Social Science

Contemporary
India Textbook in Geography
for Class X
II

Reprint 2025-26
1068 – CONTEMPORARY INDIA-II ISBN 81-7450-644-6
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
January 2006 Agrahayana 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,
Reprtined in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
December 2007, February 2009, without the prior permission of the publisher.
January 2010, January 2011, q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, re-sold,
hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding
January 2012, December 2012, or cover other than that in which it is published.
November 2013, November 2014, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised price
December 2015, December 2016, indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.
January 2018, February 2019,
December 2019, January 2021
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
November 2021 DIVISION, NCERT

Revised Edition NCERT Campus

Sri Aurobindo Marg
November 2022 Agrahayana 1944 New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708

Reprinted 108, 100 Feet Road

Hosdakere Halli Extension
March 2024 Chaitra1946 Banashankari III Stage
June 2024 Jyaishtha 1946 Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740
December 2024 Agrahayana 1946
Navjivan Trust Building
P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
PD 200T BS CWC Campus
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
© National Council of Educational Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454
Research and Training, 2006, 2022
CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

Publication Team
Head, Publication : M.V Srinivasan
` 75.00 Division
Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Chief Production : Jahan Lal
Officer (In charge)
Chief Business : Amitabh Kumar
Manager
Assistant Editor : R. N. Bhardwaj
Production Officer : Sunil Sharma
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCER T
watermark

Published at the Publication Division by Cover, Layout and Illustrations

the Secretary, National Council of Nidhi Wadhwa
Educational Research and Training,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and Cartography
printed at Salasar Imaging System, A-97, Cartographic Design Agency
Sector-58, Noida (U.P.) 201301

Reprint 2025-26
Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and
reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the
advisory committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher
secondary level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this
book, Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are
grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to

Reprint 2025-26
the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw
upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the
members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department
of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation
committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its
products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

iv

Reprint 2025-26
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbook

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce

content load on students. The National Education Policy 2020,
also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In
this background, the NCER T has undertaken the exercise to
rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken
into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of
the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject
areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in
the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without
much interventions from teachers and can be learned by
children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying
out the changes given above.

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
Textbook development committee

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

THE SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of
Calcutta, Kolkata

CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

ADVISOR
B. S. Butola, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
Aparajita De, Lecturer, Department of Geography,
Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Geeta Duggal, Former Principal, Delhi Public School, Rewari
Indu Sharma, PGT, Demonstration School RIE, Ajmer
K. Jaya, PGT, Convent of Jesus and Mary, Bangla Sahib Road, New Delhi
Punam Behari, Reader, Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi
Saroj Sharma, TGT (Retd.), Mother’s International School,
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Department of Education in Social Sciences
and Humanities, NCERT, New Delhi

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
Acknowledgements

The National Council of Educational Research and T raining

acknowledges the support of individuals and organisations as listed
below for providing various photographs and other materials such as
articles used in this textbook — Shveta Uppal, NCERT, New Delhi for
Fig. 1.11, 2.2, 4.3, 4.10, 4.11, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5; Kalyan Banerjee, NCERT,
New Delhi for Fig. 7.9; Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
for Fig. 2.2 (Endangered : the Nicobar megapode), 3.3, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
4.1, 5.14; CCSHAU, Hisar for Fig. 4.4(a), 4.13; Directorate of Extension,
Ministry of Agriculture, I.A.R.I. Campus, New Pusa, New Delhi for Fig.
4.2, 4.4(b), 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 (Groundnut and Mustard), 4.12 (Apple
and Pomegranate), 4.15, 4.18; Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt. of India for Fig. 2.1, 5.10, 6.8; Ministry of Coal, Govt. of India for
Fig. 5.11(a) and (b); Ministry of Mines, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.3, 5.5,
5.8; Department of Road Transport and Highways, Ministry of Shipping,
Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for Fig. 7.2, 7.10; Ministry
of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.12,
6.3, 6.6, 6.7; Department of Shipping, Ministry of Shipping, Road
Transport and Highways, Govt. of India for Fig. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8;
Kurukshetra magazine for collage on page 24; The Times of India for
collage on page 20, 24, 29, 26, 57, 91; The Hindu for collage on page
20; Hindustan for collage on page 91; NCERT, Social Science, Part-II,
Textbook for Class-VIII for Fig. 1.12, 3.2.
The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of maps
given in the textbook.
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities for her
valuable support at every stage of preparation of this textbook.
Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for
going through the textbook and for giving useful suggestions.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of
Ishwar Singh, DTP Operator; Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; Dinesh Kumar,
Computer Incharge, who have helped in giving a final shape to this book.
The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.

The following are applicable to all the maps of India used in this textbook
1. © Government of India, Copyright 2006
2. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the
publisher.
3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve
nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line.

Reprint 2025-26
4. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are
at Chandigarh.
5. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and
Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.
6. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/Master
Copy certified by Survey of India.
7. The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh, Bihar &
Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by
the Governments concerned.
8. The spellings of names in these maps have been taken from various sources.

School Bhuvan–NCERT an Online web portal

Web based online e-learning Geo spatial portal School Bhuvan–NCERT has
been launched by NCERT and ISRO in collaboration to enhance geo spatial
skills among students. This online e-learning portal includes thematic maps
given in Geography textbooks. This portal enables students to use Geo-spatial
technology for better understanding of concepts in Geography. Online activities
available on the portal as Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 encourage learners
from Classes VI to XII to develop neighbourhood maps and their attributes on
satellite imageries available on School Bhuvan–NCERT.

Reprint 2025-26
Contents

Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v

1. Resources and Development 1

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 13

3. Water Resources 19

4. Agriculture 30

5. Minerals and Energy Resources 42

6. Manufacturing Industries 58

7. Lifelines of National Economy 71

Appendix–I 84

Appendix–II 85

Glossary 86

Reprint 2025-26
 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

Reprint 2025-26
 Appendix-I
Websites you can see
Bombay Natural History Society: http://www.bnhs.org/
Birding in India and South Asia: http://www.birding.in/
Website of Project Tiger: http://projecttiger.nic.in/
Nature Conservation Foundation: http://www.ncf-india.org/
Wildlife Conservation Society of India: http://www.wildlife.in/
Wildlife Trust of India: http://www.wildlifetrustofindia.org/
Kalpavriksh Environment Action Group: http://www.kalpavriksh.org/
Down to Earth Magazine: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/
Centre for Environment Education, India: http://www.ceeindia.org/cee/index.html
World Steel Association: http://www.worldsteel.org

Reprint 2025-26
 Appendix-II

Steel Plants Year of Establishment Collaborating Location

Country

IISCO 1870-1913 (Private initially) (Nationalised Kulti and

in 1972) Burnpur (W.B.)
TISCO 1907 (Private ownership) Jamshedji Tata Jamshedpur
(Jharkhand)
VISL 1923 Private as MISCO Nationalised later Bhadravati
(Karnataka)
Bhilai 1959 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bhilai
(Chhattisgarh)
Bokaro 1972 (Public Sector) Soviet Union Bokaro
(Jharkhand)
Durgapur 1959 (Public Sector) U.K. Durgapur (W.B.)
Rourkela — (Public Sector) Germany Rourkela
(Odisha)
Vishakhapatnam — (Public Sector) — Vishakhapatnam
Andhra Pradesh
Salem — (Public Sector) — Salem (T. Nadu)
Vijay Nagar — Public Sector — Karnataka

Reprint 2025-26
 Glossary

Anticline: A fold in sedimentary strata that resembles an arch.

Gross Domestic Product: It is a monetary measure of the value of goods and services
produced within a natural economy at a given period of time. Normally it is one year.

Gross Value Added (GVA): The GVA is estimated from GDP by adding subsidies on
production and substracting indirect taxes.

Geologist: A scientist who studies the composition, structure and history of the
earth.

Geothermal Gradient: The gradual increase in temperature with depth in the

crust. The average is 30°C per kilometer in the upper crust.

Humus: Dead and decayed organic matter adds to the fertility of the top soil.

Igneous Rocks: Rocks which have solidified from molten magma.

Manganese Nodules: A type of sediment scattered on the ocean floor, consisting

mainly of manganese and iron, and usually containing small amounts of copper,
nickel and cobalt.

Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks which were originally igneous or sedimentary, but have
changed in character and appearance.

Oil Trap: A geological structure that allows for significant amounts of oil and gas to
accumulate.

Rock: A consolidated mixture of minerals

Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks which have been deposited as beds and layers of
sediments.

86 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
NOTES

A PPENDIX 87

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES

Reprint 2025-26
 The process of transformation of things
Can you identify and name the various items
available in our environment involves an
used in making life comfortable in our villages
and towns. List the items and name the interactive relationship between nature,
material used in their making. technology and institutions. Human beings
interact with nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their
Everything available in our environment economic development.
which can be used to satisfy our needs, Do you think that resources are free
provided, it is technologically accessible, gifts of nature as is assumed by many?
economically feasible and culturally They are not. Resources are a function of
acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’. human activities. Human beings themselves
are essential components of resources. They
transform material available in our
environment into resources and use them.
These resources can be classified in the
following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable
and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual,
community, national and international
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent relationship between (d) On the basis of status of development –
nature, technology and institutions potential, developed stock and reserves.

Fig. 1.2: Classification of resources

Reprint 2025-26
DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES
Sustainable development
Resources are vital for human survival as well
as for maintaining the quality of life. It was Sustainable economic development means
believed that resources are free gifts of nature. ‘development should take place without
As a result, human beings used them damaging the environment, and development
indiscriminately and this has led to the in the present should not compromise with the
following major problems. needs of the future generations.’

• Depletion of resources for satisfying the

greed of a few individuals.
• Accumulation of resources in few hands, which, Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
in turn, divided the society into two segments In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
i.e. haves and have nots or rich and poor. met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
• Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has International Earth Summit. The Summit was
led to global ecological crises such as, global convened for addressing urgent problems of
warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental environmental protection and socio-
pollution and land degradation. economic development at the global level.
The assembled leaders signed the
Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
endorsed the global Forest Principles and
1. Imagine, if the oil supply gets exhausted adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
one day, how would this affect our life style? Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
2. Plan a survey in your colony/village to
Agenda 21
investigate people’s attitude towards
recycling of the domestic/agricultural It is the declaration signed by world leaders
in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
wastes. Ask questions about :
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
(a) What do they think about resources
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
they use?
aims at achieving global sustainable
(b) What is their opinion about the development. It is an agenda to combat
wastes, and its utilisation? environmental damage, poverty, disease
(c) Collage your results. through global co-operation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared
responsibilities. One major objective of the
Agenda 21 is that every local government
An equitable distribution of resources has should draw its own local Agenda 21.
become essential for a sustained quality of life
and global peace. If the present trend of
resource depletion by a few individuals and
RESOURCE PLANNING
countries continues, the future of our planet
is in danger. Planning is the widely accepted strategy for
Therefore, resource planning is essential for judicious use of resources. It has importance
in a country like India, which has enormous
sustainable existence of all forms of life.
diversity in the availability of resources. There
Sustainable existence is a component of
are regions which are rich in certain types of
sustainable development.
resources but are deficient in some other

2 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
resources. There are some regions which can
be considered self sufficient in terms of the
availability of resources and there are some What resources are being developed in your
regions which have acute shortage of some vital surroundings by the community/village
resources. For example, the states of panchayats/ward level communities with the
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya help of community participation?
Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water
technology and institutions may hinder
resources but lacks in infrastructural
development. There are many regions in our
development. The state of Rajasthan is very well
country that are rich in resources but these
endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks
are included in economically backward
in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh
regions. On the contrary there are some regions
is relatively isolated from the rest of the
which have a poor resource base but they are
country. It has very rich cultural heritage but
economically developed.
it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some
vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource Can you name some resource rich but
planning at the national, state, regional and economically backward regions and some
local levels. resource poor but economically developed
regions? Give reasons for such a situation.
The history of colonisation reveals that
rich resources in colonies were the main
Prepare a list of resources found in your state attractions for the foreign invaders. It was
and also identify the resources that are primarily the higher level of technological
important but deficit in your state. development of the colonising countries that
helped them to exploit resources of other
regions and establish their supremacy over
the colonies. Therefore, resources can
Resource Planning in India contribute to development only when they are
Resource planning is a complex process accompanied by appropriate technological
which involves : (i) identification and development and institutional changes. India
inventory of resources across the regions of has experienced all this in different phases of
the country. This involves surveying, colonisation. Therefore, in India, development,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative in general, and resource development in
estimation and measurement of the particular does not only involve the
resources. (ii) Evolving a planning structure availability of resources, but also the
endowed with appropriate technology, skill technology, quality of human resources and
and institutional set up for implementing the historical experiences of the people.
resource development plans. (iii) Matching Conservation of Resources: Resources are
the resource development plans with overall vital for any developmental activity. But
national development plans. irrational consumption and over-utilisation
India has made concerted efforts for of resources may lead to socio-economic and
achieving the goals of resource planning right environmental problems. To overcome these
from the First Five Year Plan launched after problems, resource conservation at various
Independence. levels is important. This had been the main
The availability of resources is a necessary concern of the leaders and thinkers in the
condition for the development of any region, past. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in
but mere availability of resources in the voicing his concern about resource
absence of corresponding changes in conservation in these words: “There is enough

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 3

Reprint 2025-26
for everybody’s need and not for any body’s available land for various purposes with careful
greed.” He placed the greedy and selfish planning.
individuals and exploitative nature of modern India has land under a variety of relief
technology as the root cause for resource features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains
depletion at the global level. He was against and islands. About 43 per cent of the land area
mass production and wanted to replace it with is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture
the production by the masses. and industry. Mountains account for 30 per
cent of the total surface area of the country and
ensure perennial flow of some rivers, provide
At the international level, the Club of Rome facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
advocated resource conservation for the first About 27 per cent of the area of the country is
time in a more systematic way in 1968. the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy of minerals, fossil fuels and forests.
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal LAND UTILISATION
contribution with respect to resource
Land resources are used for the following
conservation at the global level was made
purposes:
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.
This report introduced the concept of 1. Forests
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated 2. Land not available for cultivation
it as a means for resource conservation, (a) Barren and waste land
which was subsequently published in a book (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
entitled Our Common Future. Another
buildings, roads, factories, etc.
significant contribution was made at the Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. 3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
LAND RESOURCES (b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net sown area),
We live on land, we perform our economic
(c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated
activities on land and we use it in different
for more than 5 agricultural years).
ways. Thus, land is a natural resource of
utmost importance. It supports natural 4. Fallow lands
vegetation, wild life, human life, economic (a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation
activities, transport and communication for one or less than one agricultural year),
systems. However, land is an asset of a finite (b) Other than current fallow-(left
magnitude, therefore, it is important to use the uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5. Net sown area– the physical extent of land
on which crops are sown harvested is
known as net sown area.
Area sown more than once in an
agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA
The use of land is determined both by physical
factors such as topography, climate, soil types
as well as human factors such as population
Fig 1.3: India : Land under important Relief density, technological capability and culture
Features and traditions etc.
4 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 2019–20

Reporting Area: 100 Per cent

23.41%

45.64%

5.40%

9.06%

%
3.42
4.49% 3.67% 3.90% 1.02%

Source : Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare,
Government of India, 2023
Fig. 1.4
Total geographical area of India is 3.28 of such land is very high. Hence, these lands
million sq km. Land use data, however, is are cultivated once or twice in about two to
available only for 93 per cent of the total three years and if these are included in the
geographical area because the land use net sown area then the percentage of NSA in
reporting for most of the north-east states India comes to about 54 per cent of the total
except Assam has not been done fully. reporting area.
Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir The pattern of net sown area varies greatly
occupied by Pakistan and China have also not from one state to another. It is over 80 per
been surveyed. cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana
and less than 10 per cent in Arunachal
Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman
Try to do a comparison between the two pie
Nicobar Islands.
charts (Fig. 1.4 ) given for land use and find
out why the net sown area and the land
under forests have changed from 1960-61 Find out reasons for the low proportion of
to 2019-20 very marginally. net sown area in these states.

The land under permanent pasture has Forest area in the country is far lower than
also decreased. How are we able to feed our the desired 33 per cent of geographical area,
huge cattle population on this pasture land as it was outlined in the National Forest Policy
and what are the consequences of it? Most of (1952). It was considered essential for
the other than the current fallow lands are maintenance of the ecological balance. The
either of poor quality or the cost of cultivation livelihood of millions of people who live on the
RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 5

Reprint 2025-26
fringes of these forests depends upon it. A part There are many ways to solve the problems
of the land is termed as waste land and land of land degradation. Afforestation and proper
put to other non-agricultural uses. Waste land management of grazing can help to some extent.
includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on
put to other non-agricultural uses includes over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by
settlements, roads, railways, industry etc. growing thorny bushes are some of the
Continuous use of land over a long period of methods to check land degradation in arid
time without taking appropriate measures to areas. Proper management of waste lands,
conserve and manage it, has resulted in land control of mining activities, proper discharge
degradation. This, in turn, has serious and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes
repercussions on society and the after treatment can reduce land and water
environment. degradation in industrial and suburban areas.

L AND D EGRADATION AND C ONSERVATION SOIL AS A RESOURCE

MEASURES Soil is the most important renewable natural
We have shared our land with the past resource. It is the medium of plant growth
generations and will have to do so with the future and supports different types of living organisms
generations too. Ninety-five per cent of our basic on the earth. The soil is a living system. It
needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained takes millions of years to form soil upto a few
from land. Human activities have not only cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock,
brought about degradation of land but have climate, vegetation and other forms of life and
also aggravated the pace of natural forces to time are important factors in the formation of
cause damage to land. soil. Various forces of nature such as change
Some human activities such as in temperature, actions of running water, wind
deforestation, over grazing, mining and and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc.
quarrying too have contributed significantly in contribute to the formation of soil. Chemical
land degradation. and organic changes which take place in the
Mining sites are abandoned after
excavation work is complete leaving deep Top soil
scars and traces of over-burdening. In states the upper soil layer
like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Subsoil weathered
Pradesh and Odisha deforestation due to rocks sand and
mining have caused severe land degradation. silt clay
In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra overgrazing is one
of the main reasons for land degradation. In
the states of Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Substratum
Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land weathered parent
degradation due to water logging leading to rock material
increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
The mineral processing like grinding of
limestone for cement industry and calcite and
soapstone for ceramic industry generate huge
quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards
the process of infiltration of water into the soil
Unweathered
after it settles down on the land. In recent parent bed rock
years, industrial effluents as waste have
become a major source of land and water
pollution in many parts of the country.
Fig. 1.5: Soil Profile

6 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
soil are equally important. Soil also consists nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine
of organic (humus) and inorganic materials particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
(Fig. 1.5). Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
On the basis of the factors responsible for Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion
soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, of potash, phosphoric acid and lime which
chemical and physical properties, the soils of are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
India are classified in different types. wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Due
to its high fertility, regions of alluvial soils are
Classification of Soils intensively cultivated and densely populated.
India has varied relief features, landforms, Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and
climatic realms and vegetation types. These can be productive after proper treatment and
have contributed in the development of various irrigation.
types of soils.
Black Soil
Alluvial Soils These soils are black in colour and are also
This is the most widely spread and important known as regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
soil. In fact, the entire northern plains are growing cotton and is also known as black
made of alluvial soil. These have been cotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
deposited by three important Himalayan river along with the parent rock material are the
systems – the Indus, the Ganga and the important factors for the formation of black
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in soil. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan
Rajasthan and Gujarat through a narrow trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra,
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
and the Kaveri rivers. Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna
valleys.

Fig. 1.6: Alluvial Soil

The alluvial soil consists of various

proportions of sand, silt and clay. As we move
inlands towards the river valleys, soil particles
appear some what bigger in size. In the upper
reaches of the river valley i.e. near the place
of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such
soils are more common in piedmont plains
such as Duars, Chos and Terai. Fig. 1.7: Black Soil
Apart from the size of their grains or
components, soils are also described on the The black soils are made up of extremely
basis of their age. According to their age fine i.e. clayey material. They are well-known
alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial for their capacity to hold moisture. In addition,
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar). The they are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 7

Reprint 2025-26
 India: Major Soil Types

8 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents. vegetation and in semi-arid environment, it is
They develop deep cracks during hot weather, generally humus poor. They are prone to
which helps in the proper aeration of the soil. erosion and degradation due to their position
These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to on the landscape. After adopting appropriate
work on unless tilled immediately after the first soil conservation techniques particularly in
shower or during the pre-monsoon period. the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea
Red and Yellow Soils
and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu,
Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable
in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and for crops like cashew nut.
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yellow
and red soils are also found in parts of Arid Soils
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont They are generally sandy in texture and saline
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop in nature. In some areas the salt content is
a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
very high and common salt is obtained by
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks
evaporating the water. Due to the dry climate,
yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
high temperature, evaporation is faster and
Laterite Soil the soil lacks humus and moisture. The lower
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar
‘later’ which means brick. The laterite soil because of the increasing calcium content
develops under tropical and subtropical downwards. The Kankar layer formations in
climate with alternate wet and dry season. the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of
This soil is the result of intense leaching due water. After proper irrigation these soils
to heavy rain. Lateritic soils are mostly deep become cultivable as has been in the case of
to very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generally western Rajasthan.
deficient in plant nutrients and occur mostly
in southern states, Western Ghats region of
Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West
Bengal and North-east regions. Where these
soils support deciduous and evergreen
forests, it is humus rich, but under sparse

Fig. 1.9: Arid Soil

Forest Soils
These soils are found in the hilly and
mountainous areas where sufficient rain
forests are available. The soils texture varies
according to the mountain environment
where they are formed. They are loamy and
silty in valley sides and coarse grained in
Fig. 1.8: Laterite Soil the upper slopes. In the snow covered areas

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 9

Reprint 2025-26
of Himalayas, these soils experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus
content. The soils found in the lower parts of
the valleys particularly on the river terraces
and alluvial fans are fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

The denudation of the soil cover and
subsequent washing down is described as soil
erosion. The processes of soil formation and
erosion, go on simultaneously and generally
there is a balance between the two. Sometimes,
this balance is disturbed due to human
activities like deforestation, over-grazing,
construction and mining etc., while natural Fig. 1.11: Gully Erosion
forces like wind, glacier and water lead to
soil is washed away. This is known as sheet
soil erosion. The running water cuts through
erosion. Wind blows loose soil off flat or
the clayey soils and makes deep channels as
sloping land known as wind erosion. Soil
gullies. The land becomes unfit for cultivation
erosion is also caused due to defective methods
and is known as bad land. In the Chambal
of farming. Ploughing in a wrong way i.e. up
basin such lands are called ravines.
and down the slope form channels for the
Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large
quick flow of water leading to soil erosion.
areas down a slope. In such cases the top
Ploughing along the contour lines can
decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
This is called contour ploughing. Steps can
be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
Terrace cultivation restricts erosion. Western
and central Himalayas have well developed
terrace farming. Large fields can be divided into
strips. Strips of grass are left to grow between
the crops. This breaks up the force of the wind.
This method is known as strip cropping.
Planting lines of trees to create shelter also
works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are
called shelter belts. These shelter belts have
contributed significantly to the stabilisation of
sand dunes and in stabilising the desert in
Fig. 1.10: Soil Erosion western India.

10 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
(a) Intensive cultivation (c) Over irrigation
(b) Deforestation (d) Overgrazing
(ii) In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practised?
(a) Punjab (c) Haryana
(b) Plains of Uttar Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand
(iii) In which of the following states black soil is predominantly found?
(a) Uttar Pradesh (c) Rajasthan
(b) Maharashtra (d) Jharkhand

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Name three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
(ii) What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three
main features of this type of soil.
(iii) What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?

3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not
increased much since 1960-61?
(ii) How have technical and economic development led to more consumption of
resources?

PROJECT/ACTIVITY
1. Make a project showing consumption and conservation of resources in your locality.
2. Have a discussion in the class – how to conserve various resources used in
your school.
3. Imagine if oil supplies get exhausted, how will this affect our life style?
4. Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.
(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.
(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT 11

Reprint 2025-26
 S F G S F O B R O M S U A P J

Q G A F F O R E S T A T I O N

P N R E C P R S L D M I L N F

S N A T Q X U O V A I O L A L

O D E I D R J U J L D B N B D

T G H M I N E R A L S A X M W

B V J K M E D C R U P F M H R

L A T E R I T E M V A Z T V L

A B Z O E N M F T I S D L R C

C G N N S Z I O P A X T Y J H

K J G K D T D C S L S E G E W

(i) Natural endowments in the form of land, water, vegetation and minerals.
(ii) A type of non-renewable resource.
(iii) Soil with high water retaining capacity.
(iv) Intensively leached soils of the monsoon climate.
(v) Plantation of trees on a large scale to check soil erosion.
(vi) The Great Plains of India are made up of these soils.

12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Flora and Fauna in India
Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
If you look around, you will be able to find
in the world of Lepchas
that there are some animals and plants which
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is
myself to you one of the world’s richest countries in terms
Let me gather your music from the of its vast array of biological diversity. This
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, is possibly twice or thrice the number yet
the insects and the animals to be discovered. You have already studied
Let me gather your music from the sweet in detail about the extent and variety of
breeze and offer it to you forest and wildlife resources in India. You
Lepcha folk song may have realised the importance of
these resources in our daily life. These
diverse flora and fauna are so well
integrated in our daily life that we take
We share this planet with millions of other these for granted. But, lately, they are
living beings, starting from micro-organisms under great stress mainy due to insensitivity
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, to our environment.
elephants and blue whales. This entire
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. We humans along with all Find out stories prevalent in your region
living organisms form a complex web of which are about the harmonious relationship
ecological system in which we are only a between human beings and nature.
part and very much dependent on this
system for our own existence. For example,
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
the plants, animals and micro-organisms
re-create the quality of the air we breathe, Conservation in the background of rapid
the water we drink and the soil that decline in wildlife population and forestry has
produces our food without which we become essential. But why do we need to
cannot survive. Forests play a key role in conserve our forests and wildlife?
the ecological system as these are also the Conservation preserves the ecological diversity
primary producers on which all other living and our life support systems – water, air and
beings depend. soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of
plants and animals for better growth of species
and breeding. For example, in agriculture,
we are still dependent on traditional crop
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
species, diverse in form and function but In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
closely integrated in a system through demanded a national wildlife protection
multiple network of interdependencies. programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)

Reprint 2025-26
 Tribal girls using bamboo saplings in a
nursery at Mukhali near Silent Valley

Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk

Fig. 2.1

Act was implemented in 1972, with various Project Tiger

provisions for protecting habitats. An all- Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in
India list of protected species was also the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities
published. The thrust of the programme was realised that the tiger population had
towards protecting the remaining population dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
of certain endangered species by banning 55,000 at the turn of the century. The major
hunting, giving legal protection to their threats to tiger population are numerous,
habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife. such as poaching for trade, shrinking
Subsequently, central and many state habitat, depletion of prey base species,
governments established national parks and growing human population, etc. The trade
wildlife sanctuaries about which you have of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
already studied. The central government also traditional medicines, especially in the
announced several projects for protecting Asian countries left the tiger population on
specific animals, which were gravely the verge of extinction. Since India and
threatened, including the tiger, the one- Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds
horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or of the surviving tiger population in the
hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh world, these two nations became prime
water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the targets for poaching and illegal trading.
Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others. Most “Project Tiger ”, one of the well-
recently, the Indian elephant, black buck publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
(chinkara), the great Indian bustard was launched in 1973. Tiger conservation
(godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have has been viewed not only as an effort to
been given full or partial legal protection save an endangered species, but with
against hunting and trade throughout India.

