin 1 second.To find the wavelengthof this
transmittedsignal , you divided the velocity of the signal (1.080 fps) by the
frequency(60herE).Theresultis 18 feet,as shownbelow:

36
 OE$EllVER

_ i _ roaoFT
__+_:tF
':::::: tn t
lAlI '

OESER YER

$6|l FT

Figure4.3 TransmitterMoving Relativeto an observer

In 1 secondthe transmittedmoves360 feet and transmits60 hertz.At the end of 1

second,the first cycke of the transmittedsignal reachesthe observer,just as the
sixtiethcycle is leavingthe transmitterat point Pl. Under theseconditionsthe 60
hertzemittedis locatedbetween the observerand point Pl.Noticethatthis distance
is only 720 feet (1.080 minus360).The 60 hertz is spreadover the distanceFROM
POINT pl TO the observerand has a wavelengthof just 12 feet (720dividedby
60).Tofind the new frequency,usethe following formula:
The original frequency,60 hertz,has changedto an apparentfrequencyof90 hertz.
This new frequencyonly appliesto the observer.Noticethat the Dopplerfrequency
variationis directlyproportionalto the velocityof the approaching hansmitter.The
fasterthe transmittermovestoward the observer,the greaterthe numberof waves
that will be crowded into the spacebetweenthe transmitterand the observer.
Supposethe transmitterwerestationaryandthe observermoving. Whenapproaching
the transmitter,the observerwouldencounterwavesper unit of time.As a resultthe
observerwould heara higherpitch than the transmitterwould actuallyemit. If the
transmitterwere travelingawayfrom the observer, as shownin view of [figure 4.3],
the first cycle would leavethe transmitterat point P andthe sixtiethat point P2.The
first cycle would reachthe observerwhen the transmitterreachedP2.Wewould then
have 60 cycle stretchedout over 1.080plus 360 feet, a total of 1.440feet. The
wavelengthof these60 hertzis 1.440/60,or 24 feet.The apparentfrequencyis 1.080
dividedby24,or 45 hertz.

4.1.4.1.2Usesof CW DopplerSystem
The continuous-wave, or Doppler,systemis used in severalways. ln one radar
application,the radarsetdifferentiates
betweenthe transmittedandreflectedwaveto
determinethe speedof the movingobject.
The Doppler methodis the bestmeansof detectingfast- moving objectsthat do not
requirerangeresolution.As movingobjectsapproaches the transmitter.
It encounters
and reflectsmore wavesper unit of time. The amountof frequencyshift produceis
very small in relation to the carrier frequency.This is becausethe velocity of

37
propagation of the signalis very high comparedto the speedof the target.However,
becausethe carrierfrequenciesusedin radarare high, largerfrequencyshifts (in the
audio- frequencyrange)are produced.The amountof init is'proplrtionalio the
speedmeasurement accurateto a fractionof a percent
If an object is moving, Its velocity, relative to the radar, can be detectedbv
comparingthe transmitterfrequencywith the echofrequency(which differs becaus!
of the Doppler shift) .The differenceor beat frequency,sometimescalled the
Dopplerfrequency,is relatedto objectvelocity ,ThJ sepaiationof the background
and the radai contact is basedon the Doppier frequencythat is caused-by the
reflectionof the signalfrom a movingobject,Disadvintagisof the Dopplersystem
arethat it doesnot determinethe rangeof the object, noi i, it ableto-differentiate
betweenobjectswhen they lie in the samedirectionand are travelingat the same
speed.Moreover,it doesnot 'lsee"stationaryor slow-moving objects,-whicha pulse
radarsystemcandetect.
To trackan objectwith C W,Doppler,you mustdeterminethe radarrange.Since the
Doppler frequencyis not directly relatedto range,anothermethodis neededto
determineobject rang€, By using two separatetransmitter that operateat two
differentfrequencies (fl and f2), you can determinerangeby measuringthe relative
phasedifferencebetweenthe two Dopprerfrequencies ,In sucha system, a mixer is
usedto combinethe two transmittedfrequenciesand to separate the two received
frequencies,This permitsthe useof onetransmittingandreceivingantenna.
Insteadof usingfwo transmitterfrequencies,you can find the rangeby sweepingthe
transmitterfrequencyuniformly in time to cover the frequen.y .ung" r.o- it t-on.
The beat,or difference,frequencybetweenthe transmittedand reieived signalsis
then a function of range, in this type of radar, the velocity as well as r-angeis
measured.