14 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 2.2: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park

equal importance as a means of much of its forest and wildlife resources are
preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude. either owned or managed by the government
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, through the Forest Department or other
Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, government departments. These are classified
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya under the following categories.
Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
total forest land has been declared
and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
some of the tiger reserves of India.
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
are concerned.
The conservation projects are now focusing
on biodiversity rather than on a few of its (ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the
components. There is now a more intensive total forest area is protected forest, as
search for different conservation measures. declared by the Forest Department. This
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find forest land are protected from any further
a place in conservation planning. In the depletion.
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, forests and wastelands belonging to
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to both government and private individuals
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the and communities.
first time plants were also added to the list,
Reserved and protected forests are also
starting with six species.
referred to as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing
timber and other forest produce, and for
Collect more information on the wildlife protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
sanctuaries and national parks of India and largest area under permanent forests,
cite their locations on the map of India. constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West
Types and Distribution of Forest and
Bengal, and Maharashtra have large
Wildlife Resources
percentages of reserved forests of its total forest
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,
wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have
manage, control and regulate them. In India, a bulk of it under protected forests. All North-

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15

Reprint 2025-26
 Can you find out the reasons for the above mentioned problems?

eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very own set of rules and regulations which do not
high percentage of their forests as unclassed allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife
forests managed by local communities. against any outside encroachments.
The famous Chipko movement in the
Community and Conservation
Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
Conservation strategies are not new in our deforestation in several areas but has also
country. We often ignore that in India, forests shown that community afforestation with
are also home to some of the traditional indigenous species can be enormously
communities. In some areas of India, local successful. Attempts to revive the traditional
communities are struggling to conserve these conservation methods or developing new
habitats along with government officials, methods of ecological farming are now
recognising that only this will secure their widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like
own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of
against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection diversified crop production without the use of
Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are synthetic chemicals are possible and
protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting economically viable.
government involvement. The inhabitants of In India joint forest management (JFM)
five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan programme furnishes a good example for
have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the involving local communities in the
Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their management and restoration of degraded

16 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse and rare forests. The programme has been in formal
species existence since 1988 when the state of
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on Odisha passed the first resolution for joint
the premise that all creations of nature have to be forest management. JFM depends on the
protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin formation of local (village) institutions that
forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the undertake protection activities mostly on
forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of degraded forest land managed by the forest
forest or parts of large forests have been left department. In return, the members of
untouched by the local people and any interference these communities are entitled to
with them is banned. intermediary benefits like non-timber
Certain societies revere a particular tree which forest produces and share in the timber
they have preserved from time immemorial. The harvested by ‘successful protection’.
Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region The clear lesson from the dynamics of
worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba both environmental destruction and
(Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of reconstruction in India is that local
Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus communities everywhere have to be
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during involved in some kind of natural resource
weddings. To many of us, peepal and banyan trees management. But there is still a long way
are considered sacred. to go before local communities are at the
Indian society comprises several cultures, each centre-stage in decision-making. Accept
with its own set of traditional methods of conserving only those economic or developmental
nature and its creations. Sacred qualities are often activities, that are people centric,
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and environment-friendly and economically
animals which are closely protected. You will find rewarding.
troops of macaques and langurs around many
temples. They are fed daily and treated as a part of
temple devotees. In and around Bishnoi villages in Write a short essay on any practices
Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and which you may have observed and
peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the practised in your everyday lives that
community and nobody harms them. conserve and protect the environment
around you.

“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and

makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its
life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen
who destroy it”.
Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)

FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions

(i) Which of the following conservation strategies do not directly involve
community participation?
(a) Joint forest management (c) Chipko Movement
(b) Beej Bachao Andolan (d) Demarcation of Wildlife sanctuaries

2. Match the following.

Reserved forests Other forests and wastelands belonging to both

government and private individuals and
communities.
Protected forests Forests are regarded as most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources.
Unclassed forests Forest lands are protected from any further
depletion.

3. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What is biodiversity? Why is biodiversity important for human lives?
(ii) How have human activities affected the depletion of flora and fauna? Explain.

4. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Describe how communities have conserved and protected forests and wildlife
in India?
(ii) Write a note on good practices towards conserving forest and wildlife.

18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
You already know that three-fourth of the WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER
earth’s surface is covered with water, but only CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
a small proportion of it accounts for
freshwater that can be put to use. This Given the abundance and renewability of
freshwater is mainly obtained from surface water, it is difficult to imagine that we may
run off and ground water that is continually suffer from water scarcity. The moment we
being renewed and recharged through the speak of water shortages, we immediately
hydrological cycle. All water moves within the associate it with regions having low rainfall
hydrological cycle ensuring that water is a or those that are drought prone. We
renewable resource. instantaneously visualise the deserts of
You might wonder that if three-fourth of Rajasthan and women balancing many
the world is covered with water and water is ‘matkas’ (earthen pots) used for collecting
a renewable resource, then how is it that and storing water and travelling long
countries and regions around the globe suffer distances to get water. True, the availability
from water scarcity? Why is it predicted that of water resources varies over space and time,
by 2025, nearly two billion people will live in mainly due to the variations in seasonal and
absolute water scarcity? annual precipitation, but water scarcity in

Reprint 2025-26
most cases is caused by over-exploitation, consequent greater demands for water, and
excessive use and unequal access to water unequal access to it. A large population
among different social groups. requires more water not only for domestic
Where is then water scarcity likely to use but also to produce more food. Hence, to
occur? As you have read in the hydrological facilitate higher food-grain production, water
cycle, freshwater can be obtained directly resources are being over-exploited to expand
from precipitation, sur face run off and irrigated areas for dry-season agriculture.
groundwater. Irrigated agriculture is the largest consumer
Is it possible that an area or region may of water. Now it is needed to revolutionise the
have ample water resources but is still facing agriculture through developing drought
water scarcity? Many of our cities are such resistant crops and dry farming techniques.
examples. Thus, water scarcity may be an You may have seen in many television
outcome of large and growing population and advertisements that most farmers have their

Water, Water Everywhere, Not a Drop to Drink:

After a heavy downpour, a boy collects drinking
water in Kolkata. Life in the city and its adjacent
districts was paralysed as incessant overnight rain,
meaning a record 180 mm, flooded vast area and
disrupted traffic.

A Kashmiri earthquake survivor carries water in

the snow in a devastated village.

Fig. 3.1: Water Scarcity

20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
own wells and tube-wells in their farms for available to meet the needs of the people, but,
irrigation to increase their produce. But have the area still suffers from water scarcity. This
you ever wondered what this could result in? scarcity may be due to bad quality of water.
That it may lead to falling groundwater levels, Lately, there has been a growing concern that
adversely affecting water availability and food even if there is ample water to meet the needs
security of the people. of the people, much of it may be polluted by
Post-independent India witnessed domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals,
intensive industrialisation and urbanisation, pesticides and fertilisers used in agriculture,
creating vast opportunities for us. Today, large thus, making it hazardous for human use.
industrial houses are as commonplace as the Government of India has accorded highest
industrial units of many MNCs (Multinational priority to improve the quality of life and
Corporations). The ever-increasing number of enhance ease of living of people especially those
industries has made matters worse by exerting living in rual areas by announcing the Jal
pressure on existing freshwater resources. Jeevan Mission (JJM). The Goal of JJM is to
Industries, apart from being heavy users of enable every rural household get assured
water, also require power to run them. Much supply of potable piped water at a service level
of this energy comes from hydroelectric power. of 55 litres per capita per day regularly on
Moreover, multiplying urban centres with long-term basis by ensuring functionality of
large and dense populations and urban the tap water connections. (Source: Economic
lifestyles have not only added to water and Survey 2020–21, p.357)
energy requirements but have further You may have already realised that the need
aggravated the problem. If you look into the of the hour is to conserve and manage our
housing societies or colonies in the cities, you water resources, to safeguard ourselves from
would find that most of these have their own health hazards, to ensure food security,
groundwater pumping devices to meet their continuation of our livelihoods and productive
water needs. Not surprisingly, we find that activities and also to prevent degradation of our
fragile water resources are being over- natural ecosystems. Over exploitation and
exploited and have caused their depletion in mismanagement of water resources will
several of these cities. impoverish this resource and cause ecological
crisis that may have profound impact on
our lives.
Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) is being
implemented in 8220 water stressed Gram
Panchayats of 229 administrative blocks/ From your everyday experiences, write a short
talukas in 80 districts of seven states, viz. proposal on how you can conserve water.
Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and MULTI- PURPOSE RIVER P ROJECTS AND
Uttar Pradesh. The selected States account INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
for about 37 per cent of the total number
of water— stressed (over-exploited, critical But, how do we conserve and manage water?
and semi-critical) blocks in India. One of Archaeological and historical records show
the key aspects of Atal Jal is to bring in that from ancient times we have been
behavioural changes in the community, constructing sophisticated hydraulic
from the prevailing attitude of structures like dams built of stone rubble,
consumption to conservation and smart reservoirs or lakes, embankments and canals
water management. for irrigation. Not surprisingly, we have
continued this tradition in modern India by
Source: Annual Report, Ministry of Jal Shakti,
building dams in most of our river basins.
Government of India 2022–23

So far we have focused on the quantitative Hydraulic Structures in Ancient India

aspects of water scarcity. Now, let us consider • In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura
another situation where water is sufficiently near Allahabad had sophisticated water
WATER RESOURCES 21

Reprint 2025-26
 harvesting system channelling the flood Multi-purpose projects, launched after
water of the river Ganga. Independence with their integrated water
• During the time of Chandragupta Maurya, resources management approach, were thought
dams, lakes and irrigation systems were of as the vehicle that would lead the nation to
extensively built. development and progress, overcoming the
• Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works
have also been found in Kalinga, A dam is a barrier across flowing water that
(Odisha), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
Pradesh), Bennur (Karnataka), Kolhapur creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment.
(Maharashtra), etc. “Dam” refers to the reservoir rather than the
structure. Most dams have a section called a
• In the 11th Century, Bhopal Lake, one of the
spillway or weir over which or through which
largest artificial lakes of its time was built.
it is intended that water will flow either
• In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, intermittently or continuously. Dams are
Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for classified according to structure, intended
supplying water to Siri Fort area. purpose or height. Based on structure and
Source: Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997. the materials used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry
dams, with several subtypes. According to
the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low
dams, medium height dams and high dams.

handicap of its colonial past. Jawaharlal Nehru

proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of
modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the
village economy with rapid industrialisation and
growth of the urban economy.

Fig. 3.2: Hirakud Dam

Find out more about any one traditional
What are dams and how do they help us method of building dams and irrigation works.
in conserving and managing water? Dams
were traditionally built to impound rivers and
rainwater that could be used later to irrigate We have sown the crops in Asar
agricultural fields. Today, dams are built not We will bring Bhadu in Bhadra
just for irrigation but for electricity generation,
water supply for domestic and industrial Floods have swollen the Damodar
uses, flood control, recreation, inland The sailing boats cannot sail
navigation and fish breeding. Hence, dams are
Oh! Damodar, we fall at your feet
now referred to as multi-purpose projects
where the many uses of the impounded water Reduce the floods a little
are integrated with one another. For example, Bhadu will come a year later
in the Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakra –
Nangal project water is being used both for Let the boats sail on your surface
hydel power production and irrigation. (This popular Bhadu song in the Damodar valley
Similarly, the Hirakud project in the region narrates the troubles faced by people
Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of owing to the flooding of Damodar river known
as the river of sorrow.)
water with flood control.

22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 In recent years, multi-purpose projects
and large dams have come under great Collect information about floods occurred in
scrutiny and opposition for a variety of different parts of the country due to heavy
reasons. Regulating and damming of rivers rainfall in recent times.
affect their natural flow causing poor sediment
flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom These floods have not only devastated life
of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream and property but also caused extensive soil
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic erosion. Sedimentation also meant that the flood
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser,
difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially further adding on to the problem of land
for spawning. The reservoirs that are created degradation. It was also observed that the multi-
on the floodplains also submerge the existing purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused
vegetation and soil leading to its water-borne diseases and pests and pollution
decomposition over a period of time. resulting from excessive use of water.
Irrigation has also changed the cropping
pattern of many regions with farmers shifting
to water intensive and commercial crops. This
has great ecological consequences like
Sardar Sarovar Dam has been built over
salinisation of the soil.
the Narmada River in Gujarat. This is one
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
of the largest water resource projects of
has been started which ensures access to some
India covering four states—Maharashtra,
means to protective irrigation for all agricultural
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
farms in the country, thus bringing much
The Sardar Sarovar project would meet the
desired rural prosperity. Some of the broad
requirement of water in drought-prone and
objectives of this programme are to enhance
desert areas. Sardar Sarovar Project will
the physical access of water on the farm and
provide irrigation facilities to 18.45 lakh
expand cultivable area under assured
hectare of land, covering 3112 villages in
irrigation (har khet ko pani), improve on-farm
15 districts of Gujarat. It will also irrigate
water use efficiency to reduce wastage and
2,46,000 hectare of land in the strategic
increase availability both in duration and
desert districts of Barmer and Jalore in
extent, irrigation and other water saving
Rajasthan and 37,500 hectare in the tribal
technologies (per drop more crop) and
hilly tract of Maharashtra through lift.
introduce sustainable water conservation
About 75 per cent of the command area in
practices, etc.
Gujarat is drought prone while entire
command in Rajasthan is drought prone.
Assured water supply will soon make this
area drought proof. Do you know that the Krishna-Godavari
dispute is due to the objections raised by
Source: Sardar Sarovar Narmada Nigam Ltd.
Kar nataka and Andhra Pradesh
https://www.sardarsarovardam.org/
governments? It is regarding the diversion
of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra
government for a multipurpose project. This
Ironically, the dams that were constructed would reduce downstream flow in their
to control floods have triggered floods due to states with adverse consequences for
sedimentation in the reservoir. Moreover, the agriculture and industry.
big dams have mostly been unsuccessful in
controlling floods at the time of excessive
rainfall. Make a list of inter-state water disputes.

WATER RESOURCES 23

Reprint 2025-26
 India: Major Rivers and Dams

24 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
R AINWATER H ARVESTING practised to store drinking water,
Many thought that given the disadvantages particularly in Rajasthan. In the flood plains
and rising resistance against the multi- of Bengal, people developed inundation
purpose projects, water harvesting system channels to irrigate their fields. In arid and
was a viable alternative, both socio- semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were
economically and environmentally. In converted into rain fed storage structures
ancient India, along with the sophisticated that allowed the water to stand and moisten
hydraulic structures, there existed an the soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and
extraordinary tradition of water-harvesting ‘Johads’ in other parts of Rajasthan.
system. People had in-depth knowledge of In the semi-arid and arid regions of
rainfall regimes and soil types and developed Rajasthan, particularly in Bikaner, Phalodi
wide ranging techniques to harvest and Barmer, almost all the houses
rainwater, groundwater, river water and flood traditionally had underground tanks or
water in keeping with the local ecological tankas for storing drinking water. The tanks
conditions and their water needs. In hill and could be as large as a big room; one
mountainous regions, people built diversion household in Phalodi had a tank that was
channels like the ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ of the 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
Western Himalayas for agriculture. ‘Rooftop metres wide. The tankas were part of the well-
rainwater harvesting’ was commonly developed rooftop rainwater harvesting

Collect information about flood prone areas of the country

WATER RESOURCES 25

Reprint 2025-26
system and were built inside the main house
or the courtyard. They were connected to the
sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
Rain falling on the rooftops would travel
down the pipe and was stored in these
underground ‘tankas’. The first spell of rain
was usually not collected as this would clean
the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater from
the subsequent showers was then collected.

Fig. 3.4
(a) Recharge through Hand Pump
The rainwater can be stored in the
tankas till the next rainfall making it an
extremely reliable source of drinking water
when all other sources are dried up,
particularly in the summers. Rainwater, or
palar pani
pani, as commonly referred to in these
parts, is considered the purest form of
natural water. Many houses constructed
underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to
beat the summer heat as it would keep the

(b) Recharge through Abandoned Dugwell

• Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe
• Filtered using sand and bricks
• Underground pipe takes water to sump for
immediate usage A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the above
• Excess water from the sump is taken to the well in the Kaza village, from which water is released
• Water from the well recharges the underground as and when required.
• Take water from the well (later)
Fig 3.5: Traditional method of rainwater
Fig 3.3: Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting harvesting
26 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 adapted here. Gendathur receives an annual
precipitation of 1,000 mm, and with 80 per
cent of collection efficiency and of about 10
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the
fillings, every house can collect and use about
most common practice in Shillong,
50,000 litres of water annually. From the 200
Meghalaya. It is interesting because
Cherapunjee and Mawsynram situated houses, the net amount of rainwater harvested
at a distance of 55 km. from Shillong annually amounts to 1,00,000 litres.
receive the highest rainfall in the world,
yet the state capital Shillong faces acute
shortage of water. Nearly every
household in the city has a rooftop
rainwater harvesting structure. Nearly
15-25 per cent of the total water
requirement of the household comes
from rooftop water harvesting.

Find out other rainwater harvesting systems

existing in and around your locality.
Rooftop harvesting was common across the towns
and villages of the Thar. Rainwater that falls on
room cool.
the sloping roofs of houses is taken through a
Today, in western Rajasthan, sadly the
pipe into an underground tanka (circular holes in
practice of rooftop rainwater harvesting is on
the ground). built in the main house or in the
the decline as plenty of water is available due
courtyard. The picture above shows water being
to the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal, though
taken from a neighbour’s roof through a long pipe.
some houses still maintain the tankas since Here the neighbour’s rooftop has been used for
they do not like the taste of tap water. collection of rainwater. The picture shows a hole
Fortunately, in many parts of rural and urban through which rainwater flows down into an
India, rooftop rainwater harvesting is being underground tanka.
successfully adapted to store and conserve
water. In Gendathur, a remote backward Fig. 3.6
village in Mysuru, Karnataka, villagers have
installed, in their household’s rooftop,
rainwater harvesting system to meet their
water needs. Nearly 200 households have Tamil Nadu is the first state in India
installed this system and the village has earned which has made rooftop rainwater
the rare distinction of being rich in rainwater. harvesting structure compulsory to all
the houses across the state. There are
See Fig. 3.6 for a better understanding of the
legal provisions to punish the defaulters.
rooftop rainwater harvesting system which is

WATER RESOURCES 27

Reprint 2025-26
 BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM
In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream
and spring water by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent.
About 18-20 litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system,
gets transported over hundreds of metres, and finally
reduces to 20-80 drops per minute at the site of the plant.

Picture 1: Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs

on the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.

Picture 2 and 3: The channel sections, made of bamboo, divert Picture 4: If the pipes pass a road,
water to the plant site where it is distributed into branches, again they are taken high above the land.
made and laid out with different forms of bamboo pipes. The flow of
water into the pipes is controlled by manipulating the pipe positions.

Picture 5 and 6
Reduced channel sections
and diversion units are
used at the last stage of
water application. The last
channel section enables
water to be dropped near
the roots of the plant.

Fig 3.7

1. Collect information on how industries are polluting our water resources.

2. Enact with your classmates a scene of water dispute in your locality.

28 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Based on the information given below classify each of the situations as
‘suffering from water scarcity’ or ‘not suffering from water scarcity’.
(a) Region with high annual rainfall.
(b) Region having high annual rainfall and large population.
(c) Region having high annual rainfall but water is highly polluted.
(d) Region having low rainfall and low population.
(ii) Which one of the following statements is not an argument in favour of multi-
purpose river projects?
(a) Multi-purpose projects bring water to those areas which suffer from
water scarcity.
(b) Multi-purpose projects by regulating water flow helps to control floods.
(c) Multi-purpose projects lead to large scale displacements and loss of
livelihood.
(d) Multi-purpose projects generate electricity for our industries and our
homes.
(iii) Here are some false statements. Identify the mistakes and rewrite them
correctly.
(a) Multiplying urban centres with large and dense populations and urban
lifestyles have helped in proper utilisation of water resources.
(b) Regulating and damming of rivers does not affect the river’s natural
flow and its sediment flow.
(c) Today in Rajasthan, the practice of rooftop rainwater water harvesting
has gained popularity despite high water availability due to the Indira
Gandhi Canal.

2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Explain how water becomes a renewable resource.
(ii) What is water scarcity and what are its main causes?
(iii) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of multi-purpose river projects.

3 . Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Discuss how rainwater harvesting in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan is
carried out.
(ii) Describe how modern adaptations of traditional rainwater harvesting
methods are being carried out to conserve and store water.

WATER RESOURCES 29

Reprint 2025-26
India is an agriculturally important country. through natural processes; land productivity
Two-thirds of its population is engaged in in this type of agriculture is low as the farmer
agricultural activities. Agriculture is a primary does not use fertilisers or other modern
activity, which produces most of the food that inputs. It is known by different names in
we consume. Besides food grains, it also different parts of the country.
produces raw material for various industries.
Can you name some such types of farmings?
Can you name some industries based on
It is jhumming in north-eastern states like
agricultural raw material?
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;
Moreover, some agricultural products like tea, Pamlou in Manipur, Dipa in Bastar district
coffee, spices, etc. are also exported. of Chhattishgarh, and in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
TYPES OF FARMING
Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture
Agriculture is an age-old economic activity in is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
our country. Over these years, cultivation America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in
methods have changed significantly depending Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
upon the characteristics of physical in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.
environment, technological know-how and In India, this primitive form of cultivation
socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from is called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
subsistence to commercial type. At present, Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
in different parts of India, the following ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
farming systems are practised. ‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Primitive Subsistence Farming Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
This type of farming is still practised in few ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
pockets of India. Primitive subsistence
agriculture is practised on small patches of
land with the help of primitive tools like hoe,
dao and digging sticks, and family/
community labour. This type of farming
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of
the soil and suitability of other environmental
conditions to the crops grown.
It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.
Farmers clear a patch of land and produce
cereals and other food crops to sustain their
family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land
for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
Nature to replenish the fertility of the soil Fig. 4.1

Reprint 2025-26
 Rinjha lived with her family in a small village Plantation is also a type of commercial
at the outskirts of Diphu in Assam. She enjoys farming. In this type of farming, a single crop
watching her family members clearing, is grown on a large area. The plantation has
slashing and burning a patch of land for an interface of agriculture and industry.
cultivation. She often helps them in irrigating Plantations cover large tracts of land, using
the fields with water running through a capital intensive inputs, with the help of
bamboo canal from the nearby spring. She migrant labourers. All the produce is used
loves the surroundings and wants to stay as raw material in respective industries.
here as long as she can, but this little girl
In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane,
has no idea about the declining fertility of
banana, etc., are important plantation crops.
the soil and her family’s search for fresh a
Tea in Assam and North Bengal coffee in
patch of land in the next season.
Kar nataka are some of the important
plantation crops grown in these states. Since
Can you name the type of farming Rinjha’s the production is mainly for market, a well-
family is engaged in? developed network of transport and
Can you enlist some crops which are grown communication connecting the plantation
in such farming? areas, processing industries and markets
plays an important role in the development
Intensive Subsistence Farming of plantations.
This type of farming is practised in areas of
high population pressure on land. It is labour-
intensive farming, where high doses of
biochemical inputs and irrigation are used
for obtaining higher production.
Can you name some of the states of India
where such farming is practised?
Though the ‘right of inheritance’ leading
to the division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size
uneconomical, the farmers continue to take
maximum output from the limited land in Fig. 4.2: Banana plantation in Southern
the absence of alternative source of livelihood. part of India
Thus, there is enormous pressure on
agricultural land.

Commercial Farming
The main characteristic of this type of farming
is the use of higher doses of modern inputs,
e.g. high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical
fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order
to obtain higher productivity. The degree of
commercialisation of agriculture varies from
one region to another. For example, rice is a
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but
in Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
Can you give some more examples of crops
which may be commercial in one region and
may provide subsistence in another region? Fig. 4.3: Bamboo plantation in North-east

A GRICULTURE 31

Reprint 2025-26
CROPPING PATTERN water melon, muskmelon, cucumber,
vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
You have studied the physical diversities and
almost a year to grow.
plurality of cultures in India. These are also
reflected in agricultural practices and Major Crops
cropping patterns in the country. Various
A variety of food and non food crops are
types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and
grown in different parts of the country
fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute depending upon the variations in soil, climate
some of the important crops grown in the and cultivation practices. Major crops grown
country. India has three cropping seasons in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,
— rabi, kharif and zaid. coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,
Rabi crops are sown in winter from October etc.
to December and harvested in summer from
April to June. Some of the important rabi Rice: It is the staple food crop of a majority of
crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and the people in India. Our country is the second
mustard. Though, these crops are grown in largest producer of rice in the world after
large parts of India, states from the north China. It is a kharif crop which requires high
and north-western parts such as Punjab, temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas
Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh are of less rainfall, it grows with the help of
important for the production of wheat and irrigation.
other rabi crops. Availability of precipitation
during winter months due to the western
temperate cyclones helps in the success of
these crops. However, the success of the green
revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the above-
mentioned rabi crops.
Kharif crops are grown with the onset of
monsoon in different parts of the country and
these are harvested in September-October.
Important crops grown during this season
are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar),
moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean. Some of the most important rice- Fig. 4.4 (a): Rice Cultivation
growing regions are Assam, West Bengal,
coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, T amil Nadu, Kerala and
Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan coast)
along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently,
paddy has also become an important crop of
Punjab and Haryana. In states like Assam,
West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy
are grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman
and Boro.
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons,
there is a short season during the summer
months known as the Zaid season. Some of
Fig. 4.4 (b): Rice is ready to be harvested in the
the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are
field
32 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: Distribution of Rice

A GRICULTURE 33

Reprint 2025-26
 Rice is grown in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal areas and the
deltaic regions. Development of dense network
of canal irrigation and tubewells have made
it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall
such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat: This is the second most important
cereal crop. It is the main food crop, in north
and north-western part of the country. This
rabi crop requires a cool growing season and
a bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It
Fig. 4.6: Bajra Cultivation
requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly-
distributed over the growing season. There
Bajra grows well on sandy soils and
are two important wheat-growing zones in the
shallow black soil. Major Bajra producing
country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the
States are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
north-west and black soil region of the Deccan.
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. Ragi is
The major wheat-producing states are
a crop of dry regions and grows well on red,
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh.
Maize: It is a crop which is used both as
food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which
requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C
and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some
states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season
also. Use of modern inputs such as HYV
seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have
contributed to the increasing production of
maize. Major maize-producing states are
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Fig. 4.5: Wheat Cultivation

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the

important millets grown in India. Though,
these are known as coarse grains, they have
very high nutritional value. For example, ragi
is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro
nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third
most important food crop with respect to area
and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly
grown in the moist areas which hardly needs
irrigation. Major Jowar producing States are
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Fig. 4.7: Maize Cultivation
and Madhya Pradesh.

34 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: Distribution of Wheat

A GRICULTURE 35

Reprint 2025-26
Pulses: India is the largest producer as well variety of soils and needs manual labour from
as the consumer of pulses in the world. These sowing to harvesting. India is the second
are the major source of protein in a vegetarian largest producer of sugarcane only after
diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are Brazil. It is the main source of sugar, gur
tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and (jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major
gram. Can you distinguish which of these sugarcane-producing states are Uttar
pulses are grown in the kharif season and Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
which are grown in the rabi season? Pulses Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar,
need less moisture and survive even in dry Punjab and Haryana.
conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
Oil Seeds: In 2020 India was the second
crops except arhar help in restoring soil
largest producer of groundnut in the world
fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
after China. Different oil seeds are grown
Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation
with other crops. Major pulse producing states covering approximately 12 per cent of the total
in India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. produced in India are groundnut, mustard,
coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor
Food Crops other than Grains seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.
Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a Most of these are edible and used as cooking
subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and mediums. However, some of these are also
humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to used as raw material in the production of
27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. soap, cosmetics and ointments.
and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts
regions of low rainfall. It can be grown on a for about half of the major oilseeds produced in
the country. Gujarat was the largest producer
of groundnut followed by Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu in 2019–20. Linseed and mustard are rabi
crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and
rabi crop in south India. Castor seed is grown
both as rabi and kharif crop.
Tea: Tea cultivation is an example of
plantation agriculture. It is also an important
beverage crop introduced in India initially by
the British. Today, most of the tea plantations
are owned by Indians. The tea plant grows
well in tropical and sub-tropical climates
endowed with deep and fertile well-drained
soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea
bushes require warm and moist frost-free
Fig. 4.8: Sugarcane Cultivation

Fig. 4.9: Groundnut, sunflower and mustard are ready to be harvested in the field

36 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
climate all through the
year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over
the year ensure
continuous growth of
tender leaves. Tea is a
labour-intensive industry.
It requires abundant,
cheap and skilled labour.
Tea is processed within
the tea garden to restore Fig. 4.10: Tea Cultivation Fig. 4.11: Tea-leaves Harvesting
its freshness. Major tea-
producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling Horticulture C rops: In 2020, India was
Crops:
and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil the second largest producer of fruits and
Nadu and Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal vegetables in the world after China. India is
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra a producer of tropical as well as temperate
Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing fruits. Mangoes of Maharashtra, A ndhra
states in the country. In 2020 India was the Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West
second largest producer of tea after China. Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee
Cof fe
offee: Indian coffee is known in the world
fee: (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram,
for its good quality. The A rabica variety Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava
initially brought from Yemen is produced in of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
the country. This variety is in great demand Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh,
all over the world. Initially its cultivation was Telangana and Maharashtra, apples, pears,
introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir
today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri and Himachal Pradesh are in great demand
in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. the world over.

Fig. 4.12: Apricots, apple and pomegranate

Fig. 4.13: Cultivation of vegetables – peas, cauliflower, tomato and brinjal

Source: Pocket book of agricultural statistics, 2022, Govt. of India. Directorate of Economics and
Statistics.
A GRICULTURE 37

Reprint 2025-26
 India is an important producer of pea, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
and potato. Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Non-F
on-Foo od C rops
Crops Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute
Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the
special conditions, it is also grown in tropical flood plains where soils are renewed every year.
and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist and High temperature is required during the time
humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 of growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha
cm. and temperature above 25°C. and Meghalaya are the major jute producing
Rubber is an important industrial raw states. It is used in making gunny bags, mats,
material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts.
Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar
Technological and I nstitutional Reforms
islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
It was mentioned in the previous pages that
agriculture has been practised in India for
List the items which are made of rubber and thousands of years. Sustained uses of land
are used by us. without compatible techno-institutional
changes have hindered the pace of agricultural
Fibre Crops: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural development. Inspite of development of sources
silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. of irrigation most of the farmers in large parts
The first three are derived from the crops grown of the country still depend upon monsoon and
in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of natural fertility in order to carry on their
the silkworms fed on green leaves specially agriculture. For a growing population, this
mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the poses a serious challenge. Agriculture which
production of silk fibre is known as sericulture
sericulture. provides livelihood for more than 60 per cent of
Cotton: India is believed to be the original its population, needs some serious technical
and institutional reforms. Thus,
home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of
collectivisation, consolidation of holdings,
the main raw materials for cotton textile
cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc.
industry. India is second largest producer of
were given priority to bring about institutional
cotton after China. Cotton grows well in drier
reforms in the country after Independence.
parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
‘Land reform’ was the main focus of our First
plateau. It requires high temperature, light
Five Year Plan. The right of inheritance had
rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and
already led to fragmentation of land holdings
bright sun-shine for its growth. It is a kharif
necessitating consolidation of holdings.
crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
The laws of land reforms were enacted but
Major cotton-producing states are–
the implementation was lacking or lukewarm.
The Government of India embarked upon
introducing agricultural reforms to improve
Indian agriculture in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Green Revolution based on the use of
package technology and the White Revolution
(Operation Flood) were some of the strategies
initiated to improve the lot of Indian agriculture.
But, this too led to the concentration of
development in few selected areas. Therefore,
in the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land
development programme was initiated, which
Fig. 4.14: Cotton Cultivation
included both institutional and technical

38 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 4.15: Modern technological equipments used in agriculture

reforms. Provision for crop insurance against Satyagraha as one of the foremost
drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease, satyagrahis. He was one of the votaries of
establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya. After
societies and banks for providing loan facilities Gandhiji’s martyrdom, Vinoba Bhave
to the farmers at lower rates of interest were undertook padyatra to spread Gandhiji’s
some important steps in this direction. message covered almost the entire country.
Kisan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Once, when he was delivering a lecture at
Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some other Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh, some poor
schemes introduced by the Government of India landless villagers demanded some land for
for the benefit of the farmers. Moreover, special their economic well-being. Vinoba Bhave
weather bulletins and agricultural programmes could not promise it to them immediately but
for farmers were introduced on the radio and assured them to talk to the Government of
television. The government also announces India regarding provision of land for them if
minimum support price, remunerative and they undertook cooperative farming.
procurement prices for important crops to check Suddenly, Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood
the exploitation of farmers by speculators and up and offered 80 acres of land to be
middlemen. distributed among 80 land-less villagers.
This act was known as ‘Bhoodan’. Later he
travelled and introduced his ideas widely all
Collect information about agriculture,
over India. Some zamindars, owners of
horticulture, agricultural schemes, etc. from
many villages offered to distribute some
Farmers’ Portal website https://farmer.
villages among the landless. It was known
gov.in/FarmerHome.aspx. Discuss about the
as Gramdan. However, many land-owners
benefits of the information available on
chose to provide some part of their land to
the portal.
the poor farmers due to the fear of land
ceiling act. This Bhoodan- Gramdan
Bhoodan – Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also
Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as known as the Blood-less Revolution.
his spiritual heir. He also participated in

A GRICULTURE 39

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following describes a system of agriculture where a single
crop is grown on a large area?
(a) Shifting Agriculture
(b) Plantation Agriculture
(c) Horticulture
(d) Intensive Agriculture

(ii) Which one of the following is a rabi crop?

(a) Rice
(b) Gram
(c) Millets
(d) Cotton

(iii) Which one of the following is a leguminous crop?

(a) Pulses
(b) Jawar
(c) Millets
(d) Sesamum

2. Answer the following questions in 30 words.

(i) Name one important beverage crop and specify the geographical conditions
required for its growth.
(ii) Name one staple crop of India and the regions where it is produced.
(iii) Enlist the various institutional reform programmes introduced by the
government in the interest of farmers.

3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.

(i) Suggest the initiative taken by the government to ensure the increase in
agricultural production.
(ii) Describe the geographical conditions required for the growth of rice.

PROJECT WORK
1. Group discussion on the necessity of literacy among farmers.
2. On an outline map of India show wheat producing areas.

40 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the
hidden answers.

A Z M X N C B V N X A H D Q
S D E W S R J D Q J Z V R E
D K H A R I F G W F M R F W
F N L R G C H H R S B S V T
G B C W H E A T Y A C H B R
H R T K A S S E P H X A N W
J I E S J O W A R J Z H D T
K C L A E G A C O F F E E Y
L T E F Y M T A T S S R G I
P D E J O U Y V E J G F A U
O U M H Q S U D I T S W S P
U O A C O T T O N E A H F O
Y O L F L U S R Q Q D T W I
T M U A H R G Y K T R A B F
E A K D G D Q H S U O I W H
W Q Z C X V B N M K J A S L

1 . The two staple food crops of India.

2 . This is the summer cropping season of India.
3 . Pulses like arhar, moong, gram, urad contain…
4 . It is a coarse grain.
5 . The two important beverages in India are…
6 . One of the four major fibers grown on black soils.

A GRICULTURE 41

Reprint 2025-26
 Haban comes to Guwahati with his father A bright smile from toothpaste
from a remote village. and minerals
He sees people getting into strange Toothpaste cleans your teeth. Abrasive
house like objects which move along the minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium
road. He also sees a “kitchen” dragging a oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
number of house along with it. He is amazed cleaning. Fluoride which is used to reduce
and asked his father “Why don’t our houses cavities, comes from a mineral fluorite. Most
move like the one we saw in Guwahati, Ba?” toothpaste are made white with titanium
Ba replies, “These are not houses, they oxide, which comes from minerals called
are buses and trains. Unlike our houses these rutile, ilmenite and anatase. The sparkle in
are not made of bricks and stones, metal like some toothpastes comes from mica. The
iron and alluminium are used in making toothbrush and tube containing the paste are
these. They do not move on their own. They made of plastics from petroleum. Find out
are driven by an engine which needs energy where these minerals are found?
to work.”
Dig a little deeper and find out how many
We use different things in our daily life made minerals are used to make a light bulb?
from metal. Can you list a number of items
used in your house made of metals. Where do
All living things need minerals
these metals come from?
You have studied that the earth’s crust is Life processes cannot occur without minerals.
made up of different minerals embedded in the Although our mineral intake represents only
rocks. Various metals are extracted from these about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of
minerals after proper refinement. nutrients, they are so potent and so important
Minerals are an indispensable part of our that without them we would not be able to
lives. Almost everything we use, from a tiny pin utilise the other 99.7 per cent of foodstuffs.
to a towering building or a big ship, all are
made from minerals. The railway lines and the Dig a little deeper and collect “Nutritional
tarmac (paving) of the roads, our implements Facts” printed on food labels.
and machinery too are made from minerals.
Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are What is a mineral?
manufactured from minerals and run on Geologists define mineral as a
power resources derived from the earth. Even “homogenous, naturally occurring substance
the food that we eat contains minerals. In all with a definable internal structure.” Minerals
stages of development, human beings have are found in varied forms in nature, ranging
used minerals for their livelihood, decoration, from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
festivities, religious and ceremonial rites. Why are they so varied?

Reprint 2025-26
 You have already learnt about rocks. sufficient concentration to make its extraction
Rocks are combinations of homogenous commercially viable. The type of formation or
substances called minerals. Some rocks, for structure in which they are found determines
instance limestone, consist of a single mineral the relative ease with which mineral ores may
only, but majority of the rock consist of several be mined. This also determines the cost of
minerals in varying proportions. Although, extraction. It is, therefore, important for us
over 2000 minerals have been identified, only to understand the main types of formations
a few are abundantly found in most of the in which minerals occur.
rocks. Minerals generally occur in these forms:
A particular mineral that will be formed (i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks
from a certain combination of elements minerals may occur in the cracks,
depends upon the physical and chemical crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
conditions under which the material forms. occurrences are called veins and the
This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours, larger are called lodes. In most cases,
hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density that they are formed when minerals in liquid/
a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use molten and gaseous forms are forced
these properties to classify the minerals. upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as
Study of Minerals by Geographers they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin,
and Geologists copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained
Geographers study minerals as part of the from veins and lodes.
earth’s crust for a better understanding of (ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals
landforms. The distribution of mineral occur in beds or layers. They have been
resources and associated economic activities formed as a result of deposition,
are of interest to geographers. A geologist, accumulation and concentration in
however, is interested in the formation of horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of
minerals, their age and physical and iron ore have been concentrated as a result
chemical composition. of long periods under great heat and
pressure. Another group of sedimentary
However, for general and commercial minerals include gypsum, potash salt and
purposes minerals can be classified as under. sodium salt. These are formed as a result
of evaporation especially in arid regions.
MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERALS
(iii) Another mode of formation involves the
Where are these minerals found? decomposition of surface rocks, and the
Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The removal of soluble constituents, leaving
term ore is used to describe an accumulation a residual mass of weathered
of any mineral mixed with other elements. material containing ores. Bauxite is
The mineral content of the ore must be in formed this way.

Fig. 5.1
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 43

Reprint 2025-26
(iv) Certain minerals may occur as alluvial non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains
deposits in sands of valley floors and the of north India are almost devoid of economic
base of hills. These deposits are called minerals. These variations exist largely because
‘placer deposits’ and generally contain of the differences in the geological structure,
minerals, which are not corroded by water. processes and time involved in the formation
Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most of minerals.
important among such minerals. Let us now study the distribution of a few
(v) The ocean waters contain vast quantities major minerals in India. Always remember that
of minerals, but most of these are too widely the concentration of mineral in the ore, the ease
diffused to be of economic significance. of extraction and closeness to the market play
However, common salt, magnesium and an important role in affecting the economic
bromine are largely derived from ocean viability of a reserve. Thus, to meet the demand,
waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in a choice has to be made between a number of
manganese nodules. possible options. When this is done a mineral
‘deposit’ or ‘reserve’ turns into a mine.

Ferrous Minerals
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most
Ferrous minerals account for about three-
of the minerals in India are nationalised
fourths of the total value of the production of
and their extraction is possible only after
metallic minerals. They provide a strong base
obtaining due permission from the
for the development of metallurgical industries.
government? But in most of the tribal
India exports substantial quantities of ferrous
areas of the north-east India, minerals are
minerals after meeting her internal demands.
owned by individuals or communities. In
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, Iron Ore
iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone
mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done of industrial development. India is endowed
by family member in the form of a long with fairly abundant resources of iron ore. India
narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat hole’ is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is
mining. The National Green Tribunal has the finest iron ore with a very high content of
declared such activities illegal and iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
recommended that these should be qualities, especially valuable in the electrical
stopped forthwith. industry. Hematite ore is the most important
industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity
Dig a little deeper: What is the difference used, but has a slightly lower iron content than
between an open pit mine, a quarry and an magnetite. (50-60 per cent). In 2018–19 almost
underground mine with shafts? entire production of iron ore (97%) accrued
from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and Jharkhand. The remaining production (3%)
varied mineral resources. However, these are was from other states.
unevenly distributed. Broadly speaking,
peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves
of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other
Kudre in Kannada means horse. The
non-metallic minerals. Sedimentary rocks on
highest peak in the western ghats of
the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula,
Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.
in Gujarat and Assam have most of the
The Bailadila hills look like the hump of
petroleum deposits. Rajasthan with the rock
an ox, and hence its name.
systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many

44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
very high quality, yet they are efficiently
exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese
alloy. Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required
to manufacture one tonne of steel. It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder,
insecticides and paints.

Andhra Others
Pradesh 2%
10%
Fig. 5.2: Iron ore mine
Karnataka
The major iron ore belts in India are: 12%

• Odisha-Jharkhand belt: In Odisha high Madhya

Pradesh
grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar 33%
mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum
Odisha
district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is
16%
mined in Gua and Noamundi.
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt lies in
Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high
grade hematites are found in the famous Maharashtra
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district 27%
of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills Fig. 5.3: Production of Manganese showing
comprise of 14 deposits of super high state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
grade hematite iron ore. It has the best
physical properties needed for steel
Dig a little deeper: Superimpose the maps
making. Iron ore from these mines is
showing distribution of iron ore, manganese,
exported to Japan and South Korea via
coal and iron and steel industry. Do you see
Vishakhapatnam port.
any correlation. Why?
• Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-
Tumakuru belt in Karnataka has large
reserves of iron ore. The Kudremukh mines Non-Ferrous Minerals
located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka India’s reserves and production of non-
are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudremukh ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
deposits are known to be one of the largest However, these minerals, which include
in the world. The ore is transported as copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a
slurry through a pipeline to a port near vital role in a number of metallurgical,
Mangaluru. engineering and electrical industries. Let us
• Maharashtra-Goa belt includes the state study the distribution of copper and
of Goa and Ratnagiri district of bauxite.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 45

Reprint 2025-26
 India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica

46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
Copper Madhya
Pradesh
India is critically deficient in the reserve and Maharashtra
3%
Others
6% 1%
production of copper. Being malleable, ductile
and a good conductor, copper is mainly used Chhattisgarh
6%
in electrical cables, electronics and chemical
Gujarat
9%

Odisha
65%
Jharkhand
10%

Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite showing state-wise

Fig. 5.4: Copper mines at Malanjkhand share in per cent, 2018–19

industries. The Balaghat mines in Madhya Odisha was the largest bauxite producing
Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and state in India in 2018-19. Panchpatmali
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading deposits in Koraput district are the most
producers of copper. important bauxite deposits in the state.
Bauxite
Though, several ores
contain aluminium, it
is from bauxite, a
clay-like substance
that alumina and
later aluminium is
obtained. Bauxite
deposits are formed
by the decomposition
of a wide variety of
rocks rich in
aluminium silicates.
Aluminium is an
important metal
because it combines
the strength of metals
such as iron, with
extreme lightness
and also with good
conductivity and
great malleability.
I ndia’s bauxite
deposits are mainly Fig.5.6: Bauxite Mine
found in the
Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the Dig a little deeper: Locate the mines of
plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni. Bauxite on the physical map of India.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 47

Reprint 2025-26
 Rock Minerals
Limestone is found in association with rocks
After the discovery of aluminium composed of calcium carbonates or calcium
Emperor Napoleon III wore buttons and and magnesium carbonates. It is found in
hooks on his clothes made of aluminium sedimentary rocks of most geological
and served food to his more illustrious formations. Limestone is the basic raw
guests in aluminium utensils and the material for the cement industry and
less honourable ones were served in gold essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
and silver utensils. Thirty years after this furnace.
incident aluminium bowls were most
common with the beggars in Paris. Dig a little deeper: Study the maps to explain
why Chota Nagpur is a storehouse of minerals.

Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates
or leaves. It splits easily into thin sheets. These
sheets can be so thin that a thousand can be
layered into a mica sheet of a few centimeters
high. Mica can be clear, black, green, red yellow
or brown. Due to its excellent di-electric
strength, low power loss factor, insulating
properties and resistance to high voltage, mica
is one of the most indispensable minerals used
in electric and electronic industries.
Mica deposits are found in the northern
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma
Gaya – Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the
leading producer.
In Rajasthan, the major mica producing Fig. 5.7: Production of Limestone showing
area is around Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of state-wise share in per cent, 2018–19
Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer
in the country.

Hazards of Mining
Have you ever wondered about the efforts the miners make in making life comfortable
for you? What are the impacts of mining on
the health of the miners and the environment?
The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by
miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary
diseases. The risk of collapsing mine roofs,
inundation and fires in coalmines are a
constant threat to miners.
The water sources in the region get
contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste
and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, Fig. 5.8: Air pollution due to
and increase in stream and river pollution. generation of dust in mining areas

48 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Stricter safety regulations and required millions of years to be created and
implementation of environmental laws are concentrated. The geological processes of
essential to prevent mining from becoming a mineral formation are so slow that the rates
“killer industry”. of replenishment are infinitely small in
comparison to the present rates of
CONSERVATION OF MINERALS consumption. Mineral resources are,
We all appreciate the strong dependence of therefore, finite and non-renewable. Rich
industry and agriculture upon mineral mineral deposits are our country’s extremely
deposits and the substances manufactured valuable but short-lived possessions.
from them. The total volume of workable Continued extraction of ores leads to
mineral deposits is an insignificant fraction increasing costs as mineral extraction comes
i.e. one per cent of the earth’s crust. We are from greater depths along with decrease
rapidly consuming mineral resources that in quality.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 49

Reprint 2025-26
 A concerted effort has to be made in order
to use our mineral resources in a planned
and sustainable manner. Improved
technologies need to be constantly evolved to
allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and
other substitutes are steps in conserving our
mineral resources for the future.

Dig a little deeper: Make a list of items where

substitutes are being used instead of minerals.
Where are these substitutes obtained from?

Energy Resources Fig. 5.9 (a): A view from inside of a coal mine
Energy is required for all activities. It is needed
to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel
vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy can be generated from fuel
minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas,
uranium and from electricity. Energy
resources can be classified as conventional
and non-conventional sources. Conventional
sources include: firewood, cattle dung cake,
coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity
(both hydel and thermal). Non-conventional
sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal,
biogas and atomic energy. Firewood and cattle
dung cake are most common in rural India. Fig. 5.9 (b): A view from outside of a coal mine
According to one estimate more than 70 per
cent energy requirement in rural households time of burial. Decaying plants in swamps
is met by these two ; continuation of these is produce peat. Which has a low carbon and
increasingly becoming dif ficult due to high moisture contents and low heating
decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung capacity. Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
cake too is being discouraged because it which is soft with high moisture content. The
consumes most valuable manure which could principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil
be used in agriculture. Nadu and are used for generation of
electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
Conventional Sources of Energy and subjected to increased temperatures is
Coal: In India, coal is the most abundantly bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal
available fossil fuel. It provides a substantial in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high
part of the nation’s energy needs. It is used grade bituminous coal which has a special
for power generation, to supply energy to value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
industry as well as for domestic needs. India Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.
is highly dependent on coal for meeting its In India coal occurs in rock series of two
commercial energy requirements. main geological ages, namely Gondwana, a
As you are already aware that coal is little over 200 million years in age and in
formed due the compression of plant material tertiary deposits which are only about 55
over millions of years. Coal, therefore, is million years old. The major resources of
found in a variety of forms depending on the Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical coal,
degrees of compression and the depth and are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-

50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas

Collect information about cross country natural gas pipelines laid by GAIL
(India) under “One Nation One Grid”.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 51

Reprint 2025-26
Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are gas distribution (COD) networks, natural gas
important coalfields. The Godavari, is also emerging as a preferred transport fuel
Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also (CNG) and cooking fuel (PNG) at homes. India’s
contain coal deposits. major gas reserves are found in the Mumbai
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern High and allied fields along the west coast
states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal which are supplemented by finds in the
Pradesh and Nagaland. Cambay basin. Along the East Coast, new
Remember coal is a bulky material, which reserves of natural gas have been discovered
loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
Hence, heavy industries and thermal power The first 1,700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-
stations are located on or near the coalfields. Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas pipeline,
constructed by GAIL (India), linked Mumbai
Petroleum
High and Bassein gas fields with various
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in
energy source in India after coal. It provides western and northen India. This artery
fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for provided impetus to Indian gas market
machinery and raw materials for a number of development. Overall, India’s gas infrastructure
manufacturing industries. Petroleum refineries has expanded over ten times from 1,700 km
act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines and
fertiliser and numerous chemical industries. is expected to soon reach over 34, 000 km as
Most of the petroleum occurrences in India Gas Grid by linking all gas sources and
are associated with anticlines and fault traps consuming markets across the country
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In including North Eastern states.
regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it
occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the Electricity
upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous Electricity has such a wide range of
limestone or sandstone through which oil may applications in today’s world that, its percapita
flow. The oil is prevented from rising or consumption is considered as an index of
sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
development. Electricity is generated mainly in
Petroleum is also found in fault traps
two ways: by running water which drives hydro
between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
turbines to generate hydro electricity; and by
being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum
Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are
and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
major petroleum production areas in India.
thermal power. Once generated the electricity
From the map locate the 3 major off shore
is exactly the same.
fields of western India. Ankeleshwar is the
most important field of Gujarat. Assam is the
oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Name some river valley projects and write
Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan are the the names of the dams built on these rivers.
important oil fields in the state.
Natural Gas Hydro electricity is generated by fast
Natural Gas is found with petroleum deposits flowing water, which is a renewable resource.
and is released when crude oil is brought to India has a number of multi-purpose projects
the surface. It can be used as a domestic and like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley
industrial fuel. It is used as fuel in power sector corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.
to generate electricity, for heating purpose in producing hydroelectric power.
industries, as raw material in chemical, Thermal electricity is generated by using
petrochemical and fertilizer industries, as coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal
transport fuel and as cooking fuel. With the power stations use non-renewable fossil fuels
expansion of gas infrastructure and local city for generating electricity.

52 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
Rawat Bhata

India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 53

Reprint 2025-26
Collect infor mation about thermal/hydel
power plants located in your state. Show
them on the map of India.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy
The growing consumption of energy has
resulted in the country becoming increasingly
dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas. Rising prices of oil and gas and their
potential shortages have raised uncertainties
about the security of energy supply in future,
which in turn has serious repercussions on the Fig. 5.10: Solar operated electronic milk
testing equipment
growth of the national economy. Moreover,
increasing use of fossil fuels also causes
serious environmental problems. Hence, there Collect information about newly established
is a pressing need to use renewable energy solar power plants in India.
sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass
Wind power
and energy from waste material. These are
called non-conventional energy sources. India has great potential of wind power. The
India is blessed with an abundance of largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil
sunlight, water, wind and biomass. It has the Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from
largest programmes for the development of these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
these renewable energy resources. Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and
Nuclear or Atomic Energy
Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of
It is obtained by altering the structure of wind energy in the country.
atoms. When such an alteration is made, much
energy is released in the form of heat and this
is used to generate electric power. Uranium and
Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and
the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for
generating atomic or nuclear power. The
Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in
Thorium.
Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find
out the state in which they are located.
Solar Energy Fig. 5.11: Wind mills – Nagarcoil
India is a tropical country. It has enormous
Biogas
possibilities of tapping solar energy.
Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight Shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste
directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast are used to produce biogas for domestic
becoming popular in rural and remote areas. consumption in rural areas. Decomposition
Some big solar power plants are being of organic matter yields gas, which has higher
established in different parts of India which thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene,
will minimise the dependence of rural dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants are
households on firewood and dung cakes, set up at municipal, cooperative and
which in turn will contribute to environmental individual levels. The plants using cattle dung
conservation and adequate supply of manure are known as ‘Gobar gas plants’ in rural India.
in agriculture. These provide twin benefits to the farmer in
the form of energy and improved quality of

54 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
manure. Biogas is by far the most efficient geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures
use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in
manure and also prevents the loss of trees such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and
and manure due to burning of fuel wood becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to
and cow dung cakes. the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This
steam is used to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
There are several hundred hot springs in
India, which could be used to generate
electricity. Two experimental projects have been
set up in India to harness geothermal energy.
One is located in the Parvati valley near
Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and the other
is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conservation of Energy Resources

Energy is a basic requirement for economic
development. Every sector of the national
Fig. 5.12: Biogas Plant economy – agriculture, industry, transport,
commercial and domestic – needs inputs of
Tidal Energy energy. The economic development plans
Oceanic tides can be used to generate implemented since Independence necessarily
electricity. Floodgate dams are built across required increasing amounts of energy to
inlets. During high tide water flows into the remain operational. As a result, consumption
inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. of energy in all forms has been steadily rising
After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the all over the country.
water retained by the floodgate flows back to In this background, there is an urgent need
the sea via a pipe that carries it through a to develop a sustainable path of energy
power-generating turbine. development. Promotion of energy conservation
In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf and increased use of renewable energy sources
of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast are the twin planks of sustainable energy.
and Gangetic delta in Sunderban regions of India is presently one of the least energy
West Bengal provide ideal conditions for efficient countries in the world. We have to
utilising tidal energy. adopt a cautious approach for the judicious
use of our limited energy resources. For
Geo Thermal Energy example, as concerned citizens we can do our
Geo thermal energy refers to the heat and bit by using public transport systems instead
electricity produced by using the heat from of individual vehicles; switching off electricity
the interior of the Earth. Geothermal energy when not in use, using power-saving devices
exists because, the Earth grows progressively and using non-conventional sources of energy.
hotter with increasing depth. Where the After all, “energy saved is energy produced”.

EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following minerals is formed by decomposition of rocks,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material?
(a) coal (b) bauxite (c) gold (d) zinc
(ii) Koderma, in Jharkhand is the leading producer of which one of the following
minerals?
(a) bauxite (b) mica (c) iron ore (d) copper
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 55

Reprint 2025-26
 (iii) Minerals are deposited and accumulated in the stratas of which of the
following rocks?
(a) sedimentary rocks (c) igneous rocks
(b) metamorphic rocks (d) none of the above
(iv) Which one of the following minerals is contained in the Monazite sand?
(a) oil (b) uranium (c) thorium (d) coal
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Distinguish between the following in not more than 30 words.
(a) ferrous and non-ferrous minerals
(b) conventional and non-conventional sources of energy
(ii) What is a mineral?
(iii) How are minerals formed in igneous and metamorphic rocks?
(iv) Why do we need to conserve mineral resources ?
3. Answer the following questions in about 120 words.
(i) Describe the distribution of coal in India.
(ii) Why do you think that solar energy has a bright future in India?