4.1.4.2Pulse-ModulationMethod
As the previous discussionsindicated,radio- frequency energy can also be
transmitted in very shortbursts,calledpulses.
Thesepulsesare of extremelyshort time duration,usually on the order of 0.I
microsecond-s to approximately50 microseconds. ln this meihod,the transmitteris
turned on for a very short time and the pulse of radio-frequencyenergy is
transmitted, asshownin view Figure3.4.
The transmitteris thanturnedoff, and the pulsetravelsoutwardfrom the transmitter
at velocity of light (view B). when the pulse strikesan object(view c), it is
_the
reflectedand beginsto travel backtoward the radarsystem,still moving at the same
velocity (viewD). Thepulseis thenreceivedby the radarsystem(view-r;.
The time intervalbetweentransmissionand receptionis computedand converted
into a visual indicationof rangein miles or yards.The radar
rycle then startsover
againby transmittinganotherpulse(view F).
This methoddoesnot dependon the relativefrequencyof the returnedsignalor on
the motion of the target;therefore,it has an importantadvantageover cw and FM
methods.

38
 '',,

c'i
c"l
Q,
Gr***.
{l
Figure4.4PulseDetection

Tr€nsrn*ittsr

R.ere.iver

Figure4.5 CW Detection

4.1.5Classificationof Radar Systems

The largenumberof radarsystemsusedby the military hasfound
the development
of joint-servicesclassificationsystem for accurateidentification,
The Fed.eral
AviationAgency(FAA) alsomakesextensiveuseof radarsystems
for commercial
aircraft in-flight and landingcontrol,but doesnot use the military
classification
system.

4.1.6Radar Functions
No signalradarsystemhasyetteen designedthat canperformall
of the manyradar
functionsrequiredby the military. Someof the newer systems
combineseveral
functionsthat formerly requiredindividual radar systems,but
no single systemcan
39
fulfill all the requirementsof modem warfare. As a result, modem warships,
aircraft, and shorestationsusually have severalradar systems,eachperforminga
different function, one radar system, called search Radar, is designed to
continuouslyscana volumeof spaceto provideinitial of all targets.SearchRadaris
almostalwaysusedto detectand determinethe position of new targetsfor later use
by Track Radar,Track Radar provides continuousrange,bearing, and elevation
dataon one or more targets,Most of the radarsystemsusedby the military are in
one of thesetwo categories,thoughthe individual radarsystemsvary in designand
capability, Some radar system are designedfor specific functions that Jo not
preciselyfit into eithero_f
the abovecategories.The radarspeedgun is an example
of radardesignedspecificallyto measurethe speedof a target,the military uses
much more complex radar systemsthat are adaptedto detect only fast-moving
targetssuchas aircraft,Sinceaircraft is usually move much fasterthan weatheroi
surfacetargets,velocity-sensitiveradar can eliminate unwantedclutter from the
radar indictor,Radarsystemthat detectand processonly moving targetsare called
Moving-TargetIndicators(MTl)andareusuallycombinedwith conventional search
radar,Anotherform of radar widely used in military and civilian aircraft is the
RadarAltimeter, Justas somesurface- basedradar can determinethe height of a
target, airborneradar can determinethe distancefrom an aircraft to the ground,
Many aircraftuseradarto determineheightabovethe ground.

4.1.7Radar Types
The precedingparagraphsindicatedthat radarsystemsare divided into typesbased
on the designeduse, this section presentthe general characteristics-of
several
commonlyusedradarsystems.Typical characteristicsare discussedratherthan the
specificcharacteristics
of any particularradarsystem.

4.1.7.1Search Radar
Searchradar,as previouslymentioned,continuouslyscana volumeof spaceand
providesinitial detectionof all targetswithin that space, Searchradar systemare
further divided into specifictypes,accordingto the type of objectthey are designed
to detect, For example,surface-search, air-search,and height-findingradari are
all typesofsearchradar.

4.l.7.zSurface- SearchRadar
A surface-search radarsystemhastwo primaryfunctions:
the detectionand determinationof accuraterangesand bearingsof surfaceobjects
and low-flying aircraftand the maintenanceof a 360 -degree searchpattemfor all
objectswithin line-of-sightdistancefrom the radar antenna, The maximum range
ability of surface-searchradaris primarily limited by the radarhorizon ; theref,or-e,
higher frequenciesare used to permit maximum reflection from small, reflecting
areas,such as ship mastheadstructuresand the periscopesof submarines,Narrori
pulsewidths are usedto permit a high degreeof rangeresolutionat shortrangesand
to achievegreaterrangeaccuracy.
Surface-search radar is usedto detectthe presenceof surfacecraft and low flying
aircraft and determinetheir presence,Shipboardsurface-search radar providesth[

40
type of informationas an input to the \*'eaponssystemto assistin the engagement
of
hostile targetsby fire-control radar, Shipboardsurface-searchradar is also used
extensivelyas a navigationalaid in coastalwater and in poor weatherconditions,A
typical surface-searchradarantennais shownin Figure4.6.

Figure4.6 the SurfaceSearchRadar

4.1.7.3 Air-SearchRadar
Air-searchradar systemsinitially detect and determinethe position, course,and
speedof air targetsin relativelylargeareaasshownin Fig 3.7.The maximumrange
of air-searchradarcan exceed300 miles,and the bearingcoverageis a complete
360 degreecircle, Air-searchradarsystemsare usuallydivided into two categories,
basedon the amountof positioninformationsupplied, As mentionedearlierin this
chapter, radarsetsthat provide only rangeand bearinginformationare referredto
as two dimensional,or 2D radar, Radarsetsthat supply rangebearingand height
arecalledthreedimensional, or 3D, radars.

Figure4.7 theHigh Finding SearchRadar

4l
The primary function of a height-finding radar (sometimesreferredto as three-
coordinateor 3D radar)is that of computingaccurateranges,bearings,and altitudes
of aircrafttargetsdetectedby air-searchradars.Height-finding radaris alsousedby
the ship's air controllersto direct CAP aircraft during interceptionof air taigets,
Modem 3D radar is often used as the primary air-seaichradar Fig.3.lOThisis
becauseof its high accuracyand becausethe maximumrangesare only slightly less
than those availablefrom 2D radar, The range capability of 3D searchradar is
limited to some extentby an operatingfrequencythat is higher than that of 2D
radar, This disadvantageis partially offset by higher output power and a beam
width that is nanower in both the vertical and horizontal planes,the 3D radar
systemtransmitsseveralnarrowbeamsto obtain
Altitude coverageand, for this reason,compensation for roll and pitch must be
providedfor shipboardinstallations to ensureaccurateheightinformation

Figure4.8 the Fire ControlRadar

4.1.7.4Tracking Radar
Radarthat providescontinuouspositionaldataon a targetis calledtrackingradar,
Most trackingradarsystemsusedby the military arealsofire-controlradar;the two
namesare often usedinterchangeably,Fire-controltracking radar systemsusually
producea very naffow, circular beam, fire-control radar must be directedto the
generallocationof the desiredtargetbecauseof the narrow-beam pattern,This is
calledthe designationphaseof equipmentoperation.Oncein the generalvicinily of
the target,the radarsystemswitchesto the acquisitionphaseof operation
During acquisition,the radar system searchesa small volume of spacein a
prearrangedpatternuntil the target is located,the radar system entersthe track

42
phaseof operation.Using one of severalpossiblescanningtechniques, the radar
system automaticallyfollows all target motions, The radar systemis said to be
locked on to the target dqtng the track phase,The target- processingsequenceof
most fire-control radars,Typical fire-control radar characteristicsincluili a very
nanow pulse width, and a very narow beamwidth, These characteristics, while
providing extreme accuracy,limit the range and make initial target detection
difficult, A typical fire-controlradarantennais shownin Fig.3.9.Inthis examplethe
antennausedto producea narrowbeamis coveredby a protectiverandom.

43
4.2 TRANSDUCER
4.2.1Introduction
. Any devicewhich convertenergycanbe considered a transducer.
o It is a devicethat convertfrom one energyto anotherenergyform.
. Transducersarewidely usedin measuringinstrument.