A CTIVITY
Fill the name of the correct mineral in the crossword below:

2 1
M

2
M

4 3
M

4
T

1 5 5
T
6
o

7
y

56 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
ACROSS DOWN
1. A ferrous mineral (9) 1. Found in placer deposit (4)
2. Raw material for cement industry (9) 2. Iron ore mined in Bailadila (8)
3. Finest iron ore with magnetic properties (9) 3. Indispensable for electrical industry (4)
4. Highest quality hard coal (10) 4. Geological Age of coal found in north east
5. Aluminium is obtained from this ore (7) India (8)
6. Khetri mines are famous for this mineral (6) 5. Formed in veins and lodes (3)
7. Formed due to evaporation (6)

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES 57

Reprint 2025-26
 On the occassion of Diwali, Harish went to IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING
a market with his parents. They purchased
Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone
shoes and clothes for him. His mother
of development in general and economic
purchased utensils, sugar, tea and diyas
development in particular mainly because–
(earthen lamps). Harish observed that the
shops in the market were flooded with • Manufacturing industries not only help in
items for sale. He wondered how so many modernising agriculture, which forms the
items could be made in such large backbone of our economy, they also reduce
quantities. His father explained that shoes, the heavy dependence of people on
clothes, sugar etc. are manufactured by agricultural income by providing them jobs
machines in large industries, some utensils in secondary and tertiary sectors.
are manufactured in small industries, while • Industrial development is a precondition for
items like diyas are made by individual eradication of unemployment and poverty
artisans in household industry. from our country. This was the main
philosophy behind public sector industries
Do you have some ideas about these
industries?
and joint sector ventures in India. It was also
aimed at bringing down regional disparities
by establishing industries in tribal and
backward areas.
Production of goods in large quantities after
• Export of manufactured goods expands
processing from raw materials to more
trade and commerce, and brings in much
valuable products is called manufacturing. Do
needed foreign exchange.
you know that paper is manufactured from
wood, sugar from sugarcane, iron and steel • Countries that transform their raw
from iron ore and aluminium from bauxite? materials into a wide variety of finished
Do you also know that some types of clothes goods of higher value are prosperous.
are manufactured from yarn which itself is an India’s prosperity lies in increasing and
industrial product? diversifying its manufacturing industries as
People employed in the secondary activities quickly as possible.
manufacture the primary materials into Agriculture and industry are not exclusive
finished goods. The workers employed in steel of each other. They move hand in hand. For
factories, car, breweries, textile industries, instance, the agro-industries in India have
bakeries etc. fall into this category. Some people given a major boost to agriculture by raising
are employed in providing services. In this its productivity. They depend on the latter for
chapter, we are mainly concerned with raw materials and sell their products such as
manufacturing industries which fall in the irrigation pumps, fertilisers, insecticides,
secondary sector. pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, machines
The economic strength of a country is and tools, etc. to the farmers. Thus,
measured by the development of development and competitiveness of
manufacturing industries.

58 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
manufacturing industry has not only allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit
assisted agriculturists in increasing their has changed over a period of time. At
production but also made the production present the maximum investment allowed
processes very efficient. is rupees one crore.
In the present day world of globalisation,
our industry needs to be more efficient and On the basis of ownership:
competitive. Self-sufficiency alone is not • Public sector, owned and operated by
enough. Our manufactured goods must be government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
at par in quality with those in the • Private sector industries owned and
international market. Only then, will we be operated by individuals or a group of
able to compete in the international market. individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Dabur Industries.
• Joint sector industries which are jointly run
Classification of Industries by the state and individuals or a group of
individuals. Oil India Ltd. (OIL) is jointly
List the various manufactured products you
owned by public and private sector.
use in your daily life such as – transistors,
electric bulbs, vegetable oil, cement, • Cooperative sector industries are owned
glassware, petrol, matches, scooters, and operated by the producers or
automobiles, medicines and so on. If we suppliers of raw materials, workers or
classify the various industries based on a both. They pool in the resources and share
particular criterion then we would be the profits or losses proportionately. Such
able to understand their manufacturing examples are the sugar industry in
better. Industries may be classified as Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
follows:
Based on the bulk and weight of raw material
On the basis of source of raw materials and finished goods:
used: • Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk • Light industries that use light raw
textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, materials and produce light goods such
edible oil. as electrical goods industries.
• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement,
aluminium, machine tools,
petrochemicals.
Classify the following into two groups on the
According to their main role: basis of bulk and weight of raw material and
• Basic or key industries are those which finished goods.
supply their products as raw materials to (i) Oil (vi) Sewing Machines
manufacture other goods e.g. iron and
(ii) Knitting needles (vii) Shipbuilding
steel and copper smelting, aluminum
smelting. (iii) Brassware (viii) Electric Bulbs

• Consumer industries that produce goods (iv) Fuse wires (ix) Paint brushes
for direct use by consumers – sugar, (v) Watches (x) Automobiles
toothpaste, paper, sewing machines,
fans etc.
Agro-based Industries
On the basis of capital investment: Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and
• A small scale industry is defined with edible oil, etc. industries are based on
reference to the maximum investment agricultural raw materials.

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 59

Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 6.1: Value addition in the textile industry

Textile Industry: The textile industry dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and
occupies unique position in the Indian sewing. The industry by creating demands
economy, because it contributes significantly supports many other industries, such as,
to industrial production, employment chemicals and dyes, packaging materials
generation and foreign exchange earnings. It and engineering works.
is the only industry in the country, which is While spinning continues to be centralised
self-reliant and complete in the value chain in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu,
i.e., from raw material to the highest value weaving is highly decentralised to provide
added products. scope for incorporating traditional skills and
designs of weaving in cotton, silk, zari,
Cotton Textiles: In ancient India, cotton embroidery, etc. India has world class
textiles were produced with hand spinning production in spinning, but weaving supplies
and handloom weaving techniques. After low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of
the 18th century, power -looms came into the high quality yarn produced in the country.
use. Our traditional industries suffered a Weaving is done by handloom, powerloom and
setback during the colonial period because in mills.
they could not compete with the mill-made The handspun khadi provides large scale
cloth from England. employment to weavers in their homes as a
cottage industry.

• The first successful textile mill was Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on
established in Mumbai in 1854. spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
• The two world wars were fought in Europe, Why is it important for our country to
India was a British colony. There was a keep the mill sector loomage lower than
demand for cloth in U.K. hence, they gave power loom and handloom?
a boost to the development of the cotton
textile industry. Jute Textiles
India is the largest producer of raw jute and
jute goods and stands at second place as an
In the early years, the cotton textile
exporter after Bangladesh. Most of the mills are
industry was concentrated in the cotton
located in West Bengal, mainly along the banks
growing belt of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
of the Hugli river, in a narrow belt.
Availability of raw cotton, market, transport
including accessible port facilities, labour,
moist climate, etc. contributed towards its The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in
localisation. This industry has close links 1855 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the
with agriculture and provides a living to jute mills remained in India but three-fourth
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and workers of the jute producing area went to
engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).

60 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 61

Reprint 2025-26
 Factors responsible for their location in the Mineral-based Industries
Hugli basin are: proximity of the jute producing Industries that use minerals and metals as raw
areas, inexpensive water transport, supported materials are called mineral-based industries.
by a good network of railways, roadways and Can you name some industries that would fall
waterways to facilitate movement of raw in this category?
material to the mills, abundant water for
processing raw jute, cheap labour from West Iron and Steel Industry
Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha The iron and steel industry is the basic industry
and Uttar Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban since all the other industries — heavy, medium
centre provides banking, insurance and port and light, depend on it for their machinery.
facilities for export of jute goods. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of
engineering goods, construction material,
Sugar Industry
defence, medical, telephonic, scientific
India stands second as a world producer of equipment and a variety of consumer goods.
sugar but occupies the first place in the
production of gur and khandsari. The raw
material used in this industry is bulky, and in Make a list of all such goods made of steel
haulage its sucrose content reduces. The mills that you can think of.
are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Production and consumption of steel is
Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in often regarded as the index of a country’s
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. This industry is development. Iron and steel is a heavy industry
seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the because all the raw materials as well as
cooperative sector. Can you explain why this finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing
is so? heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking
In recent years, there is a tendency for the coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of
mills to shift and concentrate in the southern approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities of
and western states, especially in Maharashtra, manganese, are also required to harden the
This is because the cane produced here has a steel. Where should the steel plants be ideally
higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also located? Remember that the finished products
ensures a longer crushing season. Moreover, also need an efficient transport network for
the cooperatives are more successful in these their distribution to the markets and
states. consumers.
Processes of Manufacture of Steel

Fig. 6.2
62 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: Iron and Steel Plants

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 63

Reprint 2025-26
 Chhotanagpur plateau region has the Aluminium smelting plants in the country
maximum concentration of iron and steel are located in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala,
industries. It is largely, because of the relative Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and
advantages this region has for the development Tamil Nadu.
of this industry. These include, low cost of iron Bauxite, the raw material used in the
ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured
cheap labour and vast growth potential in the rock. The flow chart given below shows the
home market. process of manufacturing aluminium. Regular
supply of electricity and an assured source of
Aluminium Smelting raw material at minimum cost are the two
Aluminium smelting is the second most prime factors for location of the industry.
important metallurgical industry in India. It is
Chemical Industries
light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of
heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is The Chemical industry in India is fast growing
mixed with other metals. It is used to and diversifying. It comprises both large and
manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires. It has small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth
gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, has been recorded in both inorganic and
zinc and lead in a number of industries. organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals include
sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilizers,
synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints,
dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used
to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper)
and caustic soda. These industries are widely
spread over the country.
Why do you think it is so?
Organic chemicals include petrochemicals,
which are used for manufacturing of synthetic
fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs,
Fig. 6.3: Strip coasting mill at smelter of NALCO drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical

Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.5
64 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
plants are located near oil refineries or Automobile Industry
petrochemical plants. Automobiles provide vehicle for quick
The chemical industry is its own largest transport of good services and passengers.
consumer. Basic chemicals undergo processing Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters,
to further produce other chemicals that are three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are
used for industrial application, agriculture or manufactured in India at various centres. After
directly for consumer markets. Make a list of the liberalisation, the coming in of new and
the products you are aware of. contemporary models stimulated the demand
Fertilizer Industry for vehicles in the market, which led to the
healthy growth of the industry including
The fertilizer industry is centred around the
passenger cars, two and three-wheelers. The
production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly
industry is located around Delhi, Gurugram,
urea), phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium
Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow,
phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which
Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and
have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate
Bengaluru.
(P), and potash (K). The third, i.e. potash is
entirely imported as the country does not have Information Technology and
any reserves of commercially usable potash or Electronics Industry
potassium compounds in any form. The electronics industry covers a wide range
After the Green Revolution the industry of products from transistor sets to television,
expanded to several other parts of the country. telephones, cellular telecom, telephone
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and exchange, radars, computers and many
Kerala contribute towards half of the fertilizer other equipments required by the
production. Other significant producers are telecommunication industry. Bengaluru has
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Bihar, emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other
Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa, Delhi, important centres for electronic goods are
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai,
Cement Industry Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore. The major
industry concentration is at Bengaluru, Noida,
Cement is essential for construction activity
Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune. A
such as building houses, factories, bridges,
major impact of this industry has been on
roads, airports, dams and for other commercial
employment generation. The continuing
establishments. This industry requires bulky
growth in the hardware and software is the key
and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica
to the success of IT industry in India.
and gypsum. Coal and electric power are
needed apart from rail transportation.

Where would it be economically viable to

set up the cement manufacturing units?

The industry has strategically located

plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to
the market in the Gulf countries.

Find out where the plants are located in other

States of India. Find their names.

The first cement plant was set-up in Fig. 6.6: Cable manufacturing facilities at HCL,
Chennai in 1904. After Independence the Rupnarainpur (West Bengal)
industry expanded.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 65

Reprint 2025-26
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Dumping of wastes specially glass, harmful
Degradation chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging, salts
Although industries contribute significantly to and garbage renders the soil useless. Rain
India’s economic growth and development, the water percolates to the soil carrying the
increase in pollution of land, water, air, noise pollutants to the ground and the ground water
and resulting degradation of environment that also gets contaminated.
they have caused, cannot be overlooked. Noise pollution not only results in irritation
Industries are responsible for four types of and anger, it can also cause hearing
pollution: (a) Air (b) Water (c) Land (d) Noise. impairment, increased heart rate and blood
The polluting industries also include thermal pressure among other physiological effects.
power plants. Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of
Air pollution is caused by the presence of high stress. Industrial and construction activities,
proportion of undesirable gases, such as machinery, factory equipment, generators,
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Air- saws and pneumatic and electric drills also
borne particulate materials contain both solid make a lot of noise.
and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and Control of Environmental Degradation
smoke. Smoke is emitted by chemical and
paper factories, brick kilns, refineries and Every litre of waste water discharged by our
smelting plants, and burning of fossil fuels in industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
big and small factories that ignore pollution freshwater. How can the industrial pollution of
norms. Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions are-
with long-term effects. Are you aware of the (i) minimising use water for processing by
Bhopal Gas tragedy that occurred? Air reusing and recycling it in two or more
pollution adversely affects human health, successive stages
animals, plants, buildings and the atmosphere (ii) harvesting of rainwater to meet water
as a whole. requirements
Water pollution is caused by organic and (iii) treating hot water and effluents before
inorganic industrial wastes and affluents releasing them in rivers and ponds.
discharged into rivers. The main culprits in this Treatment of industrial effluents can be
regard are paper, pulp, chemical, textile and done in three phases
dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries and (a) Primary treatment by mechanical means.
electroplating industries that let out dyes, This involves screening, grinding,
detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like flocculation and sedimentation.
lead and mercury pesticides, fertilisers,
(b) Secondary treatment by biological process
synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and
rubber, etc. into the water bodies. Fly ash, (c) Tertiary treatment by biological,
phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are chemical and physical processes. This
the major solid wastes in India. involves recycling of wastewater.
Overdrawing of ground water reserves by
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot
industry where there is a threat to ground
water from factories and thermal plants is
water resources also needs to be regulated
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
legally. Particulate matter in the air can be
What would be the effect on aquatic life?
reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories
Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear
with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters,
and weapon production facilities cause
scrubbers and inertial separators. Smoke
cancers, birth defects and miscarriages. Soil
and water pollution are closely related. can be reduced by using oil or gas instead

66 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: Some Software Technology Parks

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 67

Reprint 2025-26
of coal in factories. Machinery and (a) Optimum utilisation of equipment
equipment can be used and generators adopting latest techniques and
should be fitted with silencers. Almost all upgrading existing equipment.
machinery can be redesigned to increase (b) Minimising waste generation by
energy efficiency and reduce noise. Noise maximising ash utilisation.
absorbing material may be used apart from
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing
personal use of earplugs and earphones.
ecological balance and addressing the
The challenge of sustainable development
question of special purpose vehicles for
requires integration of economic development
with environmental concerns. afforestation.
(d) Reducing environmental pollution
through ash pond management, ash
water recycling system and liquid waste
management.
(e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and
on-line database management for all
its power stations.

Fig. 6.7: Sewage Treatment plant under Yamuna

action plan at Faridabad

NTPC shows the way

NTPC is a major power providing corporation
in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
The corporation has a proactive approach
for preserving the natural environment and
resources like water, oil and gas and fuels
in places where it is setting up power plants.
Fig. 6.8: Ramagundam plant
This has been possible through-

EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following industries uses bauxite as a raw material?
(a) Aluminium Smelting (b) Cement (c) Paper (d) Steel
(ii) Which one of the following industries manufactures telephones, computer, etc.
(a) Steel (c) Aluminium Smelting
(b) Electronic (d) Information Technology

2. Answer the following briefly in not more than 30 words.

(i) What is manufacturing?
(ii) What are basic industries? Give an example.

68 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
3. Write the answers of the following questions in 120 words.
(i) How do industries pollute the environment?
(ii) Discuss the steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation
by industry?

ACTIVITY
Give one word for each of the following with regard to industry. The number of
letters in each word are hinted in brackets.
(i) Used to drive machinery (5) P...........................
(ii) People who work in a factory (6) W..........................
(iii) Where the product is sold (6) M..........................
(iv) A person who sells goods (8) R...........................
(v) Thing produced (7) P...........................
(vi) To make or produce (11) M..........................
(vii) Land, Water and Air degraded (9) P...........................

PROJECT WORK
Select one agro-based and one mineral-based industry in your area.
(i) What are the raw materials they use?
(ii) What are the other inputs in the process of manufacturing that involve
transportation cost?
(iii) Are these factories following environmental norms?

ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.
1. Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2. The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3. This fibre is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
4. Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.
5. A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 69

Reprint 2025-26
 ACTIVITY
Solve the puzzle by following your search horizontally and vertically to find the hidden
answers.

G G G P V A R A N A S I

U O J I P G X K M Q W V

K S U G A R C A N E E N

O T T O N O Z V O P T R

A U E L U B H I L A I U

T K O C R A Q N T R L N

E I R O N S T E E L S J

E N A N O E P I T L R Y

G A N U J D R A G D T A

N T A R P O A P U E P Y

A S N A E N J D I Y S K

S M H V L I A J H S K G

1. Textiles, sugar, vegetable oil and plantation industries deriving raw materials
from agriculture are called…
2. The basic raw material for sugar industry.
3. This fibre is also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
4. Iron-ore, coking coal, and limestone are the chief raw materials of this industry.
5. A public sector steel plant located in Chhattisgarh.
6. Railway diesel engines are manufactured in Uttar Pradesh at this place.

70 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
We use different materials and services in our the help of equally developed communication
daily life. Some of these are available in our system. Therefore, transport, communication
immediate surroundings, while other and trade are complementary to each other.
requirements are met by bringing things from Today, India is well-linked with the rest of
other places. Goods and services do not move the world despite its vast size, diversity and
from supply locales to demand locales on their linguistic and socio-cultural plurality.
own. The movement of these goods and services Railways, airways, waterways, newspapers,
from their supply locations to demand locations radio, television, cinema and internet, etc. have
necessitates the need for transport. Some people been contributing to its socio-economic
are engaged in facilitating these movements. progress in many ways. The trades from local
These are known to be traders who make the to international levels have added to the vitality
products come to the consumers by of its economy. It has enriched our life and
transportation. Thus, the pace of development added substantially to growing amenities and
of a country depends upon the production of facilities for the comforts of life.
goods and services as well as their movement In this chapter, you will see how modern
over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport means of transport and communication serve
are prerequisites for fast development. as lifelines of our nation and its modern
Movement of these goods and services can be economy. It is thus, evident that a dense and
over three important domains of our earth i.e. land, efficient network of transport and
water and air. Based on these, transport can also communication is a prerequisite for local,
be classified into land, water and air transport. national and global trade of today.

Fig. 7.1

For a long time, trade and transport were TRANSPORT

restricted to a limited space. With the
development in science and technology, the Roadways
area of influence of trade and transport India has second largest road networks in the
expanded far and wide. Today, the world has world, aggregating to about 62.16 lakh km
been converted into a large village with the help (2020–21). In India, roadways have preceded
of efficient and fast moving transport. railways. They still have an edge over railways
Transport has been able to achieve this with in view of the ease with which they can be built

Reprint 2025-26
and maintained. The growing importance of
road transport vis-à-vis rail transport is
rooted in the following reasons; (a)
construction cost of roads is much lower
than that of railway lines, (b) roads can
traverse comparatively more dissected and
undulating topography, (c) roads can
negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as
such can traverse mountains such as the
Himalayas, (d) road transport is economical
in transportation of f e w p e r s o n s a n d
relatively smaller amount of goods over
short distances, (e) it also provides door -
to-door service, thus the cost of loading
and unloading is much lower, (f) road
transport is also used as a feeder to other
modes of transport such as they provide a Fig.7.2: Ahmedabad- Vadodara Expressway
link between railway stations, air and
sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the Collect information of National Highway
following six classes according to their numbers (old and new) from the website
capacity. Look at the map of the National morth.nic.in/national-highway-details. The
Highways and find out about the significant historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg between
role played by these roads. Delhi and Amritsar is known by which
National Highway ?
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
The government has launched a major
road development project linking Delhi- • District Roads: These roads connect the
Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by district headquarters with other places of
six-lane Super Highways. The North- the district.
South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu • Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural
& Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil areas and villages with towns, are classified
N a d u ) , a n d E a s t - We s t C o r r i d o r under this category. These roads received
connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
(Gujarat) are part of this project. The Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
major objective of these Super Highways special provisions are made so that every
is to reduce the time and distance village in the country is linked to a major
between the mega cities of India. These town in the country by an all season
highway projects are being implemented motorable road.
by the National Highway Authority of
• Border Roads: Apart from these, Border
India (NHAI).
Roads Organisation a Government of India
• National Highways: National Highways undertaking constructs and maintains
link extreme parts of the country. These roads in the bordering areas of the
are the primary road systems. A number country. This organisation was established
of major National Highways run in North- in 1960 for the development of the roads
South and East-West directions. of strategic importance in the northern and
• State Highways: Roads linking a state north-eastern border areas. These roads
capital with different district headquarters have improved accessibility in areas of
are known as State Highways. difficult terrain and have helped in the
economic development of these area.
72 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
India: National Highways

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 73

Reprint 2025-26
 Railways
Railways are the principal mode of
The World’s longest Highway tunnel-Atal
transportation for freight and passengers
Tunnel (9.02 Km) has been built by Border in India. Railways also make it possible for
Road Organisation. This tunnel connects people to conduct multifarious activities
Manali to Lahul-Spiti valley throughout the like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
year. Earlier the valley was cut off for about along with transportation of goods over
6 months each year owing to heavy snowfall. longer distances. Apart from an important
The tunnel is buit with ultra-modern means of transport the Indian Railways
specifications in the Pir Panjal range of have been a great integrating force for more
Himalayas at an altitude of 3000 metres than 150 years. Railways in India bind the
from the Mean Sea Level (MSL). economic life of the country as well as
Source: http://www.bro.gov.in/pagefimg. accelerate the development of the industry
asp?imid=144,And PIBdelhi03October2020 and agriculture.

The Indian Railways is the largest public

sector undertaking in the country. The first
train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in
1853, covering a distance of 34 km.

The Indian Railway is now reorganised into

17 zones.

Find out the current Railway zones and their

headquarters. Also locate the headquarters
of Railway zones on the map of India.
Fig. 7.3: Hilly Tracts

The distribution pattern of the Railway

network in the country has been largely
influenced by physiographic, economic and
administrative factors. The northern plains with
their vast level land, high population density
and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their growth. However,
a large number of rivers requiring construction
of bridges across their wide beds posed some
obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular
region, railway tracts are laid through low hills,
Fig. 7.4: Traffic on north-eastern border road gaps or tunnels. The Himalayan mountainous
(Arunachal Pradesh)
regions too are unfavourable for the construction
Roads can also be classified on the basis of of railway lines due to high relief, sparse
the type of material used for their construction population and lack of economic opportunities.
such as metalled and unmetalled roads. Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on
Metalled roads may be made of cement, the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps
concrete or even bitumen of coal, therefore, of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh,
these are all weather roads. Unmetalled roads Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand. The
go out of use in the rainy season. contiguous stretch of Sahyadri could be crossed

74 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Table 7.1: India: Railway Track
The Indian Railway network runs on multiple gauge operations extending over 67,956 km.

Gauge in metres Route (Km)

Broad Gauge (1.676) 63950
Metre Gauge (1.000) 2,402
Narrow Gauge (0.762 and 0.610) 1,604

Total 67,956

Source: Railway Yearbook 2019–20, Ministry of Railways, Government of India.

Website: www.indianrailways.gov.in
only through gaps or passes (Ghats). In recent • From oil field in upper Assam to Kanpur
times, the development of the Konkan railway (Uttar Pradesh), via Guwahati, Barauni and
along the west coast has facilitated the movement Prayagraj. It has branches from Barauni to
of passengers and goods in this most important Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to
economic region of India. It has also faced a Maurigram and Guwahati to Siliguri.
number of problem such as sinking of track in • From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in
some stretches and landslides. Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Today, the railways have become more Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali
important in our national economy than all (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and
other means of transport put together. However, other places.
rail transport suffers from certain problems as • The first 1,700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-
well. Many passengers travel without tickets. Jagdishpur (HVJ) cross country gas
Thefts and damaging of railway property has pipeline, linked Mumbai High and Bassein
not yet stopped completely. People stop the gas fields with various ferilizer, power and
trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this industrial complexes in western and
causes heavy damage to the railway. Think over northern India. Overall, India’s gas pipeline
it, how we can help our railway in running as infrastructure has expanded from 1,700 km
per the scheduled time? to 18,500 km of cross-country pipelines.

Pipelines Waterways
Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on Since the ancient period, India was one of the
seafaring countries. Its seamen sailed far and
the transportation map of India. In the past,
near, thus, carrying and spreading Indian
these were used to transport water to cities and
commerce and culture. Waterways are the
industries. Now, these are used for transporting
cheapest means of transport. They are most
crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. It
from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode
fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants. of transport. India has inland navigation
Solids can also be transported through a waterways of 14,500 km in length. In order to
pipeline when converted into slurry. The far create wide waterways network and to promote
inland locations of refineries like Barauni, inland water transport in the country as an
Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants economical environment friendly
could be thought of only because of pipelines. supplementary mode of transport to rail and
Initial cost of laying pipelines is high but road, 111 inland waterways (including 5
subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules National Waterways declared earlier) were
out trans-shipment losses or delays. declared as National Waterways (NWs) by the
There are three important networks of National Waterways Act, 2016. (Source: Annual
pipeline transportation in the country. Report, Ministry of Ports, Shipping &
Waterways, Government of India, 2022-23).
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 75

Reprint 2025-26
 Activity
Railway line has been extended from Banihal to Baramula in the Kashmir Valley. Locate these
two towns on the map of India.
76 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 Deendayal Port, is a tidal port. It caters to
the convenient handling of exports and imports
of highly productive granary and industrial
belt stretching across UT of Jammu and
Kashmir, and the states of Himachal Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Fig. 7.5: Inland waterways widely used in

north-eastern states

• The Ganga river between Prayagraj and

Haldia (1620 km)-N.W. No.1
• The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and
Dhubri (891 km)-N.W. No.2
• The West-Coast Canal in Kerala Fig. 7.6: Trucks being driven into the vessel at
(Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Mumbai port
Champakkara canals-205 km) – N.W. No.3
Mumbai is the biggest port with a
• Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna
spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry
The Jawaharlal Nehru port was planned with
stretch of canals (1078 km) – N.W. No.4
• Specified stretches of river Brahmani along a view to decongest the Mumbai port and
with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi serve as a hub port for this region. Mormugao
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting
(588 km) – N.W. No.5 port of the country. This port accounts for
There are some other inland water ways about fifty per cent of India’s iron ore export.
on which substantial transportation takes New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka
place. These are Mandavi, Zuari and caters to the export of iron ore concentrates
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and from Kudremukh mines. Cochin is the
backwaters of Kerala. extreme south-western port, located at the
Apart from these, India’s trade with foreign entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.
countries is carried from the ports located along
the coast. 95 per cent of the country’s trade
volume (68 per cent in terms of value) is moved
by sea.
Major Sea Ports
With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is
dotted with 12 major and 200 notified non-
majors (minor/intermediate) ports. These Fig. 7.7: Tanker discharging crude oil at New
major ports handle 95 per cent of India’s Mangalore port
foreign trade.
Moving along the east coast, you would
Deendayal Port (Kandla) in Kuchchh was
see the extreme south-eastern port of V.O.
the first port developed soon after
Chidambaranar (Tuticorin), in Tamil Nadu.
Independence to ease the volume of trade on
This port has a natural harbour and rich
the Mumbai port, in the wake of loss of
hinterland. Thus, it has a flourishing trade
Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.
handling of a large variety of cargoes to even
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 77

Reprint 2025-26
our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, great ease. Think of the north-eastern part of
Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India. the country, marked with the presence of big
Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of rivers, dissected relief, dense forests and
the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in frequent floods and international frontiers,
terms of the volume of trade and cargo. etc. in the absence of air transport. Air travel
Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked has made access easier.
and well-protected port. This port was, Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. provides
originally, conceived as an outlet for iron ore helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas
exports. Paradwip port located in Odisha, Corporation in its off-shore operations, to
specialises in the export of iron ore. Shyama inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the
Prasad Mookerjee, Kolkata is an inland
north-eastern states and the interior parts of
riverine port. This port serves a very large
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh
and rich hinterland of Ganga- Brahmaputra
basin. Being a tidal port, it requires constant and Uttarakhand.
dredging of Hoogly. Haldia port was developed
as a subsidiary port, in order to relieve UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik) is a first-
growing pressure on the Kolkata port. of-its kind scheme globally, designed to
jump-start the regional aviation market.
Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) – UDAN
was conceived by the Ministry of Civil
Aviation (MoCA), Government of India, to
promote regional connectivity by making
fly affordable for the common citizen. The
central idea of the scheme is to encourage
airlines to operate flights on regional and
remote routes through enabling policies and
extending incentives.
Fig. 7.8: Handling of oversize cargo at
V.O. Chidambaranar (Tuticorin) port Communication
A irways Ever since humans appeared on the earth,
The air travel, today, is the fastest, most they have used dif ferent means of
comfortable and prestigious mode of communication. But, the pace of change, has
been rapid in modern times. Long distance
communication is far easier without physical
movement of the communicator or receiver.
Personal communication and mass
communication including television, radio,
press, films, etc. are the major means of
communication in the country. The Indian
postal network is the largest in the world. It
handles parcels as well as personal written
communications. Cards and envelopes are
considered first-class mail and are airlifted
between stations covering both land and air.
The second-class mail includes book packets,
registered newspapers and periodicals. They
Why is air travel prefered in the north-eastern are carried by surface mail, covering land and
states? water transport. To facilitate quick delivery
Fig. 7.9
of mails in large towns and cities, six mail
channels have been introduced recently. They
transport. It can cover very difficult terrains are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel,
like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk Mail
forests and also long oceanic stretches with Channel and Periodical Channel.
78 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 India: Major Ports and Some International Airports
(Source: Annual Report, 2023–24, Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, Govt. of India.)

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 79

Reprint 2025-26
 of India, is one of the largest terrestrial
networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety
Digital India is an umbrella programme
of programmes from entertainment,
to prepare India for a knowledge based
transformation. The focus of Digital India educational to sports, etc. for people of different
Programme is on being transformative to age groups.
realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information India publishes a large number of
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is newspapers and periodicals annually. They
on making technology central to enabling are of different types depending upon their
change. periodicity. Newspapers are published in
about 100 languages and dialects. Did you
know that the largest number of newspapers
published in the country are in Hindi, followed
by English and Urdu? India is the largest
producer of feature films in the world. It
produces short films; video feature films and
video short films. The Central Board of Film
Certification is the authority to certify both
Indian and foreign films.

International Trade
The exchange of goods among people, states
and countries is referred to as trade. The
Fig.7.10 : Emergency call box on NH-48 market is the place where such exchanges
take place. Trade between two countries is
India has one of the largest telecom called international trade. It may take place
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places more through sea, air or land routes. While local
than two-thirds of the villages in India have trade is carried in cities, towns and villages,
already been covered with Subscriber Trunk state level trade is carried between two or more
Dialling (STD) telephone facility. In order to states. Advancement of international trade of
strengthen the flow of information from the a country is an index to its economic
grassroot to the higher level, the government prosperity. It is, therefore, considered the
has made special provision to extend twenty- economic barometer for a country.
four hours STD facility to every village in the As the resources are space bound, no
country. There is a uniform rate of STD country can survive without international
facilities all over India. It has trade. Export and import are the components
been made possible by integrating the of trade. The balance of trade of a country is
development in space technology with the difference between its export and import.
communication technology. When the value of export exceeds the value
Mass communication provides of imports, it is called a favourable balance
entertainment and creates awareness among of trade. On the contrary, if the value of
people about various national programmes imports exceeds the value of exports, it is
and policies. It includes radio, television, termed as unfavourable balance of trade.
newspapers, magazines, books and films. All India has trade relations with all the major
India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety trading blocks and all geographical regions
of programmes in national, regional and local of the world. The commodities exported from
languages for various categories of people, India to other countries include gems and
spread over different parts of the country. jewellery, chemicals and related products,
Doordarshan, the national television channel agriculture and allied products, etc.

80 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
 The commodities imported to India understanding about our culture and heritage.
include petroleum crude and products, Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism,
gems and jewellery, chemicals and related eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural
products, base metals, electronic items, tourism, medical tourism and business
machinery, agriculture and allied products. tourism.
India has emerged as a software giant at the There is a vast potential for development
international level and it is earning large
of tourism in all parts of the country. Efforts
foreign exchange through the export of
are being made to promote different types of
information technology.
tourism for this upcoming industry.
Tourism as a Trade
Tourism in India has grown remarkably over
the past two decades, with government On the map of India show important tourist
places of your State/UT and its connectivity
initiatives, infrastructure development, and
with other parts of the country by railways/
global branding contributing to this success.
roadways/airways.
To boost tourism in India, schemes like
Discuss in the class:
Swadesh Darshan 2.0, Vibrant Village
• What type of tourism may be developed in
Programme, PRASHAD (Pilgrimage
your state/UT and why?
Rejuvenation and Spiritual Heritage
• Which areas in your state/UT you find more
Augmentation Drive), Paryatan Mitra, etc. have attractive for development of tourism and why?
been started. Tourism also promotes national • How tourism may be helpful for the economic
integration, provides support to local development of a region adopting sustainable
handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It also helps development approach?
in the development of international

Prepare a project on the heritage tourism in India.

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 81

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES EXERCISES

1 . Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which two of the following extreme locations are connected by the east-
west corridor?
(a) Mumbai and Nagpur (c) Mumbai and Kolkata
(b) Silchar and Porbandar (d) Nagpur and Siligudi
(ii) Which mode of transportation reduces trans-shipment losses and delays?
(a) Railways (c) Pipeline
(b) Roadways (d) Waterways
(iii) Which one of the following states is not connected with the H.V.J. pipeline?
(a) Madhya Pradesh (c) Gujarat
(b) Maharashtra (d) Uttar Pradesh
(iv) Which one of the following ports is the deepest land-locked and well-
protected port along the east coast?
(a) Chennai (c) V.O. Chidambaranar (Tuticorin)
(b) Paradwip (d) Vishakhapatnam
(v) Which one of the following is the most important modes of transportation
in India?
(a) Pipeline (c) Roadways
(b) Railways (d) Airways
(vi) Which one of the following terms is used to describe trade between two or
more countries?
(a) Internal trade (c) External trade
(b) International trade (d) Local trade
2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) State any three merits of roadways.
(ii) Where and why is rail transport the most convenient means of
transportation?
(iii) What is the significance of the border roads?
(iv) What is meant by trade? What is the difference between international
and local trade?
3 . Answer the following questions in about 120 words.
(i) Why are the means of transportation and communication called the
lifelines of a nation and its economy?
(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade in the last
fifteen years.

QUIZ DRIVE
1 . Northern terminal of the North-south corridor.
2 . The headquarter of the southern railway zone.
3 . The rail gauge with a track width of 1.676 m.
4 . A Riverine Port.
5 . Busiest railway junction in Northern India.

82 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II

Reprint 2025-26
ACTIVITY
Start your search vertically, horizontally or diagonally and reach various
destinations across the country!

S H E R S H A H S U R I M A R G

A R T P R N X E L A T A D L A Y

J M M X I P O R A Y M P G H T X

Y C H E N N N A I I K M C A I M

O D C D A L M C S O T P O R C P

A P T R G S K J M J L E A N E R

R A E T A J P O R M W M A S X O

I L S B R O A D G A U G E L O T

A S N L C M E C U K Z M A A J E

L M U G H A L S A R A I B S N A

G O E T V R A Y F T O R E A J M

K Q A I P M N Y R Y A Y H L I N

Q K O L K A T A E U I T W B E A

N I T N K D E M O U R P N P J D

LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY 83

Reprint 2025-26
 Social Science
India and the Contemporary World – II
Textbook in History for Class X

Reprint 2025-26
1066 – INDIA AND THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD – II ISBN 81-7450-707-8
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
March 2007 Chaitra 1928
q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
Reprinted transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
January 2008 Pausa 1929 recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

January 2009 Magha 1930 q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent,
re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any
January 2010 Magha 1931 form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
January 2011 Magha 1932 q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised
January 2012 Magha 1933 price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect
and should be unacceptable.
November 2012 Kartika 1934
November 2013 Kartika 1935
December 2014 Pausha 1936 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
February 2016 Magha 1937 DIVISION, NCERT
December 2016 Pausa 1938 NCERT Campus
December 2017 Pausa 1939 Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
February 2019 Magha 1940
108, 100 Feet Road
August 2019 Shravana 1941 Hosdakere Halli Extension
January 2021 Pausa 1942 Banashankari III Stage
Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740
November 2021 Agrahayana 1943
October 2022 Kartika 1944 Navjivan Trust Building
P.O.Navjivan
March 2024 Chaitra 1946 Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
June 2024 Jyaishtha 1946
CWC Campus
December 2024 Agrahayana 1946 Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454
PD 200T BS
CWC Complex
Maligaon
© National Council of Educational Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869
Research and Training, 2007

Publication Team
Head, Publication : M.V Srinivasan
Division

Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar

Chief Production : Jahan Lal

Officer (In charge)

` 105.00 Chief Business Manager : Amitabh Kumar

Assistant Production : Deepak Kumar

Officer
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Cover and Layout
Published at the Publication Division by Parthiv Shah assisted by Shraboni Roy
the Secretary, National Council of and Shivraj Patra
Educational Research and Training,
Cartography
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016
K. Varghese
and printed at Kalyan Enterprises D-20
Sect. B-3 Tronica City Indl. Area, Loni
Ghaziabad (UP)

Reprint 2025-26
Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks
developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea.
They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries
between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National
Policy on Education (1986).

The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue
imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and
freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed
on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination
is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as
participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.

These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar
so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods
used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves
for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by
restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for
child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation
and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on
experience.

NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the Advisory Group
on Social Science, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor Neeladri Bhattacharya for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their
principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources,
material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National

Reprint 2025-26
 Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G. P. Deshpande, for
their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic
reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT
welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

iv
Reprint 2025-26
Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE FOR
THE SECONDARY STAGE

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata

C HIEF ADVISOR
Neeladri Bhattacharya, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

Members

Brij Tankha, Professor, Department of East Asian Studies, University of Delhi

G. Balachandran, Professor, Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva
Janaki Nair, Professor, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata
Monica Juneja, Professor, Maria-Goeppert-Mayer Guest Professor, Historisches Seminar,
University of Hanover, Germany
P.K. Dutta, Professor, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata
Rashmi Paliwal, Eklavya, Hoshangabad
Rekha Krishnan, Head of Senior School, Vasant Valley School, New Delhi
Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Shukla Sanyal, Reader, Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata
Tanika Sarkar, Professor, Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi
Udaya Kumar, Professor, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata

MEMBER-C OORDINATOR
Kiran Devendra, Professor, Department of Elementary Education, NCERT,
New Delhi

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
Acknowledgements

This book is the result of a collective effort of a large number of historians, teachers and
educationists. Each chapter has been written, discussed and revised over many months. We
would like to acknowledge all those who have participated in these discussions.
A large number of people have read chapters of the book and provided support. We
thank in particular the members of the Monitoring Committee who commented on an
earlier draft ; Kumkum Roy suggested many changes in the text; G. Arunima, Gautam
Bhadra, Supriya Chaudhuri, Jayanti Chattopadhyay, Sangeetha Raj, Sambuddha Sen,
Lakshmi Subramaniam, A.R. Venkatachalapathy, T.R. Ramesh Bairy, C.S. Venkiteswaran
and Sahana helped with Chapter VIII. Purushottam Agarwal helped write the sections
on the Hindi novel. Ngun Quoc Anh translated Vietnamese texts for Chapter III.
Illustrating the book would have been impossible without the help of many institutions
and individuals: the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division; Rabindra
Bhawan Photo Archives, Viswabharati University, Shantiniketan; Photo Archives,
American Embassy, New Delhi; Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi ; National Manuscript Mission Library, New Delhi ; Centre for Studies in
Social Sciences, Kolkata; Ashutosh Collection of the National Library, Kolkata;
Roja Muthaiah Research Library Trust, Chennai; India Collection, India International
Centre; Archives of Indian Labour, V.V. Giri National Institute of Labour, New Delhi;
Photo Archives, University of West Indies, Trinidad. Jyotindra and Juta Jain allowed
generous access to their vast collection of visual images now stored at the CIVIC Archives;
Parthiv Shah provided several photographs from his collection. Prabhu Mohapatra
supplied visuals of indentured labourers; Muzaffar Alam procured material from the
Library of Chicago; Pratik Chakrabarty scanned images from the Kent University
Library; Anish Vanaik and Parth Shil did photo research in New Delhi.
Shalini Advani did many rounds of editing with care and ensured that the texts were
accessible to children. Shyama Warner’s sharp eye picked up innumerable slips and lapses
in the text. We thank them both for their total involvement in the project.
We have made every effort to acknowledge credits , but we apologise in advance for any
omission that may have inadvertently taken place.

Reprint 2025-26
Credits

Photographs and pictures

We would like to acknowledge the following:

Institutions and Photo Archives

Archives of Indian Labour, V.V. Giri National Institute of Labour (IV: 18, 19)
Ashutosh Collection of the National Library, Kolkata
Collection Jyotindra and Juta Jain, Civic Archives (II: 11, 13, 14; IV: 25, 26a,
26b, 27; V: 17)
Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA), Cheongju Early Printing Museum, Republic of Korea
(V: 2b, 4b)
Library of Congress Prints and Photography Division (III: 20; V: 40)
Manuscript Mission Collection (V: 14, 15, 16)
Photo Archive, American Library, New Delhi (III: 21, 23)
Photo Archives, University of West Indies, Trinidad (III: 14, 15, 16)
Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (images for
Chapter II photographs)
Roja Muthaiah Research Library Trust, Chennai

Journals
The Illustrated London News (III: 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13; IV: 4, 5, 6, 8, 12)
Illustrated Times (IV: 12)
Indian Charivari (V: 18)
Graphic: (III: 13)

Books
Breman, Jan and Parthiv Shah, Working the Mill No More (IV: 21)
Chaudhuri, K.N., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (map in Chapter III)
Dwivedi, Sharda and Rahul Mehrotra, Bombay: The City Within (II: 1)
Goswami, B.N., The Word is Sacred; Sacred is the Word (V: 14, 15, 16)
Ruhe, Peter, Gandhi (II: 2, 3, 5, 8)

Reprint 2025-26
Introduction

We live in a world where the existence of nations is taken for granted. We see people as
belonging to nations and having a nationality, and we assume that this sense of belonging
has existed from time immemorial. We consider countries as the same as nations, and use
the two terms as synonyms, making little distinction between them. We think of countries
as unified entities, each with a demarcated international boundary, a defined territory, a
national language, and a central government.
Yet if we were to travel in a time capsule to the mid-eighteenth century and look for nations
as we know them today, we would not find them. If we were to ask people about their
nationality, about their national identity, they would not understand our questions. For at that
time, nations did not exist in their modern form. People lived within kingdoms, small states,
principalities, chiefdoms and duchies, not within nations. As Eric Hobsbawm, a famous historian,
once said, the most remarkable fact about the modern nation is its modernity. The history of
its existence is no more than 250 years old.
How did the modern nation come into being? How did people begin to see themselves as
belonging to a nation?
The sense of belonging to a nation developed only over a period of time. The first two
chapters (in Section I) of this book will trace this history. You will see how the idea of nationalism
emerged in Europe, how territories were unified, and national governments formed. It was a
process that took many decades, involved many wars and revolutions, many ideological battles
and political conflicts. From a discussion of Europe (Chapter I) we will shift our focus to the
growth of nationalism in India (Chapter II), where nationalism was shaped by the experience
of colonialism and the anti-imperialist movement. It will help you understand how nationalism
in colonial countries can develop in a variety of ways, glorify contrasting ideals, and be linked
to different modes of struggle.
The story of nationalism in these chapters will move at several levels. You will of course read
about great leaders like Giuseppe Mazzini and Mahatma Gandhi. But we cannot understand
nationalism only by knowing about the words and deeds of important leaders, and the big
and dramatic events they led and participated in. We have to also look at the aspirations and
activities of ordinary people, see how nationalism is expressed in small events of everyday life,
and shaped by a variety of seemingly dissimilar and unrelated social movements. To understand
how nationalism spreads, we need to know not only what the leaders said, but also how their
words were understood and interpreted by people. If we are to think about how people
begin to identify with a nation, we must see not only the political events that are critical to the
process, but also how nationalist sensibilities are nurtured by artists and writers, and through
art and literature, songs and tales.
In Section II, we will shift our focus to economies and livelihoods. Last year you read about
those social groups — pastoralists and forest dwellers — who are often seen as survivors
from past times when in fact they are very much part of the modern world we live in. This
year we will focus on developments that are seen as symbolising modernity – globalisation
and industrialisation – and see the many sides of the history of these developments.
In Chapter III you will see how the global world has emerged out of a long and complicated
history. From ancient times, pilgrims, traders, travelers have traversed distances, carrying goods,
information and skills, linking societies in ways that often had contradictory consequences.

Reprint 2025-26
 Items of food and species of plants spread from one region to another, transferring
information and taste, as well as disease and death. As Western powers carried the flag of
‘civilisation’ deep into different parts of Africa, precious metals and slaves were taken
away to Europe and America. When coffee and sugar were grown in the Caribbean
plantations for the world market, an oppressive system of indentured labour came into
being in India and China to supply workers for the plantations.
Section III will introduce you to the history of print culture. Surrounded by things that
appear in print, we might find it difficult today to imagine a time when printing was still
unknown. Chapter V will trace how the history of the contemporary world is intimately
connected with the growth of print. You will see how printing made possible the spread
of information and ideas, debates and discussions, advertising and propaganda, and a
variety of new forms of literature.
When we discuss such themes of everyday life, we begin to see how history can help us
reflect on even the seemingly ordinary things in the world.

N EELADRI B HATTACHARYA
Chief Advisor – History

x
Reprint 2025-26
Contents

Foreword iii
Introduction ix

Section I: Events and Processes

I. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 3

II. Nationalism in India 29

Section II: Livelihoods, Economies and Societies

III. The Making of a Global World 53

IV. The Age of Industrialisation 79

Section III: Everyday Life, Culture and Politics

V. Print Culture and the Modern World 105

xi
Reprint 2025-26
 For Extended Learning
You may access the following chapters through QR Code :

♦ The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China.

♦ Work, Life and Leisure.
♦ Novels, Society and History

These chapters were printed in the previous textbooks; the same

are being provided in digital mode for extended learning.

Reprint 2025-26
SECTION I

EVENTS AND PROCESSES

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
 Chapter I
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

T h e NRa t i oinsa l ies m inoEfu r o p eN a t i o n a l i s m i n E u r o p e

Fig. 1 — The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations, a print prepared by
Frédéric Sorrieu, 1848.

In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four

New words
prints visualising his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic
and social Republics’, as he called them. The first print (Fig. 1) of the Absolutist – Literally, a government or
series, shows the peoples of Europe and America – men and women system of rule that has no restraints on
of all ages and social classes – marching in a long train, and offering the power exercised. In history, the term
homage to the statue of Liberty as they pass by it. As you would refers to a for m of monarchical
recall, artists of the time of the French Revolution personified Liberty government that was centralised,
as a female figure – here you can recognise the torch of Enlightenment militarised and repressive
she bears in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the Utopian – A vision of a society that is so
other. On the earth in the foreground of the image lie the shattered ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist
remains of the symbols of absolutist institutions. In Sorrieu’s
utopian vision, the peoples of the world are grouped as distinct Activity
nations, identified through their flags and national costume. Leading
In what way do you think this print (Fig. 1)
the procession, way past the statue of Liberty, are the United States
depicts a utopian vision?
and Switzerland, which by this time were already nation-states. France,

3
Reprint 2025-26
 identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue. Source A
She is followed by the peoples of Germany, bearing the black, red
Ernst Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’
and gold flag. Interestingly, at the time when Sorrieu created this
In a lecture delivered at the University of
image, the German peoples did not yet exist as a united nation – the
Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher Ernst
flag they carry is an expression of liberal hopes in 1848 to unify the Renan (1823-92) outlined his understanding of
numerous German-speaking principalities into a nation-state under what makes a nation. The lecture was
subsequently published as a famous essay entitled
a democratic constitution. Following the German peoples are the
‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’).
peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggested
Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary and Russia. From the heavens by others that a nation is formed by a common
language, race, religion, or territory:
above, Christ, saints and angels gaze upon the scene. They have
‘A nation is the culmination of a long past of
been used by the artist to symbolise fraternity among the nations of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past,
the world. great men, glory, that is the social capital upon
which one bases a national idea. To have
This chapter will deal with many of the issues visualised by Sorrieu common glories in the past, to have a common
in Fig. 1. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a will in the present, to have performed great deeds
together, to wish to perform still more, these
force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and
are the essential conditions of being a people. A
mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity … Its
emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic existence is a daily plebiscite … A province is its
inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be
empires of Europe. The concept and practices of a modern state, in
consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never
which a centralised power exercised sovereign control over a clearly has any real interest in annexing or holding on to
defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time a country against its will. The existence of nations
is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence
in Europe. But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its
is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if
citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common the world had only one law and only one master.’
identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not
exist from time immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through Source
the actions of leaders and the common people. This chapter will
look at the diverse processes through which nation-states and
New words
nationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe.
Plebiscite – A direct vote by which all the
people of a region are asked to accept or reject
India and the Contemporary World

a proposal

Discuss
Summarise the attributes of a nation, as Renan
understands them. Why, in his view, are nations
important?

4
Reprint 2025-26
 1 The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The first clear expression of nationalism came with

the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you
would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state
in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.
The political and constitutional changes that came
in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a
body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed
that it was the people who would henceforth
constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries

introduced various measures and practices that
could create a sense of collective identity amongst
the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the
fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasised
the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Fig. 2 — The cover of a German almanac
designed by the journalist Andreas Rebmann in
constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace 1798.
the former royal standard. The Estates General was elected by the The image of the French Bastille being stormed
by the revolutionary crowd has been placed
body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New next to a similar fortress meant to represent the
hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, bastion of despotic rule in the German province
of Kassel. Accompanying the illustration is the
all in the name of the nation. A centralised administrative system slogan: ‘The people must seize their own
was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens freedom!’ Rebmann lived in the city of Mainz
and was a member of a German Jacobin group.
within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished
and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken
and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the
destiny of the French nation to liberate the peoples of Europe Europe

from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe

to become nations.
N a t i o n a l i s m in

When the news of the events in France reached the different cities
of Europe, students and other members of educated middle classes
began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their activities and campaigns
prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland,
Belgium, Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the
outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to
carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

5
Reprint 2025-26
 ICELAND
(DENMARK)

ATLANTIC SEA
NORWAY
(SWEDEN)

SWEDEN
SCOTLAND

IRELAND GREAT
BRITAIN DENMARK
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
WALES HABOVER
ENGLAND (G.B.)
PRUSSIA
NETHERLANDS POLAND

GALICIA
BAVARIA
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
FRANCE
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA

HUNGARY

SMALL ROMANIA
AL

STATES SERBIA GEORGIA

TUG

SPAIN CORSICA BULGARIA

POR

ARMENIA
OTTOMAN EMPIRE

PER
KINGDOM
SARDINIA OF THE

SIA
TWO
SICILIES

GREECE MESOPOTAMIA
TUNIS
ALGERIA CRETE SYRIA
MOROCCO CYPRUS
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
PALESTINE

EGYPT Fig. 3 — Europe after the

Congress of Vienna, 1815.

Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control,
Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had
already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy
India and the Contemporary World

Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in

the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles
in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient. The
Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code –
did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality
before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was
exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic,
in Switzerland, in Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified
administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed
peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild
restrictions were removed. Transport and communication systems
were improved. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen

6
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 4 — The Planting of Tree of Liberty in Zweibrücken, Germany.
The subject of this colour print by the German painter Karl Kaspar Fritz is the occupation of the town of Zweibrücken
by the French armies. French soldiers, recognisable by their blue, white and red uniforms, have been portrayed as
oppressors as they seize a peasant’s cart (left), harass some young women (centre foreground) and force a peasant
down to his knees. The plaque being affixed to the Tree of Liberty carries a German inscription which in translation
reads: ‘Take freedom and equality from us, the model of humanity.’ This is a sarcastic reference to the claim of the
French as being liberators who opposed monarchy in the territories they entered.

enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and small-scale

producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform
laws, standardised weights and measures, and a common national
currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods
and capital from one region to another.

However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the local

populations to French rule were mixed. Initially, in many places such Europe
as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels,
Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as
N a t i o n a l i s m in

harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility,

as it became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not
go hand in hand with political freedom. Increased taxation,
censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to
Fig. 5 — The courier of Rhineland loses all that
conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages
he has on his way home from Leipzig.
of the administrative changes. Napoleon here is represented as a postman on
his way back to France after he lost the battle of
Leipzig in 1813. Each letter dropping out of his
bag bears the names of the territories he lost.

7
Reprint 2025-26
 2 The Making of Nationalism in Europe

If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-century Europe you will

find that there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today.
Some important dates
What we know today as Germany, Italy and Switzerland were 1797
Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars
divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their begin.
autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were under
1814-1815
autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace
peoples. They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity Settlement.

or a common culture. Often, they even spoke different languages 1821

and belonged to different ethnic groups. The Habsburg Empire Greek struggle for independence begins.
that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of 1848
many different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions Revolutions in Europe; artisans, industrial
workers and peasants revolt against
– the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland – as well as Bohemia, economic hardships; middle classes
where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It also demand constitutions and representative
governments; Italians, Germans, Magyars,
included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Poles, Czechs, etc. demand nation-states.
In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other
1859-1870
half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Unification of Italy.
Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within
1866-1871
the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples – Unification of Germany.
Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats
1905
to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania. Such
Slav nationalism gathers force in the
differences did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
only tie binding these diverse groups together was a common
allegiance to the emperor.

How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge?

2.1 The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class

India and the Contemporary World

Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class

on the continent. The members of this class were united by a
common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned
estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French
for purposes of diplomacy and in high society. Their families were
often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy was,
however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population
was made up of the peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land
was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in Eastern and
Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by
vast estates which were cultivated by serfs.

8
Reprint 2025-26
In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial
production and trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence
of commercial classes whose existence was based on production
for the market. Industrialisation began in England in the second
half of the eighteenth century, but in France and parts of the German
states it occurred only during the nineteenth century. In its wake,
new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and
middle classes made up of industrialists, businessmen, professionals.
In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller in number
till late nineteenth century. It was among the educated, liberal middle
classes that ideas of national unity following the abolition of
aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

2.2 What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?

Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely
allied to the ideology of liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives
from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle classes
liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all
before the law. Politically, it emphasised the concept of government
by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for
the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and
representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century
liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property.