Eledrodea
Pfi thiek flm

CopydshtlnSensnrAJS

Figure4.9 Transducer

4.2.2Brsic RequirementsConditions
1. Rangeof operation:the transducershouldcoverall the i/p rangesfrom min
to max.
2. The accuracy:the transducershouldbe calibratedagainster.ror.
3. Sensitivity:hasto be sensitiveenoughto allow sufficientoutput
4. The Resolution: the smallestchangein the ilp, the o/p will respond.
5. Environmentcompatibility:dueto externalconditionex temperature.
6. Repeatability:the transducershould give the same o/p under the same
conditionof the i/p
7. Error: the transducershouldgive min error in measurement.

4.2.3Typesof Transducers
1. Variable-ResistanceTransducer
2. DifferentialTransformer(LVDT)
3. CapacitiveTransducer
4. piezoelectricTransducer
5. photoelectric Transducer
6. photoconductive Transducer
7. photovoltaicTransducer
8. IonizationTransducer
9. MagnetometersearchCoil
10.Hall -Effect Transducer
11. Digital DisplacementTransducer

44
 4.2.3.1Variable-Resistance Transducer
a ResistancePotentiometerrheostat.
a Convertliner or angulardisplacement into an electricsignal.
a Can be used to convert force and pressureto a displacement throughmechanical
methods.
Moving contacton a slide-wireor moving contactthat movesthroughan angular
displacement on a solidTransducer( e.g.graphite)
Fairlycheap- somecanbe expensive, though.

4.2.3.2Differential Transformer(LVDT)
a Convertdisplacement into electricsignal.
a Threecoils placedin a liner relationshipwith a magneticcore-freeto move inside
thecoils
Alternatinginput voltageimpressed in centercoil, andoutputvoltagefrom two end
coil depends on magneticcouplingbetweenthe coreandcoils.
a The couplingis dependent on thepositionof the core
a If the coreremainsnearthecentreof the coilsthe outputis very nearlylinear.
a Most differentialtransforrnersare only operatedin this linear range, and theseare
calledlinearvariabledifferentialTransducer (LVDT) .

Ou{pur
YoltrEc

Scrondarycoil*
DinpLxrmeot
..|.-F Core
Frimarycoih

ry g'
lnFtt t$lta*c

lr*gsixrx* tlrrcid

{iXt

F IJ
{*ris*
$d*1:rit;

PnnurN *sll
klixsisss ;nrii "

of a commerciallinearvariabledifferentialtransformer
Figure4.10Construction
[LVDT]. (Courtesy of SchaevitzEngineeringCompany)

45
 {wp**kmr
"{...@

\t$s*s.{$$.
rsrsts$ l-S$eris
Sru* *i*El,x;*:m**r

**xxss"{ {*sx*s
{}*5ffis.:L,
{E} fbt {*t

Figure4.11OutputCharacteristic
of LVDT

4.2.3.3CapacitiveTransducer
o Measuresa changein capacitancethrough a change in distancebetween2
plates,d.
o Measurecapacitance changethrougha changein overlapping area,A, resulting
from platemovementor a changein dielectricconstant,r
A
C:0.225. e.] 0.225is inz use0.0885for ctnz
e:l fo r air
E: lforplastics

For liquid level measurements two electrodesare placed in the liquid, and the
dielectric constantvaries between them according to the liquid level. Thus
capacitance betweenelectrodes
is a directindicationof liquid level.

46
 ilukuic

t fi*tk*$*,*
Figure4.12Schematic
of a Capacitive
Transducer

ff

Lirit$ti l*ltl

Figure4.13use of a capacitiveTransducer
for Liquid- LevelMeasurement

4.2.3.4PiezoelectricT ransducer
. A forceappliedto a piezoelectric crystalbetweentwo electrodesp roducesa
stressandcorresponding deformationin the crystal.
a Deformationproducespotentialdifferenceat crystalsurface.
a The stresson the crystalproducesan outputvoltage:
a E: g.t.p (4.2)
a Wheret is crystalthicknessin m p is impressedforce in N/m2
a G is voltagesensitivity
a G=d/ e (4.3)
a Piezoelectriccrystalusedaspressure Transducer for dynamicmeasurements.