Yet, equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal
New words
suffrage. You will recall that in revolutionary France, which marked
the first political experiment in liberal democracy, the right to vote Suffrage – The right to vote
and to get elected was granted exclusively to property-owning men.
Men without property and all women were excluded from political
rights. Only for a brief period under the Jacobins did all adult males
enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited Europe
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to
the authority of fathers and husbands. Throughout the nineteenth
N a t i o n a l i s m in

and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men

organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets

and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement
of goods and capital. During the nineteenth century this was a strong
demand of the emerging middle classes. Let us take the example of
the German-speaking regions in the first half of the nineteenth
century. Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of

9
Reprint 2025-26
 countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each of Source B
these possessed its own currency, and weights and measures. A
Economists began to think in terms of the national
merchant travelling in 1833 from Hamburg to Nuremberg to sell economy. They talked of how the nation could
his goods would have had to pass through 11 customs barriers and develop and what economic measures could help
pay a customs duty of about 5 per cent at each one of them. Duties forge this nation together.

were often levied according to the weight or measurement of the Friedrich List, Professor of Economics at the
University of Tübingen in Germany, wrote in 1834:
goods. As each region had its own system of weights and measures,
‘The aim of the zollverein is to bind the Germans
this involved time-consuming calculation. The measure of cloth, economically into a nation. It will strengthen the
for example, was the elle which in each region stood for a different nation materially as much by protecting its
length. An elle of textile material bought in Frankfurt would get you interests externally as by stimulating its internal
productivity. It ought to awaken and raise
54.7 cm of cloth, in Mainz 55.1 cm, in Nuremberg 65.6 cm, in national sentiment through a fusion of individual
Freiburg 53.5 cm. and provincial interests. The German people have
realised that a free economic system is the only
Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange means to engender national feeling.’
and growth by the new commercial classes, who argued for the
creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered
Source
movement of goods, people and capital. In 1834, a customs union
or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and joined by Discuss
most of the German states. The union abolished tariff barriers and
Describe the political ends that List hopes to
reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two. The
achieve through economic measures.
creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility,
harnessing economic interests to national unification. A wave of
economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments
growing at the time.

2.3 A New Conservatism after 1815 New words

Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments Conservatism – A political philosophy that
were driven by a spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed stressed the importance of tradition, established
that established, traditional institutions of state and society – like the institutions and customs, and preferred gradual
monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – development to quick change
India and the Contemporary World

should be preserved. Most conservatives, however, did not propose

a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days. Rather, they realised,
from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could
in fact strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could
make state power more effective and strong. A modern army, an
efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism
and serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia,

Prussia and Austria – who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met
at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The Congress was
hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegates

10
Reprint 2025-26
drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the object of undoing
most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the
Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed
during the French Revolution, was restored to power, and France
lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon. A series of states
were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion
in future. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included
Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont
in the south. Prussia was given important new territories on its western
frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. But the Activity
German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon
Plot on a map of Europe the changes drawn
was left untouched. In the east, Russia was given part of Poland
up by the Vienna Congress.
while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. The main intention
was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by
Napoleon, and create a new conservative order in Europe.

Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not

tolerate criticism and dissent, and sought to curb activities that
questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments. Most of them Discuss
imposed censorship laws to control what was said in newspapers,
What is the caricaturist trying to depict?
books, plays and songs and reflected the ideas of liberty and freedom

Europe
N a t i o n a l i s m in

Fig. 6 — The Club of Thinkers, anonymous caricature dating to c. 1820.

The plaque on the left bears the inscription: ‘The most important question of today’s meeting: How
long will thinking be allowed to us?’
The board on the right lists the rules of the Club which include the following:
‘1. Silence is the first commandment of this learned society.
2. To avoid the eventuality whereby a member of this club may succumb to the temptation of
speech, muzzles will be distributed to members upon entering.’

11
Reprint 2025-26
 associated with the French Revolution. The memory of the French
Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire liberals. One of the major
issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new
conservative order, was freedom of the press.

2.4 The Revolutionaries

During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove
many liberal-nationalists underground. Secret societies sprang
up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread
their ideas. To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment
to oppose monarchical forms that had been established after
the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom. Most
of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as
a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.

One such individual was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe

Mazzini. Born in Genoa in 1805, he became a member of the
secret society of the Carbonari. As a young man of 24, he was
sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
He subsequently founded two more underground societies,
first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and then, Young Europe in
Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from
Poland, France, Italy and the German states. Mazzini believed
that God had intended nations to be the natural units of
mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of
small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single
unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This
unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty. Following
his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France,
Fig. 7 — Giuseppe Mazzini and the founding of
Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to
India and the Contemporary World

Young Europe in Berne 1833.

monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the Print by Giacomo Mantegazza.

conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous

enemy of our social order’.

12
Reprint 2025-26
 3 The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism

and nationalism came to be increasingly associated with revolution
in many regions of Europe such as the Italian and German states,
the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland. These
revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists belonging to the
educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, school-
teachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes.

The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon
kings who had been restored to power during the conservative
reaction after 1815, were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries
who installed a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its
head. ‘When France sneezes,’ Metternich once remarked, ‘the rest of
Europe catches cold.’ The July Revolution sparked an uprising in
Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away from the United
Kingdom of the Netherlands.

An event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite

across Europe was the Greek war of independence. Greece had
been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The
growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle
for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile
and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient
Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of
European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its
struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron
organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of
fever in 1824. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832
recognised Greece as an independent nation. Europe

3.1 The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

N a t i o n a l i s m in

The development of nationalism did not come about only through

wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in
creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music
helped express and shape nationalist feelings.

Let us look at Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to

develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists
and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science

13
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 8 — The Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix, 1824.
The French painter Delacroix was one of the most important French Romantic
painters. This huge painting (4.19m x 3.54m) depicts an incident in which
20,000 Greeks were said to have been killed by Turks on the island of Chios. By
dramatising the incident, focusing on the suffering of women and children, and
India and the Contemporary World

using vivid colours, Delacroix sought to appeal to the emotions of the spectators,
and create sympathy for the Greeks.

and focused instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.

Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a
common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

Other Romantics such as the German philosopher Johann Gottfried

Herder (1744-1803) claimed that true German culture was to be
discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through
folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the
nation (volksgeist) was popularised. So collecting and recording these
forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.

14
Reprint 2025-26
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local Box 1
folklore was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to
carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were The Grimm Brothers: Folktales and
Nation-building
mostly illiterate. This was especially so in the case of Poland, which
Grimms’ Fairy Tales is a familiar name. The brothers
had been partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by the Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in the
Great Powers – Russia, Prussia and Austria. Even though Poland no German city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786
longer existed as an independent territory, national feelings were kept respectively. While both of them studied law,
they soon developed an interest in collecting old
alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski, for example, folktales. They spent six years travelling from
celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning village to village, talking to people and writing
folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. down fairy tales, which were handed down
through the generations. These were popular
Language too played an important role in developing nationalist both among children and adults. In 1812, they
published their first collection of tales.
sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced Subsequently, both the brothers became active
out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. in liberal politics, especially the movement
In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which for freedom of the press. In the meantime they
also published a 33-volume dictionary of the
was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy German language.
in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. The Grimm brothers also saw French domination
Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. as a threat to German culture, and believed that
As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or the folktales they had collected were expressions
of a pure and authentic German spirit. They
sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their considered their projects of collecting folktales
refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a and developing the German language as part of
symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance. the wider effort to oppose French domination
and create a German national identity.

3.2 Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The
first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in Discuss
population all over Europe. In most countries there were more Discuss the importance of language and
seekers of jobs than employment. Population from rural areas popular traditions in the creation of national
migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums. Small producers identity.
in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of
cheap machine-made goods from England, where industrialisation Europe
was more advanced than on the continent. This was especially so in
textile production, which was carried out mainly in homes or small
N a t i o n a l i s m in

workshops and was only partly mechanised. In those regions of

Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled
under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food
prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in
town and country.

The year 1848 was one such year. Food shortages and widespread
unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the roads.
Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A

15
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 9 — Peasants’ uprising, 1848.

National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all

adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to work. National
workshops to provide employment were set up.

Earlier, in 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors

who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished
textiles but drastically reduced their payments. The journalist Wilhelm
Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows:

In these villages (with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the

most widespread occupation … The misery of the workers is
extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage
of by the contractors to reduce the prices of the goods they
order …
India and the Contemporary World

On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from

their homes and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their
contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with
Discuss
scorn and threats alternately. Following this, a group of them Describe the cause of the Silesian weavers’
forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant window- uprising. Comment on the viewpoint of the

panes, furniture, porcelain … another group broke into the journalist.

storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth which they

tore to shreds … The contractor fled with his family to a Activity
neighbouring village which, however, refused to shelter such a
Imagine you are a weaver who saw the events
person. He returned 24 hours later having requisitioned the army.
as they unfolded. Write a report on what you saw.
In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

16
Reprint 2025-26
3.3 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants Source C
and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution
How were liberty and equality for women
led by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of February
to be defined?
1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch
The liberal politician Carl Welcker, an elected
and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed. member of the Frankfurt Parliament, expressed
In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not the following views:
yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian ‘Nature has created men and women to carry
out different functions … Man, the stronger, the
Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined
bolder and freer of the two, has been designated
their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They as protector of the family, its provider, meant for
took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their public tasks in the domain of law, production,
defence. Woman, the weaker, dependent and
demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary
timid, requires the protection of man. Her sphere
principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom is the home, the care of the children, the
of association. nurturing of the family … Do we require any
further proof that given such differences, equality
In the German regions a large number of political associations whose between the sexes would only endanger
harmony and destroy the dignity of the family?’
members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and
Louise Otto-Peters (1819-95) was a political
prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided
activist who founded a women’s journal and
to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On 18 May 1848, subsequently a feminist political association. The
831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take first issue of her newspaper (21 April 1849) carried
the following editorial:
their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of
‘Let us ask how many men, possessed by
St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be
thoughts of living and dying for the sake of Liberty,
headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. When the deputies would be prepared to fight for the freedom of
offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of the entire people, of all human beings? When
asked this question, they would all too easily
Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the
respond with a “Yes!”, though their untiring
elected assembly. While the opposition of the aristocracy and military efforts are intended for the benefit of only one
became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. The half of humanity – men. But Liberty is indivisible!
Free men therefore must not tolerate to be
parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the
surrounded by the unfree …’
demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support.
An anonymous reader of the same newspaper
In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced sent the following letter to the editor on 25 June
1850:
to disband. Europe
‘It is indeed ridiculous and unreasonable to deny
The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial women political rights even though they enjoy
one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women the right to property which they make use
N a t i o n a l i s m in

of. They perform functions and assume

had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their
responsibilities without however getting the
own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in benefits that accrue to men for the same … Why
political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied this injustice? Is it not a disgrace that even the
stupidest cattle-herder possesses the right
to vote, simply because he is a man, whereas
New words highly talented women owning considerable
property are excluded from this right, even
Feminist – Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on though they contribute so much to the
the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the genders maintenance of the state?’
Source
17
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 10 — The Frankfurt parliament in the Church of St Paul.
Contemporary colour print. Notice the women in the upper left gallery.

suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. When the

Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women
Discuss
were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery. Compare the positions on the question of
India and the Contemporary World

women’s rights voiced by the three writers cited

Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements
above. What do they reveal about liberal
in 1848, they could not restore the old order. Monarchs were ideology?
beginning to realise that the cycles of revolution and repression could
only be ended by granting concessions to the liberal-nationalist
revolutionaries. Hence, in the years after 1848, the autocratic New words
monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the Ideology – System of ideas reflecting a
changes that had already taken place in Western Europe before 1815. particular social and political vision
Thus serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both in the
Habsburg dominions and in Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted
more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.

18
Reprint 2025-26
 4 The Making of Germany and Italy

4.1 Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?

After 1848, nationalism in Europe moved away from its association
with democracy and revolution. Nationalist sentiments were often
mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving
political domination over Europe.

This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came
to be unified as nation-states. As you have seen, nationalist feelings were
widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite
the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state
governed by an elected parliament. This liberal initiative to nation-building
was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and
the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for
national unification. Its chief minister, Otto von
Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried
out with the help of the Prussian army and
bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with
Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian
victory and completed the process of unification.
In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I,
was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony
held at Versailles.

On the bitterly cold morning of 18 January 1871,

an assembly comprising the princes of the
German states, representatives of the army,
important Prussian ministers including the chief
minister Otto von Bismarck gathered in the Europe
unheated Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles
to proclaim the new German Empire headed
N a t i o n a l i s m in

by Kaiser William I of Prussia.

The nation-building process in Germany had

demonstrated the dominance of Prussian state
power. The new state placed a strong emphasis
Fig. 11 — The proclamation of the German empire in the Hall of
on modernising the currency, banking, legal Mirrors at Versailles, Anton von Werner. At the centre stands the
and judicial systems in Germany. Prussian Kaiser and the chief commander of the Prussian army, General von
Roon. Near them is Bismarck. This monumental work (2.7m x
measures and practices often became a model for 2.7m) was completed and presented by the artist to Bismarck on
the rest of Germany. the latter’s 70th birthday in 1885.

19
Reprint 2025-26
 BALTIC SEA

NORTH SEA
SCHLESWIG-
HOLSTEIN EAST PRUSSIA

MECKLENBURG- POMERANIA
SCHWERIN WEST PRUSSIA

HANOVER
IA
BRANDENBURG SS
U
BRUNSWICK PR
POSEN
WESTPHALIA
RUSSIAN
EMPIRE
A
SS
RHINELAND NA
EN THURINGIAN SILESIA
ESS STATES
H

Prussia before 1866

RG
BE AUSTRIAN Conquered by Prussia in Austro-Prussia
EM EMPIRE War, 1866
TT
UR Austrian territories excluded from German
W Confederation 1867
N

Joined with Prussia to form German

DE

Confederation, 1867
BA

BAVARIA
South German states joining with Prussia to
form German Empire, 1871
Won by Prussia in Franco-Prussia War, 1871

Fig. 12 — Unification of Germany (1866-71).

4.2 Italy Unified

Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation.
Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the
multi-national Habsburg Empire. During the middle of the
nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which
only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house.
The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by
the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination
of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 13 — Caricature of Otto von Bismarck in

not acquired one common form and still had many regional and the German reichstag (parliament), from Figaro,
local variations. Vienna, 5 March 1870.

During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had sought to put together a

coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He had also Activity
formed a secret society called Young Italy for the dissemination of Describe the caricature. How does it represent
his goals. The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and the relationship between Bismarck and the
1848 meant that the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under elected deputies of Parliament? What
its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through interpretation of democratic processes is the
war. In the eyes of the ruling elites of this region, a unified artist trying to convey?

Italy offered them the possibility of economic development and

political dominance.

20
Reprint 2025-26
Chief Minister Cavour who led the movement to unify the regions
of Italy was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many Activity
other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke Look at Fig. 14(a). Do you think that the people
French much better than he did Italian. Through a tactful diplomatic living in any of these regions thought of
alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont themselves as Italians?
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular Examine Fig. 14(b). Which was the first region
troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of to become a part of unified Italy? Which was the
Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South last region to join? In which year did the largest

Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and succeeded in winning number of states join?

the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish
rulers. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united
Italy. However, much of the Italian population, among whom rates
of illiteracy were very high, remained blissfully unaware of liberal-
nationalist ideology. The peasant masses who had supported Garibaldi
in southern Italy had never heard of Italia, and believed that ‘La Talia’
was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!

SWITZERLAND

SWITZERLAND
LOMBARDY VENETIA

SAVOY 1866
SARDINIA PARMA AUSTRIA

MODENA 1858
SAN MARINO
MONACO 1858-60
TUSCANY
PAPAL
STATE

1870

1860
KINGDOM
OF BOTH 1858
SICILIES

Europe

TUNIS
N a t i o n a l i s m in

Fig. 14(b) — Italy after unification.

TUNIS
The map shows the year in which different
regions (seen in Fig 14(a) become part of a
Fig. 14(a) — Italian states before unification, 1858. unified Italy.

4.3 The Strange Case of Britain

The model of the nation or the nation-state, some scholars have
argued, is Great Britain. In Britain the formation of the nation-state

21
Reprint 2025-26
 was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the Box 2
result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation
prior to the eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) is perhaps the
most celebrated of Italian freedom fighters. He
who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, came from a family engaged in coastal trade and
Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural was a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 he
and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in met Mazzini, joined the Young Italy movement
and participated in a republican uprising in
wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence Piedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressed
over the other nations of the islands. The English parliament, which and Garibaldi had to flee to South America, where
had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a he lived in exile till 1848. In 1854, he supported
Victor Emmanuel II in his efforts to unify the
protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, Italian states. In 1860, Garibaldi led the famous
with England at its centre, came to be forged. The Act of Union Expedition of the Thousand to South Italy. Fresh
(1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation volunteers kept joining through the course of
the campaign, till their numbers grew to about
of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that 30,000. They were popularly known as Red
England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British Shirts.
parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The In 1867, Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to
growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification
of Italy, the Papal States where a French garrison
and political institutions were systematically suppressed. The Catholic was stationed. The Red Shirts proved to be no
clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression match for the combined French and Papal troops.
whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish It was only in 1870 when, during the war with
Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome
Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or that the Papal States were finally joined
wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven to Italy.
out of their homeland.

Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided

between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped the Protestants
of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. After a
failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798),
Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a
India and the Contemporary World

dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the

British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble
King), the English language – were actively promoted and the older
nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union. Fig. 15 – Garibaldi helping King Victor
Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont to pull on the
boot named ‘Italy’. English caricature of 1859.
Activity
The artist has portrayed Garibaldi as holding on to the base of
New words
the boot, so that the King of Sardinia-Piedmont can enter it from
the top. Look at the map of Italy once more. What statement is Ethnic – Relates to a common racial, tribal, or
this caricature making? cultural origin or background that a community
identifies with or claims

22
Reprint 2025-26
5 Visualising the Nation

While it is easy enough to represent a ruler through a portrait or a

statue, how does one go about giving a face to a nation? Artists in
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by
personifying a nation. In other words they represented a country as
if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures.
The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not
stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it sought to give
the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female
figure became an allegory of the nation.

You will recall that during the French Revolution artists used the
female allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Fig. 16 — Postage stamps of 1850 with the
figure of Marianne representing the Republic of
Republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or France.
symbols. As you would remember, the attributes of Liberty are the
red cap, or the broken chain, while Justice is generally a blindfolded
woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.

Similar female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth

century to represent the nation. In France she was christened
Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a
people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty
and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues
of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of
the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with
it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In

visual representations, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as
the German oak stands for heroism.
Europe
New words
N a t i o n a l i s m in

Allegory – When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy,

freedom, liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An
allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic

Fig. 17 — Germania, Philip Veit, 1848.

The artist prepared this painting of Germania on a
cotton banner, as it was meant to hang from the
ceiling of the Church of St Paul where the Frankfurt
parliament was convened in March 1848.

23
Reprint 2025-26
 Box 3

Meanings of the symbols

Attribute Significance
Broken chains Being freed
Breastplate with eagle Symbol of the German empire – strength
Crown of oak leaves Heroism
Sword Readiness to fight
Olive branch around the sword Willingness to make peace
Black, red and gold tricolour Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848, banned by the Dukes of the
German states
Rays of the rising sun Beginning of a new era

Activity
With the help of the chart in Box 3, identify the attributes of Veit’s
Germania and interpret the symbolic meaning of the painting.
In an earlier allegorical rendering of 1836, Veit had portrayed the
Kaiser’s crown at the place where he has now located the
broken chain. Explain the significance of this change.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 18 — The fallen Germania, Julius Hübner, 1850.

Activity
Describe what you see in Fig. 17. What historical events could Hübner be
referring to in this allegorical vision of the nation?

24
Reprint 2025-26
Fig. 19 — Germania guarding the Rhine.
In 1860, the artist Lorenz Clasen was commissioned to paint this image. The inscription
on Germania’s sword reads: ‘The German sword protects the German Rhine.’

Activity Europe

Look once more at Fig. 10. Imagine you were a citizen of Frankfurt in March 1848 and were present during the
proceedings of the parliament. How would you (a) as a man seated in the hall of deputies, and (b) as a woman
N a t i o n a l i s m in

observing from the galleries, relate to the banner of Germania hanging from the ceiling?

25
Reprint 2025-26
 6 Nationalism and Imperialism

By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer

retained its idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half
of the century, but became a narrow creed with limited ends. During
this period nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each
other and ever ready to go to war. The major European powers, in
turn, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of the subject peoples
in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.

The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871

was the area called the Balkans. The Balkans was a region of
geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania,
Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly
known as the Slavs. A large part of the Balkans was under the control
of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic
nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the
Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. All through the
nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen
itself through modernisation and internal reforms but with very
little success. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke
away from its control and declared independence. The Balkan
peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on
nationality and used history to prove that they had once been
independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign
powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of
their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.

As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity

India and the Contemporary World

and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped
to gain more territory at the expense of the others. Matters were
further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of
big power rivalry. During this period, there was intense rivalry among
the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and
military might. These rivalries were very evident in the way the Balkan
problem unfolded. Each power – Russia, Germany, England,
Austro-Hungary – was keen on countering the hold of other powers
over the Balkans, and extending its own control over the area. This
led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War.

26
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 20 — A map celebrating the British Empire.
At the top, angels are shown carrying the banner of freedom. In the foreground, Britannia — the
symbol of the British nation — is triumphantly sitting over the globe. The colonies are represented
through images of tigers, elephants, forests and primitive people. The domination of the world is
shown as the basis of Britain’s national pride.

Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914.

But meanwhile, many countries in the world which had been
colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century began Europe
to oppose imperial domination. The anti-imperial movements that
developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense that they all
N a t i o n a l i s m in

struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by

a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with
imperialism. European ideas of nationalism were nowhere
replicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific variety
of nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into
‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.

27
Reprint 2025-26
 Write in brief

1. Write a note on:

a) Guiseppe Mazzini
b) Count Camillo de Cavour
c) The Greek war of independence

Write in brief
d) Frankfurt parliament
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective
identity among the French people?
3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in
which they were portrayed?
4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more
efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Discuss

1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social
and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism
in Europe.
3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth Discuss
century.
India and the Contemporary World

4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Project
Project
Find out more about nationalist symbols in countries outside Europe. For one or two countries,
collect examples of pictures, posters or music that are symbols of nationalism. How are these
different from European examples?

28
Reprint 2025-26
 Chapter II
Nationalism in India
As you have seen, modern nationalism in Europe came to be
associated with the formation of nation-states. It also meant a change
in people’s understanding of who they were, and what defined their
identity and sense of belonging. New symbols and icons, new songs
and ideas forged new links and redefined the boundaries of
communities. In most countries the making of this new national
identity was a long process. How did this consciousness emerge
in India?

In India and as in many other colonies, the growth of modern

nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement.
People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle
with colonialism. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism
provided a shared bond that tied many different groups together.
But each class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently,
their experiences were varied, and their notions of freedom were
not always the same. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried
to forge these groups together within one movement. But the unity
did not emerge without conflict.

In an earlier textbook you have read about the growth of nationalism

in India up to the first decade of the twentieth century. In this chapter
we will pick up the story from the 1920s and study the Non-
Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements. We will explore

in India
how the Congress sought to develop the national movement, how
different social groups participated in the movement, and how
nationalism captured the imagination of people.

Nationalism in India
Nationalism

Fig. 1 – 6 April 1919.

Mass processions on
the streets became a
common feature during
the national movement.

29
Reprint 2025-26
 1 The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

In the years after 1919, we see the national movement spreading to

new areas, incorporating new social groups, and developing new
modes of struggle. How do we understand these developments?
What implications did they have?

First of all, the war created a new economic and political situation.
It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed
by war loans and increasing taxes: customs duties were raised and
income tax introduced. Through the war years prices increased –
doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardship
for the common people. Villages were called upon to supply soldiers,
and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, New words
resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an
influenza epidemic. According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million Forced recruitment – A process by which the
people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic. colonial state forced people to join the army

People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was
over. But that did not happen.

At this stage a new leader appeared and suggested a new mode

of struggle.

1.1 The Idea of Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915. As you know,
he had come from South Africa where he had successfully fought
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 2 – Indian workers in South

Africa march through Volksrust, 6
November 1913.
Mahatma Gandhi was leading the
workers from Newcastle to
Transvaal. When the marchers were
stopped and Gandhiji arrested,
thousands of more workers joined
the satyagraha against racist laws
that denied rights to non-whites.

30
Reprint 2025-26
the racist regime with a novel method of mass agitation, which he Source A
called satyagraha. The idea of satyagraha emphasised the power of
truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause Mahatma Gandhi on Satyagraha
was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was ‘It is said of “passive resistance” that it is the
not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without seeking vengeance or weapon of the weak, but the power which is
the subject of this article can be used only
being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through non- by the strong. This power is not passive
violence. This could be done by appealing to the conscience of the resistance; indeed it calls for intense activity. The
oppressor. People – including the oppressors – had to be persuaded movement in South Africa was not passive
but active …
to see the truth, instead of being forced to accept truth through the
‘ Satyagraha is not physical force. A satyagrahi
use of violence. By this struggle, truth was bound to ultimately does not inflict pain on the adversary; he does
triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believed that this dharma of non-violence not seek his destruction … In the use of
could unite all Indians. satyagraha, there is no ill-will whatever.
‘ Satyagraha is pure soul-force. Truth is the very
After arriving in India, Mahatma Gandhi successfully organised substance of the soul. That is why this force is
satyagraha movements in various places. In 1917 he travelled to called satyagraha. The soul is informed with
knowledge. In it burns the flame of love. … Non-
Champaran in Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the
violence is the supreme dharma …
oppressive plantation system. Then in 1917, he organised a satyagraha ‘It is certain that India cannot rival Britain or
to support the peasants of the Kheda district of Gujarat. Affected Europe in force of arms. The British worship the
by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could war-god and they can all of them become, as
they are becoming, bearers of arms. The
not pay the revenue, and were demanding that revenue collection be
hundreds of millions in India can never carry arms.
relaxed. In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organise They have made the religion of non-violence their
a satyagraha movement amongst cotton mill workers. own ...’
Source
1.2 The Rowlatt Act
Activity
Emboldened with this success, Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a
nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919). This Read the text carefully. What did Mahatma

Act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Gandhi mean when he said satyagraha is
active resistance?
Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members. It
gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities,
and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two
years. Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against Nationalism in India
such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April.

Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in

railway workshops, and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular
upsurge, and scared that lines of communication such as the railways
and telegraph would be disrupted, the British administration decided
to clamp down on nationalists. Local leaders were picked up from
Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi.
On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession,
provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices and railway
stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

31
Reprint 2025-26
 On 13 April the infamous Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place. On
that day a large crowd gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla
Bagh. Some came to protest against the government’s new repressive
measures. Others had come to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. Being
from outside the city, many villagers were unaware of the martial
law that had been imposed. Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit
points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. His object,
as he declared later, was to ‘produce a moral effect’, to create in the
minds of satyagrahis a feeling of terror and awe.

As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets

in many north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with the
police and attacks on government buildings. The government
responded with brutal repression, seeking to humiliate and terrorise
people: satyagrahis were forced to rub their noses on the ground,
crawl on the streets, and do salaam (salute) to all sahibs; people were
flogged and villages (around Gujranwala in Punjab, now in Pakistan)
were bombed. Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off
the movement.
Fig. 3 – General Dyer’s ‘crawling orders’ being
While the Rowlatt satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it administered by British soldiers, Amritsar,
Punjab, 1919.
was still limited mostly to cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi now felt
the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India. But he
was certain that no such movement could be organised without
bringing the Hindus and Muslims closer together. One way of doing
this, he felt, was to take up the Khilafat issue. The First World War had
ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey. And there were rumours
that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman
emperor – the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa). To
defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was
formed in Bombay in March 1919. A young generation of Muslim
India and the Contemporary World

leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, began
discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united
mass action on the issue. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring
Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement. At the
Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he convinced
other leaders of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in
support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.

1.3 Why Non-cooperation?

In his famous book Hind Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared
that British rule was established in India with the cooperation of

32
Reprint 2025-26
Indians, and had survived only because of this cooperation. If Indians
refused to cooperate, British rule in India would collapse within a
year, and swaraj would come.

How could non-cooperation become a movement? Gandhiji

proposed that the movement should unfold in stages. It should begin
with the surrender of titles that the government awarded, and a New words
boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils,
Boycott – The refusal to deal and associate with
schools, and foreign goods. Then, in case the government used
people, or participate in activities, or buy and
repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
use things; usually a form of protest
Through the summer of 1920 Mahatma Gandhi and Shaukat Ali
toured extensively, mobilising popular support for the movement.