47
 I

*
I
I

Effect
Figure4.14the Piezoelectric

4.2.3.5PhotoelectricTransducer
r Convertsa light beaminto a usableelectricsignal
o Light strikescathodeandreleaseselectrons
. Electronsare attractedtoward anode,therebyproducingan electric current in
extemalcircuit
o Cathodeand anodeenclosedin glassor quartz ,which is evacuatedor dilled
with inert gas
o Photoelectrictubesusefulfor measuringlight intensity

Lishl

Effect
Figure4.15the Photoelectric

4.2.3.6PhotoconductiveTransducer
r Voltageimpressed on semiconductor material
r Light strikes semiconductormaterial and a decreasein resistanceoccurs,
therebyproducingan increasein current
. Useful for measurement of radiationat all wavelengths.

48
 $rltx**r$ss*t
ffirx;
:

klrlrF
of a photoconductive
Figure4.16Schematic Transducer

4.2.3.7PhotovoltaicTransducer
. Sandwichdesignof a metal baseand a thin transparentmetallic layer with
semiconductor materialin between
. Light strikes barrier between transparentmetal layer and semiconductor
material,anda voltageis generated
o Most widely usedapplicationof photovoltaiccell is the light exposuremeterin
photographicwork.

itmrsmBws*
wiJ {s}'sr
Smi*m&m*r
fn$tsls
*
x\
rH**dhr
kxrplcre
Diagramof a photovoltaicCell
Figure4.17Schematic

49
{.2.3.8Ionization Transducer
r Convertsdisplacement to a voltagethrougha capacitance
change
r As tube moveshorizontallybetweenthe two plates,a dc potentialdifferenceis
createdbetweenelectrodesI and2.

fir
ft*usul

Figure4.18schematicDiagramof ionization- displacement

transducer

1.2.3.9Magnetometer SearchCoil
. Transforrners a magneticfiled signalinto a voltage
r A flat coil with a specifiednumberor turnsis placedin a magneticfield anda
,
voltageis generated.
. To measurea steadymagneticfield , the searchcoil mustbe moving",Typically
a rotatingcoil is usedin this situation

tg$**_**_rql{.}f$S}
srs"&.,{

txxrg*fu"
i,
# ,s.d
Figure4.19Schematic
of Magnetometer
SearchOil

50
 t*+l
iw6h.
&

,$,rg w
rffiflrffi

l*u
!

-, r_
tr,

Figure4.20Use of a rotatingSearchOil Measurementof Steady- StateMagnetic

Fields

4.2.3.10IIall-Effect Transducer
o An extemalcurrentpassesthrougha semiconductorplate.
o When a magneticfiled is impressedon a plate in a directionperpendicularto
the platesurface,a voltageis generated
a This voltageis the Hall voltage
KXIXB
a E= -
t
(s.4)
o Wheie is K is theHall coefficient.

I
t
."
t
L#
I
t

Figure4.21theHall Effect

51
4.2.3.11Digital DisplacementTransducer
o Usedto measureangularand linear displacements
. For an angular measurement, a wheel rotates and light is alternately
transmittedandstoppedthroughsmall cutouts '
o The signalis sentto the photodetector,amplified,then sentto a counter.
o The numberof countsis proportionalto angulardisplacement
o Sensitivitycanbe improvedby increasingthe numberof cutouts

o For a linear measurement , small reflectingstrips are installedon a motion

device
o Light is then alternatelyreflectedand absorbedwith linear motion presentinga
signalto the photodetector
o Calibrationwith a knowndisplacement standardmustbe performed

t"rsid
fi
if$!,ry*
.r""'*T"-
:,1 \ ::
i'!\ il i) \. . ;'--
l. tui",r\i i ii
it\" Lr',* 1l
i tl v' l
I ,, t
i r-- ra i II
--r !
ii,*#r r * l ff i
S J s int ' I F..-
It:.
t,"'f n t\ "l it
i * .--r.f..-i
| .{tTl0llltsf:-'r',
l 'l i .:
..: f*,nr*r
L\FI**I ;
.

\" li , \i it iI
#

\ "# u
'q---Er / " i'
u
\
futs:x
Figure4.22theDigital Transducer
for AngularDisplacement

52