Many within the Congress were, however, concerned about the

proposals. They were reluctant to boycott the council elections
scheduled for November 1920, and they feared that the movement
might lead to popular violence. In the months between September
and December there was an intense tussle within the Congress. For a
while there seemed no meeting point between the supporters and
the opponents of the movement. Finally, at the Congress session at
Nagpur in December 1920, a compromise was worked out and
the Non-Cooperation programme was adopted.

How did the movement unfold? Who participated in it? How did
different social groups conceive of the idea of Non-Cooperation?

Nationalism in India

Fig. 4 – The boycott of foreign

cloth, July 1922.
Foreign cloth was seen as the
symbol of Western economic
and cultural domination.

33
Reprint 2025-26
 2 Differing Strands within the Movement

The Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921.

Various social groups participated in this movement, each with its
own specific aspiration. All of them responded to the call of Swaraj,
but the term meant different things to different people.

2.1 The Movement in the Towns

The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities.
Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and
colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up
their legal practices. The council elections were boycotted in most
provinces except Madras, where the Justice Party, the party of the
non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining
some power – something that usually only Brahmans had access to.

The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were more

New words
dramatic. Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed,
and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign Picket – A form of demonstration or protest
cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from by which people block the entrance to a shop,
Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places merchants and traders factory or office
refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade. As the
boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported
clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile
mills and handlooms went up.

But this movement in the cities gradually slowed down for a variety
of reasons. Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-
produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it.
Activity
India and the Contemporary World

How then could they boycott mill cloth for too long? Similarly the
boycott of British institutions posed a problem. For the movement The year is 1921. You are a student in a

to be successful, alternative Indian institutions had to be set up government-controlled school. Design a

poster urging school students to answer
so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were
Gandhiji’s call to join the Non-Cooperation
slow to come up. So students and teachers began trickling
Movement.
back to government schools and lawyers joined back work in
government courts.

2.2 Rebellion in the Countryside

From the cities, the Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the
countryside. It drew into its fold the struggles of peasants and tribals

34
Reprint 2025-26
which were developing in different parts of India in the years
after the war.

In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra – a sanyasi who

had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured labourer. The movement New words
here was against talukdars and landlords who demanded from Begar – Labour that villagers were forced to
peasants exorbitantly high rents and a variety of other cesses. Peasants contribute without any payment
had to do begar and work at landlords’ farms without any payment.
As tenants they had no security of tenure, being regularly evicted so
that they could acquire no right over the leased land. The peasant
movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and
social boycott of oppressive landlords. In many places nai – dhobi Activity
bandhs were organised by panchayats to deprive landlords of the If you were a peasant in Uttar Pradesh in 1920,
services of even barbers and washermen. In June 1920, Jawaharlal how would you have responded to Gandhiji’s
call for Swaraj? Give reasons for your response.
Nehru began going around the villages in Awadh, talking to the
villagers, and trying to understand their grievances. By October, the
Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba
Ramchandra and a few others. Within a month, over 300 branches
had been set up in the villages around the region. So when the Non- In 1928, Vallabhbhai Patel led the peasant
Cooperation Movement began the following year, the effort of the movement in Bardoli, a taluka in Gujarat, against
Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider enhancement of land revenue. Known as the
Bardoli Satyagraha, this movement was a success
struggle. The peasant movement, however, developed in forms that under the able leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel.
the Congress leadership was unhappy with. As the movement spread The struggle was widely publicised and
in 1921, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, generated immense sympathy in many parts
of India.
bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over. In many
places local leaders told peasants that Gandhiji had declared that
no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among
the poor. The name of the Mahatma was being invoked to sanction
all action and aspirations.

Source B
Nationalism in India

On 6 January 1921, the police in United Provinces fired at peasants near Rae Bareli. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to go to
the place of firing, but was stopped by the police. Agitated and angry, Nehru addressed the peasants who gathered
around him. This is how he later described the meeting:
‘They behaved as brave men, calm and unruffled in the face of danger. I do not know how they felt but I know what
my feelings were. For a moment my blood was up, non-violence was almost forgotten – but for a moment only. The
thought of the great leader, who by God’s goodness has been sent to lead us to victory, came to me, and I saw the
kisans seated and standing near me, less excited, more peaceful than I was – and the moment of weakness passed, I
spoke to them in all humility on non-violence – I needed the lesson more than they – and they heeded me and
peacefully dispersed.’
Quoted in Sarvapalli Gopal, Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Vol. I.
Source

35
Reprint 2025-26
 Tribal peasants interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi and
the idea of swaraj in yet another way. In the Gudem Hills of Andhra
Pradesh, for instance, a militant guerrilla movement spread in
the early 1920s – not a form of struggle that the Congress could
approve. Here, as in other forest regions, the colonial government
had closed large forest areas, preventing people from entering
the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood and fruits.
This enraged the hill people. Not only were their livelihoods
affected but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied.
When the government began forcing them to contribute begar
for road building, the hill people revolted. The person who came
to lead them was an interesting figure. Alluri Sitaram Raju claimed
that he had a variety of special powers: he could make correct
astrological predictions and heal people, and he could survive
even bullet shots. Captivated by Raju, the rebels proclaimed that
he was an incarnation of God. Raju talked of the greatness of
Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation
Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only
by the use of force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked
police stations, attempted to kill British officials and carried on
guerrilla warfare for achieving swaraj. Raju was captured and
executed in 1924, and over time became a folk hero.

2.3 Swaraj in the Plantations

Workers too had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi
and the notion of swaraj. For plantation workers in Assam, freedom Activity
meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in Find out about other participants in the
India and the Contemporary World

which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the National Movement who were captured and
village from which they had come. Under the Inland Emigration put to death by the British. Can you think of a

Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the similar example from the national movement
in Indo-China (Chapter 2)?
tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given
such permission. When they heard of the Non-Cooperation
Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the
plantations and headed home. They believed that Gandhi Raj was
coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.
They, however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way
by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and
brutally beaten up.

36
Reprint 2025-26
The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress
programme. They interpreted the term swaraj in their own ways,
imagining it to be a time when all suffering and all troubles would
be over. Yet, when the tribals chanted Gandhiji’s name and raised
slogans demanding ‘Swatantra Bharat’, they were also emotionally
relating to an all-India agitation. When they acted in the name of
Mahatma Gandhi, or linked their movement to that of the Congress,
they were identifying with a movement which went beyond the limits
of their immediate locality.

Fig. 5 – Chauri Chaura, 1922.

At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a
violent clash with the police. Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt
to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Nationalism in India

37
Reprint 2025-26
 3 Towards Civil Disobedience

In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the

Lala Lajpat Rai was assaulted by the British police
Non-Cooperation Movement. He felt the movement was turning
during a peaceful demonstration against the
violent in many places and satyagrahis needed to be properly trained Simon Commission. He succumbed to injuries
before they would be ready for mass struggles. Within the Congress, that were inflicted on him during the
demonstration.
some leaders were by now tired of mass struggles and wanted to
participate in elections to the provincial councils that had been set
up by the Government of India Act of 1919. They felt that it was
important to oppose British policies within the councils, argue for
reform and also demonstrate that these councils were not truly
democratic. C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party
within the Congress to argue for a return to council politics. But
younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose
pressed for more radical mass agitation and for full independence.

In such a situation of internal debate and dissension two factors

again shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920s. The first was
the effect of the worldwide economic depression. Agricultural prices
began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930. As the demand
for agricultural goods fell and exports declined, peasants found it
difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue. By 1930, the
countryside was in turmoil.

Against this background the new Tory government in Britain

constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. Set up
in response to the nationalist movement, the
commission was to look into the functioning of
the constitutional system in India and suggest
changes. The problem was that the commission
did not have a single Indian member. They were
India and the Contemporary World

all British.

When the Simon Commission arrived in India in

1928, it was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back
Simon’. All parties, including the Congress and the
Muslim League, participated in the demonstrations.
In an effort to win them over, the viceroy, Lord
Irwin, announced in October 1929, a vague offer
of ‘dominion status’ for India in an unspecified
future, and a Round Table Conference to discuss a Fig. 6 – Meeting of Congress leaders at Allahabad, 1931.
Apart from Mahatma Gandhi, you can see Sardar Vallabhbhai
future constitution. This did not satisfy the Congress Patel (extreme left), Jawaharlal Nehru (extreme right) and Subhas
leaders. The radicals within the Congress, led by Chandra Bose (fifth from right).

38
Reprint 2025-26
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, became more assertive. Source C
The liberals and moderates, who were proposing a constitutional
system within the framework of British dominion, gradually lost The Independence Day Pledge, 26 January
their influence. In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal 1930

Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna ‘We believe that it is the inalienable right of the
Indian people, as of any other people, to have
Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and
1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people have the necessities of life, so that they may
were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. But have full opportunities of growth. We believe
also that if any government deprives a people of
the celebrations attracted very little attention. So Mahatma Gandhi these rights and oppresses them, the people
had to find a way to relate this abstract idea of freedom to more have a further right to alter it or to abolish it.
concrete issues of everyday life. The British Government in India has not only
deprived the Indian people of their freedom but
has based itself on the exploitation of the masses,
3.1 The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement and has ruined India economically, politically,
culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore,
Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite that India must sever the British connection and
attain Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence.’
the nation. On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin
stating eleven demands. Some of these were of general interest; Source
others were specific demands of different classes, from industrialists
to peasants. The idea was to make the demands wide-ranging, so
that all classes within Indian society could identify with them and
everyone could be brought together in a united campaign. The most
stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Salt was
something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one
of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the
government monopoly over its production, Mahatma Gandhi
declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.

Mahatma Gandhi’s letter was, in a way, an ultimatum. If the

demands were not fulfilled by 11 March, the letter stated, the
Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign. Irwin was
unwilling to negotiate. So Mahatma Gandhi started his famous
salt march accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march
Nationalism in India
was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to the
Gujarati coastal town of Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24 days,
about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi
wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by swaraj
and urged them to peacefully defy the British. On 6 April he reached
Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by
boiling sea water.

This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

How was this movement different from the Non-Cooperation
Movement? People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation

39
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 7 – The Dandi march.
During the salt march Mahatma
Gandhi was accompanied by
78 volunteers. On the way
they were joined by thousands.

with the British, as they had done in 1921-22, but also to break
colonial laws. Thousands in different parts of the country broke
the salt law, manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of
government salt factories. As the movement spread, foreign cloth
was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to
pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, and in
many places forest people violated forest laws – going into Reserved
Forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

Worried by the developments, the colonial government began

arresting the Congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes
in many palaces. When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of
Mahatma Gandhi, was arrested in April 1930, angry crowds
demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and
India and the Contemporary World

police firing. Many were killed. A month later, when Mahatma

Gandhi himself was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked
police posts, municipal buildings, lawcourts and railway stations –
all structures that symbolised British rule. A frightened government
responded with a policy of brutal repression. Peaceful satyagrahis
were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000
people were arrested.

In such a situation, Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off

the movement and entered into a pact with Irwin on 5 March 1931.
By this Gandhi-Irwin Pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Fig. 8 – Police cracked down on satyagrahis,
Round Table Conference (the Congress had boycotted the first 1930.

40
Reprint 2025-26
Round Table Conference) in London and the government agreed to Box 1
release the political prisoners. In December 1931, Gandhiji went to
‘To the altar of this revolution we have
London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down and
brought our youth as incense’
he returned disappointed. Back in India, he discovered that the
Many nationalists thought that the struggle
government had begun a new cycle of repression. Ghaffar Khan against the British could not be won through
and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail, the Congress had been non-violence. In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist
Republican Army (HSRA) was founded at a
declared illegal, and a series of measures had been imposed to prevent
meeting in Ferozeshah Kotla ground in Delhi.
meetings, demonstrations and boycotts. With great apprehension, Amongst its leaders were Bhagat Singh, Jatin
Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. Das and Ajoy Ghosh. In a series of dramatic
actions in different parts of India, the HSRA
For over a year, the movement continued, but by 1934 it lost
targeted some of the symbols of British power.
its momentum. In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar
Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly.
In the same year there was an attempt to blow
3.2 How Participants saw the Movement up the train that Lord Irwin was travelling in.
Bhagat Singh was 23 when he was tried and
Let us now look at the different social groups that participated in the executed by the colonial government. During
Civil Disobedience Movement. Why did they join the movement? his trial, Bhagat Singh stated that he did not
wish to glorify ‘the cult of the bomb and pistol’
What were their ideals? What did swaraj mean to them?
but wanted a revolution in society:
In the countryside, rich peasant communities – like the Patidars of ‘Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind.
Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh – were active in the movement. Freedom is the imprescriptible birthright of all.
The labourer is the real sustainer of society …
Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit by To the altar of this revolution we have brought
the trade depression and falling prices. As their cash income our youth as incense, for no sacrifice is too
disappeared, they found it impossible to pay the government’s revenue great for so magnificent a cause. We are
content. We await the advent of revolution.
demand. And the refusal of the government to reduce the revenue Inquilab Zindabad!’
demand led to widespread resentment. These rich peasants became
enthusiastic supporters of the Civil Disobedience Movement,
organising their communities, and at times forcing reluctant members,
to participate in the boycott programmes. For them the fight for
swaraj was a struggle against high revenues. But they were deeply
disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931 without
the revenue rates being revised. So when the movement was restarted
in 1932, many of them refused to participate.
Nationalism in India
The poorer peasantry were not just interested in the lowering of the
revenue demand. Many of them were small tenants cultivating land
they had rented from landlords. As the Depression continued and
cash incomes dwindled, the small tenants found it difficult to pay
their rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.
They joined a variety of radical movements, often led by Socialists
and Communists. Apprehensive of raising issues that might upset
the rich peasants and landlords, the Congress was unwilling to support
‘no rent’ campaigns in most places. So the relationship between the
poor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.

41
Reprint 2025-26
 What about the business classes? How did they relate to the Civil
Disobedience Movement? During the First World War, Indian
Some important dates
merchants and industrialists had made huge profits and become
powerful (see Chapter 5). Keen on expanding their business, they 1918-19

now reacted against colonial policies that restricted business activities. Distressed UP peasants organised by Baba
They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods, and a Ramchandra.

rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports. April 1919

To organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial Gandhian hartal against Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala
and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Bagh massacre.

Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. Led by January 1921

prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movement
G. D. Birla, the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian launched.
economy, and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement when February 1922
it was first launched. They gave financial assistance and refused to Chauri Chaura; Gandhiji withdraws Non-
buy or sell imported goods. Most businessmen came to see swaraj Cooperation movement.
as a time when colonial restrictions on business would no longer May 1924
exist and trade and industry would flourish without constraints. But Alluri Sitarama Raju arrested ending a two-year
after the failure of the Round Table Conference, business groups armed tribal struggle.
were no longer uniformly enthusiastic. They were apprehensive of December 1929
the spread of militant activities, and worried about prolonged Lahore Congress; Congress adopts the demand
disruption of business, as well as of the growing influence of for ‘Purna Swaraj’.
socialism amongst the younger members of the Congress. 1930

The industrial working classes did not participate in the Civil Ambedkar establishes Depressed Classes
Disobedience Movement in large numbers, except in the Nagpur Association.

region. As the industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers March 1930

stayed aloof. But in spite of that, some workers did participate in Gandhiji begins Civil Disobedience Movement by
the Civil Disobedience Movement, selectively adopting some of breaking salt law at Dandi.

the ideas of the Gandhian programme, like boycott of foreign March 1931
goods, as part of their own movements against low wages and Gandhiji ends Civil Disobedience Movement.
India and the Contemporary World

poor working conditions. There were strikes by railway workers in December 1931
1930 and dockworkers in 1932. In 1930 thousands of workers in Second Round Table Conference.
Chotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest 1932
rallies and boycott campaigns. But the Congress was reluctant to
Civil Disobedience re-launched.
include workers’ demands as part of its programme of struggle.
It felt that this would alienate industrialists and divide the anti-
imperial forces.

Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement

was the large-scale participation of women. During Gandhiji’s salt
march, thousands of women came out of their homes to listen to
him. They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and

42
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 9 – Women join
nationalist processions.
During the national
movement, many women,
for the first time in their
lives, moved out of their
homes on to a public arena.
Amongst the marchers you
can see many old women,
and mothers with children in
their arms.

picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. In urban
areas these women were from high-caste families; in rural areas
they came from rich peasant households. Moved by Gandhiji’s call,
they began to see service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.
Yet, this increased public role did not necessarily mean any radical
change in the way the position of women was visualised. Gandhiji
was convinced that it was the duty of women to look after home
Discuss
and hearth, be good mothers and good wives. And for a long time
the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position Why did various classes and groups of Indians
participate in the Civil Disobedience
of authority within the organisation. It was keen only on their
Movement?
symbolic presence.
Nationalism in India

3.3 The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj.
One such group was the nation’s ‘untouchables’, who from around
the 1930s had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed. For
long the Congress had ignored the dalits, for fear of offending the
sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. But Mahatma Gandhi
declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if
untouchability was not eliminated. He called the ‘untouchables’ harijan,

43
Reprint 2025-26
 or the children of God, organised satyagraha to secure them
entry into temples, and access to public wells, tanks, roads and
schools. He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the
bhangi (the sweepers), and persuaded upper castes to change
their heart and give up ‘the sin of untouchability’. But many
dalit leaders were keen on a different political solution to the
problems of the community. They began organising themselves,
demanding reserved seats in educational institutions, and a
separate electorate that would choose dalit members for
legislative councils. Political empowerment, they believed, would
resolve the problems of their social disabilities. Dalit
participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was therefore
limited, particularly in the Maharashtra and Nagpur region
where their organisation was quite strong.
Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the
Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma
Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding
separate electorates for dalits. When the British government
conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji began a fast unto
death. He believed that separate electorates for dalits would
slow down the process of their integration into society.
Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position and the
result was the Poona Pact of September 1932. It gave the
Depressed Classes (later to be known as the Schedule Castes)
reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils,
but they were to be voted in by the general electorate. The
dalit movement, however, continued to be apprehensive of
the Congress-led national movement.
Some of the Muslim political organisations in India were also
lukewarm in their response to the Civil Disobedience
Movement. After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat
India and the Contemporary World

Movement, a large section of Muslims felt alienated from the

Congress. From the mid-1920s the Congress came to be more
visibly associated with openly Hindu religious nationalist groups
like the Hindu Mahasabha. As relations between Hindus and
Muslims worsened, each community organised religious
processions with militant fervour, provoking Hindu-Muslim
communal clashes and riots in various cities. Every riot deepened
the distance between the two communities.
The Congress and the Muslim League made efforts to renegotiate
an alliance, and in 1927 it appeared that such a unity could be forged. Fig. 10 – Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru
and Maulana Azad at Sevagram Ashram,
The important differences were over the question of representation Wardha, 1935.
in the future assemblies that were to be elected. Muhammad Ali

44
Reprint 2025-26
Jinnah, one of the leaders of the Muslim League, was willing to give
up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured
reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in
proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal
and Punjab). Negotiations over the question of representation
continued but all hope of resolving the issue at the All Parties
Conference in 1928 disappeared when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu
Mahasabha strongly opposed efforts at compromise.

When the Civil Disobedience Movement started there was thus

an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities.
Alienated from the Congress, large sections of Muslims could not
respond to the call for a united struggle. Many Muslim leaders and
intellectuals expressed their concern about the status of Muslims
as a minority within India. They feared that the culture and identity
of minorities would be submerged under the domination of a
Hindu majority.

Source D

In 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, as president of the Muslim League, reiterated the importance of separate electorates for
the Muslims as an important safeguard for their minority political interests. His statement is supposed to have provided the
intellectual justification for the Pakistan demand that came up in subsequent years. This is what he said:
‘I have no hesitation in declaring that if the principle that the Indian Muslim is entitled to full and free development on the
lines of his own culture and tradition in his own Indian home-lands is recognised as the basis of a permanent communal
settlement, he will be ready to stake his all for the freedom of India. The principle that each group is entitled to free
development on its own lines is not inspired by any feeling of narrow communalism … A community which is inspired by
feelings of ill-will towards other communities is low and ignoble. I entertain the highest respect for the customs, laws,
religions and social institutions of other communities. Nay, it is my duty according to the teachings of the Quran, even to
defend their places of worship, if need be. Yet I love the communal group which is the source of life and behaviour and
which has formed me what I am by giving me its religion, its literature, its thought, its culture and thereby its whole past
as a living operative factor in my present consciousness …
‘Communalism in its higher aspect, then, is indispensable to the formation of a harmonious whole in a country like India.
The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries … The principle of European democracy cannot be
applied to India without recognising the fact of communal groups. The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim India
within India is, therefore, perfectly justified… Nationalism in India
‘The Hindu thinks that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit of true nationalism, because he understands the
word “nation” to mean a kind of universal amalgamation in which no communal entity ought to retain its private individuality.
Such a state of things, however, does not exist. India is a land of racial and religious variety. Add to this the general
economic inferiority of the Muslims, their enormous debt, especially in the Punjab, and their insufficient majorities in some
of the provinces, as at present constituted and you will begin to see clearly the meaning of our anxiety to retain separate
electorates.’
Source
Discuss
Read the Source D carefully. Do you agree with Iqbal’s idea of communalism? Can you define communalism in a
different way?

45
Reprint 2025-26
 4 The Sense of Collective Belonging

Fig. 11 – Bal Gangadhar Tilak,

an early-twentieth-century print.
Notice how Tilak is surrounded by symbols of
unity. The sacred institutions of different faiths
(temple, church, masjid) frame the central figure.
India and the Contemporary World

Nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all
part of the same nation, when they discover some unity that binds
them together. But how did the nation become a reality in the minds
of people? How did people belonging to different communities,
regions or language groups develop a sense of collective belonging?

This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience

of united struggles. But there were also a variety of cultural processes
through which nationalism captured people’s imagination. History
and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols, all played
a part in the making of nationalism.

46
Reprint 2025-26
The identity of the nation, as you know (see Chapter 1), is most
often symbolised in a figure or image. This helps create an image
with which people can identify the nation. It was in the twentieth
century, with the growth of nationalism, that the identity of India
came to be visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata. The
image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. In the
1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.
Later it was included in his novel Anandamath and widely sung during
the Swadeshi movement in Bengal. Moved by the Swadeshi
movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted his famous image of
Bharat Mata (see Fig. 12). In this painting Bharat Mata is portrayed
as an ascetic figure; she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual.
In subsequent years, the image of Bharat Mata acquired many
different forms, as it circulated in popular prints, and was painted
by different artists (see Fig. 14). Devotion to this mother figure came
to be seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.

Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive

Indian folklore. In late-nineteenth-century India, nationalists began
recording folk tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gather
folk songs and legends. These tales, they believed, gave a true picture
of traditional culture that had been corrupted and damaged by
outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk tradition in
order to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of pride
Fig. 12 – Bharat Mata, Abanindranath Tagore,
in one’s past. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself began collecting 1905.
ballads, nursery rhymes and myths, and led the movement for folk Notice that the mother figure here is shown as
dispensing learning, food and clothing. The mala
in one hand emphasises her ascetic quality.
Abanindranath Tagore, like Ravi Varma before
him, tried to develop a style of painting that
could be seen as truly Indian.

Nationalism in India

Fig. 13 – Jawaharlal Nehru, a popular print.

Nehru is here shown holding the image of Bharat Mata and the map of India
close to his heart. In a lot of popular prints, nationalist leaders are shown
offering their heads to Bharat Mata. The idea of sacrifice for the mother was
powerful within popular imagination.

47
Reprint 2025-26
 revival. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published a massive four-volume
collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India. He believed
that folklore was national literature; it was ‘the most trustworthy
manifestation of people’s real thoughts and characteristics’.

As the national movement developed, nationalist leaders became

more and more aware of such icons and symbols in unifying people
and inspiring in them a feeling of nationalism. During the Swadeshi
movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green and yellow) was
designed. It had eight lotuses representing eight provinces of British
India, and a crescent moon, representing Hindus and Muslims. By
1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again a tricolour
(red, green and white) and had a spinning wheel in the centre,
representing the Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag,
holding it aloft, during marches became a symbol of defiance.

Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through

reinterpretation of history. By the end of the nineteenth century
many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the
nation, Indian history had to be thought about differently. The British
Fig. 14a – Bharat Mata.
saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing This figure of Bharat Mata is a contrast to the
themselves. In response, Indians began looking into the past to one painted by Abanindranath Tagore. Here she
is shown with a trishul, standing beside a lion
discover India’s great achievements. They wrote about the glorious and an elephant – both symbols of power and
developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science authority.

and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts

and trade had flourished. This glorious time, in their view, was
followed by a history of decline, when India was colonised. These Activity
nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great Look at Figs. 12 and 14. Do you think these
achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable images will appeal to all castes and communities?

conditions of life under British rule. Explain your views briefly.

India and the Contemporary World

These efforts to unify people were not without problems. When the
past being glorified was Hindu, when the images celebrated were
drawn from Hindu iconography, then people of other communities
felt left out.

Source E

‘In earlier times, foreign travellers in India marvelled at the courage, truthfulness and modesty of the people of the Arya
vamsa; now they remark mainly on the absence of those qualities. In those days Hindus would set out on conquest and
hoist their flags in Tartar, China and other countries; now a few soldiers from a tiny island far away are lording it over the
land of India.’
Tarinicharan Chattopadhyay, Bharatbarsher Itihas (The History of Bharatbarsh), vol. 1, 1858.
Source

48
Reprint 2025-26
Conclusion
A growing anger against the colonial government was thus
bringing together various groups and classes of Indians into a
common struggle for freedom in the first half of the twentieth
century. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi
tried to channel people’s grievances into organised movements
for independence. Through such movements the nationalists
tried to forge a national unity. But as we have seen, diverse groups
and classes participated in these movements with varied aspirations
and expectations. As their
grievances were wide-ranging,
freedom from colonial rule also
meant different things to
different people. The Congress
continuously attempted to
resolve differences, and ensure
that the demands of one group
did not alienate another. This is
precisely why the unity within
the movement often broke down.
The high points of Congress
activity and nationalist unity
were followed by phases of
disunity and inner conflict
between groups.

In other words, what was emerging was a nation with many Fig. 14b
Women’s procession in Bombay during the Quit
voices wanting freedom from colonial rule. India Movement

Quit India Movement

The failure of the Cripps Mission and the effects of World War II created widespread discontentment in India. This Nationalism in India
led Gandhiji to launch a movement calling for complete withdrawal of the British from India. The Congress Working
Committee, in its meeting in Wardha on 14 July 1942, passed the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution demanding the
immediate transfer of power to Indians and quit India. On 8 August 1942 in Bombay, the All India Congress Committee
endorsed the resolution which called for a non-violent mass struggle on the widest possible scale throughout the
country. It was on this occasion that Gandhiji delivered the famous ‘Do or Die’ speech. The call for ‘Quit India’ almost
brought the state machinery to a standstill in large parts of the country as people voluntarily threw themselves into
the thick of the movement. People observed hartals, and demonstrations and processions were accompanied by
national songs and slogans. The movement was truly a mass movement which brought into its ambit thousands of
ordinary people, namely students, workers and peasants. It also saw the active participation of leaders, namely,
Jayprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali and Ram Manohar Lohia and many women such as Matangini Hazra in Bengal,
Kanaklata Barua in Assam and Rama Devi in Odisha. The British responded with much force, yet it took more than a
year to suppress the movement.

49
Reprint 2025-26
 Write in brief

1. Explain:
a) Why growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement.
b) How the First World War helped in the growth of the National Movement in India.
c) Why Indians were outraged by the Rowlatt Act.

Write in brief
d) Why Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
2. What is meant by the idea of satyagraha?
3. Write a newspaper report on:
a) The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
b) The Simon Commission
4. Compare the images of Bharat Mata in this chapter with the image of Germania
in Chapter 1.

Discuss

1. List all the different social groups which joined the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921.
Then choose any three and write about their hopes and struggles to show why they
joined the movement.

Discuss
2. Discuss the Salt March to make clear why it was an effective symbol of resistance
against colonialism.
3. Imagine you are a woman participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement. Explain
what the experience meant to your life.
4. Why did political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate electorates?
India and the Contemporary World

Project

Find out about the anti-colonial movement in Indo-China. Compare and contrast India’s national
movement with the ways in which Indo-China became independent.
Project

50
Reprint 2025-26
SECTION II

LIVELIHOODS, ECONOMIES AND SOCIETIES

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
 Chapter III
The Making of a Global World
1 The Pre-modern World
When we talk of ‘globalisation’ we often refer to an economic
system that has emerged since the last 50 years or so. But as you will
see in this chapter, the making of the global world has a long
history – of trade, of migration, of people in search of work, the
movement of capital, and much else. As we think about the dramatic
and visible signs of global interconnectedness in our lives today,
we need to understand the phases through which this world in
which we live has emerged.

All through history, human societies have become steadily more

interlinked. From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests and
pilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and

World
spiritual fulfilment, or to escape persecution. They carried goods,
money, values, skills, ideas, inventions, and even germs and diseases.
As early as 3000 BCE an active coastal trade linked the Indus valley
civilisations with present-day West Asia. For more than a millennia,
cowries (the Hindi cowdi or seashells, used as a form of currency)
from the Maldives found their way to China and East Africa. The

Global
long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs may be traced as
far back as the seventh century. By the thirteenth century it had
become an unmistakable link.

a
of
MakingThe Making of a Global World

Fig. 1 – Image of a ship on a memorial stone,

Goa Museum, tenth century CE.
From the ninth century, images of ships
The

appear regularly in memorial stones found in

the western coast, indicating the significance
of oceanic trade.

53
Reprint 2025-26
 1.1 Silk Routes Link the World
The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade
and cultural links between distant parts of the world. The name ‘silk
routes’ points to the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes
along this route. Historians have identified several silk routes, over
land and by sea, knitting together vast regions of Asia, and linking
Asia with Europe and northern Africa. They are known to have
existed since before the Christian Era and thrived almost till the
fifteenth century. But Chinese pottery also travelled the same route,
as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia. In return,
precious metals – gold and silver – flowed from Europe to Asia.
Fig. 2 – Silk route trade as depicted in a
Trade and cultural exchange always went hand in hand. Early Chinese cave painting, eighth century, Cave
Christian missionaries almost certainly travelled this route to Asia, as 217, Mogao Grottoes, Gansu, China.

did early Muslim preachers a few centuries later. Much before all
this, Buddhism emerged from eastern India and spread in several
directions through intersecting points on the silk routes.

1.2 Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange.
Traders and travellers introduced new crops to the lands they
travelled. Even ‘ready’ foodstuff in distant parts of the world might
share common origins. Take spaghetti and noodles. It is believed
that noodles travelled west from China to
become spaghetti. Or, perhaps Arab traders
took pasta to fifth-century Sicily, an island now
in Italy. Similar foods were also known in India
and Japan, so the truth about their origins may
India and the Contemporary World

never be known. Yet such guesswork suggests

the possibilities of long-distance cultural contact
even in the pre-modern world.

Many of our common foods such as potatoes,

soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies,
sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to
our ancestors until about five centuries ago.
These foods were only introduced in Europe
and Asia after Christopher Columbus
accidentally discovered the vast continent that Fig. 3 – Merchants from Venice and the Orient exchanging goods,
from Marco Polo, Book of Marvels, fifteenth century.
would later become known as the Americas.

54
Reprint 2025-26
(Here we will use ‘America’ to describe North America, South
America and the Caribbean.) In fact, many of our common foods
came from America’s original inhabitants – the American Indians.

Sometimes the new crops could make the difference between life
and death. Europe’s poor began to eat better and live longer with
the introduction of the humble potato. Ireland’s poorest peasants
became so dependent on potatoes that when disease destroyed the
potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died
of starvation.

1.3 Conquest, Disease and Trade

The pre-modern world shrank greatly in the sixteenth century after
European sailors found a sea route to Asia and also successfully
crossed the western ocean to America. For centuries before, the
Indian Ocean had known a bustling trade, with goods, people,
knowledge, customs, etc. criss-crossing its waters. The Indian
subcontinent was central to these flows and a crucial point in their
networks. The entry of the Europeans helped expand or redirect
some of these flows towards Europe.

Before its ‘discovery’, America had been cut off from regular contact Fig. 4 – The Irish Potato Famine, Illustrated
with the rest of the world for millions of years. But from the sixteenth London News, 1849.
Hungry children digging for potatoes in a field that
century, its vast lands and abundant crops and minerals began to has already been harvested, hoping to discover
transform trade and lives everywhere. some leftovers. During the Great Irish Potato
Famine (1845 to 1849), around 1,000,000
Precious metals, particularly silver, from mines located in present- people died of starvation in Ireland, and double the
number emigrated in search of work.
day Peru and Mexico also enhanced Europe’s wealth and financed
its trade with Asia. Legends spread in seventeenth-century Europe
about South America’s fabled wealth. Many expeditions set off in
search of El Dorado, the fabled city of gold.

The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of America The Making of a Global World
was decisively under way by the mid-sixteenth century. European Box 1
conquest was not just a result of superior firepower. In fact, the
‘Biological’ warfare?
most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors was not a
John Winthorp, the first governor of the
conventional military weapon at all. It was the germs such as those Massachusetts Bay colony in New England,
of smallpox that they carried on their person. Because of their long wrote in May 1634 that smallpox signalled God’s
isolation, America’s original inhabitants had no immunity against blessing for the colonists: ‘… the natives … were
neere (near) all dead of small Poxe (pox), so as
these diseases that came from Europe. Smallpox in particular proved the Lord hathe (had) cleared our title to what
a deadly killer. Once introduced, it spread deep into the continent, we possess’.
ahead even of any Europeans reaching there. It killed and decimated Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism.
whole communities, paving the way for conquest.

55
Reprint 2025-26
 Guns could be bought or captured and turned against the invaders.
New words
But not diseases such as smallpox to which the conquerors were
Dissenter – One who refuses to accept
mostly immune.
established beliefs and practices
Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in
Europe. Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread.
Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters were
persecuted. Thousands therefore fled Europe for America. Here,
by the eighteenth century, plantations worked by slaves captured
in Africa were growing cotton and sugar for European markets.

Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among
the world’s richest countries. They were also pre-eminent in Asian
trade. However, from the fifteenth century, China is said to have Discuss
restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. China’s
Explain what we mean when we say that the
reduced role and the rising importance of the Americas gradually
world ‘shrank’ in the 1500s.
moved the centre of world trade westwards. Europe now emerged
as the centre of world trade.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 5 – Slaves for sale, New Orleans, Illustrated London News, 1851.
A prospective buyer carefully inspecting slaves lined up before the auction. You can see two
children along with four women and seven men in top hats and suit waiting to be sold. To attract
buyers, slaves were often dressed in their best clothes.

56
Reprint 2025-26
 2 The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

The world changed profoundly in the nineteenth century. Economic,

political, social, cultural and technological factors interacted in
complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations.

Economists identify three types of movement or ‘flows’ within

international economic exchanges. The first is the flow of trade which
in the nineteenth century referred largely to trade in goods (e.g.,
cloth or wheat). The second is the flow of labour – the migration
of people in search of employment. The third is the movement of
capital for short-term or long-term investments over long distances.

All three flows were closely interwoven and affected peoples’ lives
more deeply now than ever before. The interconnections could
sometimes be broken – for example, labour migration was often
more restricted than goods or capital flows. Yet it helps us understand
the nineteenth-century world economy better if we look at the
three flows together.

2.1 A World Economy Takes Shape

A good place to start is the changing pattern of food production
and consumption in industrial Europe. Traditionally, countries liked
to be self-sufficient in food. But in nineteenth-century Britain,
self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social
conflict. Why was this so?

Population growth from the late eighteenth century had increased

the demand for food grains in Britain. As urban centres expanded
and industry grew, the demand for agricultural products went

The Making of a Global World

up, pushing up food grain prices. Under pressure from landed
groups, the government also restricted the import of corn. The
laws allowing the government to do this were commonly known as
the ‘Corn Laws’. Unhappy with high food prices, industrialists and
urban dwellers forced the abolition of the Corn Laws.

After the Corn Laws were scrapped, food could be imported into
Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the country.
British agriculture was unable to compete with imports. Vast areas
of land were now left uncultivated, and thousands of men and
women were thrown out of work. They flocked to the cities or
migrated overseas.

57
Reprint 2025-26
 As food prices fell, consumption in Britain rose. From the mid-
nineteenth century, faster industrial growth in Britain also led to higher
incomes, and therefore more food imports. Around the world – in
Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia – lands were cleared
and food production expanded to meet the British demand.

It was not enough merely to clear lands for agriculture. Railways

were needed to link the agricultural regions to the ports. New
harbours had to be built and old ones expanded to ship the new
cargoes. People had to settle on the lands to bring them under
cultivation. This meant building homes and settlements. All these
activities in turn required capital and labour. Capital flowed from
financial centres such as London. The demand for labour in places
where labour was in short supply – as in America and Australia –
led to more migration.

Nearly 50 million people emigrated from Europe to America and

Australia in the nineteenth century. All over the world some 150
million are estimated to have left their homes, crossed oceans and
vast distances over land in search of a better future. Fig. 6 – Emigrant ship leaving for the US, by
M.W. Ridley, 1869.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 7 – Irish emigrants waiting to board the ship, by Michael Fitzgerald, 1874.

58
Reprint 2025-26
Thus by 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape,
Activity
accompanied by complex changes in labour movement patterns,
capital flows, ecologies and technology. Food no longer came from Prepare a flow chart to show how Britain’s
decision to import food led to increased
a nearby village or town, but from thousands of miles away. It was
migration to America and Australia.
not grown by a peasant tilling his own land, but by an agricultural
worker, perhaps recently arrived, who was now working on a large
farm that only a generation ago had most likely been a forest. It was
transported by railway, built for that very purpose, and by ships
which were increasingly manned in these decades by low-paid
workers from southern Europe, Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.

Activity
Imagine that you are an agricultural worker who has arrived in
America from Ireland. Write a paragraph on why you chose to
come and how you are earning your living.

Some of this dramatic change, though on a smaller scale, occurred

closer home in west Punjab. Here the British Indian government
built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastes
into fertile agricultural lands that could grow wheat and cotton for
export. The Canal Colonies, as the areas irrigated by the new canals
were called, were settled by peasants from other parts of Punjab.

Of course, food is merely an example. A similar story can be told

for cotton, the cultivation of which expanded worldwide to feed
British textile mills. Or rubber. Indeed, so rapidly did regional
specialisation in the production of commodities develop, that
between 1820 and 1914 world trade is estimated to have multiplied
25 to 40 times. Nearly 60 per cent of this trade comprised ‘primary
products’ – that is, agricultural products such as wheat and cotton,
The Making of a Global World
and minerals such as coal.

2.2 Role of Technology

What was the role of technology in all this? The railways, steamships,
the telegraph, for example, were important inventions without
which we cannot imagine the transformed nineteenth-century world.
But technological advances were often the result of larger social,
political and economic factors. For example, colonisation stimulated
new investments and improvements in transport: faster railways,
lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaply
and quickly from faraway farms to final markets.

59
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 8 — The Smithfield Club
Cattle Show, Illustrated London
News, 1851.
Cattle were traded at fairs, brought
by farmers for sale. One of the
oldest livestock markets in London
was at Smithfield. In the mid-
nineteenth century a huge poultry
and meat market was established
near the railway line connecting
Smithfield to all the meat-supplying
centres of the country.

The trade in meat offers a good example of this connected process.

Till the 1870s, animals were shipped live from America to Europe
and then slaughtered when they arrived there. But live animals took
up a lot of ship space. Many also died in voyage, fell ill, lost weight,
or became unfit to eat. Meat was hence an expensive luxury beyond
the reach of the European poor. High prices in turn kept demand
and production down until the development of a new technology,
namely, refrigerated ships, which enabled the transport of perishable
foods over long distances.

Now animals were slaughtered for food at the starting point – in

America, Australia or New Zealand – and then transported to
Europe as frozen meat. This reduced shipping costs and lowered
meat prices in Europe. The poor in Europe could now consume
a more varied diet. To the earlier monotony of bread and potatoes
many, though not all, could now add meat (and butter and eggs)
to their diet. Better living conditions promoted social peace within
Fig. 9 – Meat being loaded on to the ship,
the country and support for imperialism abroad. Alexandra, Illustrated London News, 1878.
India and the Contemporary World

Export of meat was possible only after ships

were refrigerated.
2.3 Late nineteenth-century Colonialism
Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late nineteenth
century. But this was not only a period of expanding trade and
increased prosperity. It is important to realise that there was a
darker side to this process. In many parts of the world, the
expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the world
economy also meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods. Late-
nineteenth-century European conquests produced many painful
economic, social and ecological changes through which the
colonised societies were brought into the world economy.

60
Reprint 2025-26
Look at a map of Africa (Fig. 10). You SPANISH
MOROCCO
will see some countries’ borders run MEDITERRANEAN SEA
TUNISIA

straight, as if they were drawn using a MOROCCO

SPANISH LIBYA
ALGERIA
ruler. Well, in fact this was almost how SAHARA (TRIPOLI)
EGYPT

RE
rival European powers in Africa drew up RIO

DS
DE ORO

EA
the borders demarcating their respective FRENCH
FRENCH WEST AFRICA EQUATORIAL ERITREA FRENCH
territories. In 1885 the big European AFRICA ANGLO- SOMALILAND
FRENCH SUDAN
powers met in Berlin to complete the EGYPTIAN
PORT SUDAN BRITISH
NIGERIA
carving up of Africa between them. GUINEA SOMALILAND
ETHIOPIA
SIERRA CAMEROONS ITALIAN
Britain and France made vast additions to LEONE
GOLD TOGO BRITISH
SOMALILAND
CONGO
their overseas territories in the late nineteenth IVORY COAST MIDDLE
FREE STATE EAST AFRICA
COAST CONGO
century. Belgium and Germany became new (BELGIAN
CONGO) GERMAN
colonial powers. The US also became a ATLANTIC EAST AFRICA
OCEAN
colonial power in the late 1890s by taking ANGOLA
PORTUGUESE
NORTHERN
EAST AFRICA
over some colonies earlier held by Spain. RHODESIA

GERMAN SOUTHERN
Let us look at one example of the destructive BELGIAN
BRITISH SOUTH WEST RHODESIA MADAGASCAR
FRENCH AFRICA
impact of colonialism on the economy and GERMAN
ITALIAN
PORTUGUESE
livelihoods of colonised people. SPANISH
BRITISH DOMINION UNION OF
INDEPENDENT STATE
SOUTH AFRICA

Fig. 10 – Map of colonial Africa at the end of the nineteenth century.

Box 2

Sir Henry Morton Stanley in Central

Africa
Stanley was a journalist and explorer sent
by the New York Herald to find Livingston,
a missionary and explorer who had been in

The Making of a Global World

Africa for several years. Like other European
and American explorers of the time, Stanley
went with arms, mobilised local hunters,
warriors and labourers to help him, fought
with local tribes, investigated African
terrains, and mapped different regions.
These explorations helped the conquest
of Africa. Geographical explorations were
not driven by an innocent search for
scientific information. They were directly
linked to imperial projects.

Fig. 11 – Sir Henry Morton Stanley and his retinue in Central Africa,
Illustrated London News, 1871.

61
Reprint 2025-26
 2.4 Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague
In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague
or Rinderpest had a terrifying impact on people’s
livelihoods and the local economy. This is a good example
of the widespread European imperial impact on colonised
societies. It shows how in this era of conquest even a disease
affecting cattle reshaped the lives and fortunes of thousands
of people and their relations with the rest of the world.

Historically, Africa had abundant land and a relatively small

population. For centuries, land and livestock sustained African Fig. 12 – Transport to the Transvaal gold mines,
livelihoods and people rarely worked for a wage. In late- The Graphic, 1887.
Crossing the Wilge river was the quickest method of
nineteenth-century Africa there were few consumer goods that transport to the gold fields of Transvaal. After the
wages could buy. If you had been an African possessing land discovery of gold in Witwatersrand, Europeans
rushed to the region despite their fear of disease and
and livestock – and there was plenty of both – you too would death, and the difficulties of the journey. By the
have seen little reason to work for a wage. 1890s, South Africa contributed over 20 per cent of
the world gold production.
In the late nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to
Africa due to its vast resources of land and minerals. Europeans
came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to
produce crops and minerals for export to Europe. But there
was an unexpected problem – a shortage of labour willing to
work for wages.

Employers used many methods to recruit and retain labour. Heavy

taxes were imposed which could be paid only by working for wages
on plantations and mines. Inheritance laws were changed so that
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 13 — Diggers at work

in the Transvaal gold fields
in South Africa, The
Graphic, 1875.

62
Reprint 2025-26
peasants were displaced from land: only one member of a family
was allowed to inherit land, as a result of which the others were
pushed into the labour market. Mineworkers were also confined in
compounds and not allowed to move about freely.

Then came Rinderpest, a devastating cattle disease.

Rinderpest arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. It was carried by

infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers
invading Eritrea in East Africa. Entering Africa in the east, rinderpest
moved west ‘like forest fire’, reaching Africa’s Atlantic coast in 1892.
It reached the Cape (Africa’s southernmost tip) five years later. Along
the way rinderpest killed 90 per cent of the cattle.

The loss of cattle destroyed African livelihoods. Planters, mine owners

and colonial governments now successfully monopolised what scarce
cattle resources remained, to strengthen their power and to force
Africans into the labour market. Control over the scarce resource
of cattle enabled European colonisers to conquer and subdue Africa.

Similar stories can be told about the impact of Western conquest on

other parts of the nineteenth-century world.

2.4 Indentured Labour Migration from India

The example of indentured labour migration from India also
New words
illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world.
It was a world of faster economic growth as well as great misery, Indentured labour – A bonded labourer under
higher incomes for some and poverty for others, technological contract to work for an employer for a specific
advances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others. amount of time, to pay off his passage to a
new country or home
In the nineteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Indian and
Chinese labourers went to work on plantations, in mines, and in
road and railway construction projects around the world. In India, The Making of a Global World
indentured labourers were hired under contracts which promised
return travel to India after they had worked five years on their
employer’s plantation.

Most Indian indentured workers came from the present-day regions

of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts
of Tamil Nadu. In the mid-nineteenth century these regions
experienced many changes – cottage industries declined, land rents
rose, lands were cleared for mines and plantations. All this affected
the lives of the poor: they failed to pay their rents, became deeply
indebted and were forced to migrate in search of work.

63
Reprint 2025-26
 The main destinations of Indian indentured
migrants were the Caribbean islands (mainly
Trinidad, Guyana and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji.
Closer home, Tamil migrants went to Ceylon and
Malaya. Indentured workers were also recruited
for tea plantations in Assam.

Recruitment was done by agents engaged by

employers and paid a small commission. Many
migrants agreed to take up work hoping to escape
poverty or oppression in their home villages.
Agents also tempted the prospective migrants
by providing false information about final
destinations, modes of travel, the nature of the Fig. 14 — Indian indentured labourers in a cocoa plantation in
work, and living and working conditions. Often Trinidad, early nineteenth century.
migrants were not even told that they were to embark on a long
sea voyage. Sometimes agents even forcibly abducted less
willing migrants.

Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a ‘new system

of slavery’. On arrival at the plantations, labourers found conditions Discuss
to be different from what they had imagined. Living and working Discuss the importance of language and
conditions were harsh, and there were few legal rights. popular traditions in the creation of national
identity.
But workers discovered their own ways of surviving. Many of them
escaped into the wilds, though if caught they faced severe punishment.
Others developed new forms of individual and collective self-
expression, blending different cultural forms, old and new. In
Trinidad the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a
riotous carnival called ‘Hosay’ (for Imam Hussain) in which workers
of all races and religions joined. Similarly, the protest religion of
Rastafarianism (made famous by the Jamaican reggae star Bob
India and the Contemporary World

Marley) is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian
migrants to the Caribbean. ‘Chutney music’, popular in Trinidad
and Guyana, is another creative contemporary expression of the
post-indenture experience. These forms of cultural fusion are part
of the making of the global world, where things from different
places get mixed, lose their original characteristics and become
something entirely new.

Most indentured workers stayed on after their contracts ended, or

returned to their new homes after a short spell in India. Consequently, Fig. 15 — Indentured laboureres photographed
for identification.
there are large communities of people of Indian descent in these For the employers, the numbers and not the
countries. Have you heard of the Nobel Prize-winning writer names mattered.

64
Reprint 2025-26
V.S. Naipaul? Some of you may have followed the exploits of
West Indies cricketers Shivnarine Chanderpaul and Ramnaresh
Sarwan. If you have wondered why their names sound vaguely
Indian, the answer is that they are descended from indentured
labour migrants from India.
From the 1900s India’s nationalist leaders began opposing the system
of indentured labour migration as abusive and cruel. It was abolished
in 1921. Yet for a number of decades afterwards, descendants of
Indian indentured workers, often thought of as ‘coolies’, remained
Fig. 16 — A contract form of an indentured
an uneasy minority in the Caribbean islands. Some of Naipaul’s labourer.
early novels capture their sense of loss and alienation.

2.5 Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad Source A

Growing food and other crops for the world market required The testimony of an indentured labourer
capital. Large plantations could borrow it from banks and Extract from the testimony of Ram Narain
markets. But what about the humble peasant? Tewary, an indentured labourer who spent ten
years on Demerara in the early twentieth century.
Enter the Indian banker. Do you know of the Shikaripuri
‘… in spite of my best efforts, I could not properly
Shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars? They were amongst the do the works that were allotted to me ... In a
many groups of bankers and traders who financed export few days I got my hands bruised all over and I
agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own could not go to work for a week for which I was
prosecuted and sent to jail for 14 days. ... new
funds or those borrowed from European banks. They had a
emigrants find the tasks allotted to them
sophisticated system to transfer money over large distances, and extremely heavy and cannot complete them in
even developed indigenous forms of corporate organisation. a day. ... Deductions are also made from wages
if the work is considered to have been done
Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European unsatisfactorily. Many people cannot therefore
colonisers into Africa. Hyderabadi Sindhi traders, however, earn their full wages and are punished in various
ventured beyond European colonies. From the 1860s they ways. In fact, the labourers have to spend their
period of indenture in great trouble …’
established flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide, selling
Source: Department of Commerce and Industry,
local and imported curios to tourists whose numbers were
Emigration Branch. 1916
beginning to swell, thanks to the development of safe and Source
The Making of a Global World
comfortable passenger vessels.

2.6 Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

Historically, fine cottons produced in India were exported to
Europe. With industrialisation, British cotton manufacture
began to expand, and industrialists pressurised the government
to restrict cotton imports and protect local industries. Tariffs
were imposed on cloth imports into Britain. Consequently, the
inflow of fine Indian cotton began to decline.
From the early nineteenth century, British manufacturers also began
to seek overseas markets for their cloth. Excluded from the British

65
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 17 – East India Company House, London.
This was the nerve centre of the worldwide operations of the East India Company.

market by tariff barriers, Indian textiles now faced stiff competition

in other international markets. If we look at the figures of exports
from India, we see a steady decline of the share of cotton textiles:
from some 30 per cent around 1800 to 15 per cent by 1815. By the
1870s this proportion had dropped to below 3 per cent.

What, then, did India export? The figures again tell a dramatic
story. While exports of manufactures declined rapidly, export of
raw materials increased equally fast. Between 1812 and 1871, the
share of raw cotton exports rose from 5 per cent to 35 per cent.
Indigo used for dyeing cloth was another important export for
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 18 – A distant view of Surat

and its river.
All through the seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries, Surat remained
the main centre of overseas trade in
the western Indian Ocean.

66
Reprint 2025-26
many decades. And, as you have read last year, opium shipments to
China grew rapidly from the 1820s to become for a while India’s
single largest export. Britain grew opium in India and exported it to
China and, with the money earned through this sale, it financed its
tea and other imports from China.

Over the nineteenth century, British manufactures flooded the Indian

market. Food grain and raw material exports from India to Britain
and the rest of the world increased. But the value of British exports
to India was much higher than the value of British imports from
India. Thus Britain had a ‘trade surplus’ with India. Britain used this
surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries – that is,
with countries from which Britain was importing more than it was
selling to. This is how a multilateral settlement system works – it
allows one country’s deficit with another country to be settled
by its surplus with a third country. By helping Britain balance its
deficits, India played a crucial role in the late-nineteenth-century
world economy.

Britain’s trade surplus in India also helped pay the so-called ‘home
charges’ that included private remittances home by British officials
and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions
of British officials in India.

Aleppo Bukhara
ll
Wa

Yarkand The
Alexandria Great

Basra Lahore
Pe

Hoogly Canton
rs

Bandar Abbas
ia
n
G
ul

Muscat
f

Surat
Re

Jedda Hanoi
dS
ea

Macha Masulipatam Bangkok

Madras

The Making of a Global World

Goa

Acheh Malacca
Indian Ocean

Mombasa
Batavia
Bantam

Mozambique

Sea route
Land route
Volume of trade passing through the port

Fig. 19 – The trade routes that linked India to the world at the end of the seventeenth century.

67
Reprint 2025-26
 3 The Inter-war Economy

The First World War (1914-18) was mainly fought in Europe. But
its impact was felt around the world. Notably for our concerns
in this chapter, it plunged the first half of the twentieth century
into a crisis that took over three decades to overcome. During
this period the world experienced widespread economic and
political instability, and another catastrophic war.

3.1 Wartime Transformations

The First World War, as you know, was fought between two power
blocs. On the one side were the Allies – Britain, France and Russia
(later joined by the US); and on the opposite side were the Central
Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey. When
the war began in August 1914, many governments thought it would
be over by Christmas. It lasted more than four years.
The First World War was a war like no other before. The fighting
involved the world’s leading industrial nations which now
harnessed the vast powers of modern industry to inflict the greatest
possible destruction on their enemies.
This war was thus the first modern industrial war. It saw the use
of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc. on a
massive scale. These were all increasingly products of modern large-
scale industry. To fight the war, millions of soldiers
had to be recruited from around the world and
moved to the frontlines on large ships and trains.
The scale of death and destruction – 9 million dead
and 20 million injured – was unthinkable before the
India and the Contemporary World

industrial age, without the use of industrial arms.

Most of the killed and maimed were men of
working age. These deaths and injuries reduced the
able-bodied workforce in Europe. With fewer
numbers within the family, household incomes
declined after the war.
During the war, industries were restructured to
produce war-related goods. Entire societies were
also reorganised for war – as men went to battle,
Fig. 20 – Workers in a munition factory during the First World
women stepped in to undertake jobs that earlier only War.
men were expected to do. Production of armaments increased rapidly to meet war demands.

68
Reprint 2025-26
The war led to the snapping of economic links between some of
the world’s largest economic powers which were now fighting
each other to pay for them. So Britain borrowed large sums
of money from US banks as well as the US public. Thus the war
transformed the US from being an international debtor to an
international creditor. In other words, at the war’s end, the US and
its citizens owned more overseas assets than foreign governments
and citizens owned in the US.

3.2 Post-war Recovery

Post-war economic recovery proved difficult. Britain, which was
the world’s leading economy in the pre-war period, in particular
faced a prolonged crisis. While Britain was preoccupied with war,
industries had developed in India and Japan. After the war Britain
found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in
the Indian market, and to compete with Japan internationally.
Moreover, to finance war expenditures Britain had borrowed liberally
from the US. This meant that at the end of the war Britain was
burdened with huge external debts.

The war had led to an economic boom, that is, to a large increase in
demand, production and employment. When the war boom ended,
production contracted and unemployment increased. At the
same time the government reduced bloated war expenditures to
bring them into line with peacetime revenues. These developments
led to huge job losses – in 1921 one in every five British workers
was out of work. Indeed, anxiety and uncertainty about work
became an enduring part of the post-war scenario.

Many agricultural economies were also in crisis. Consider the case

The Making of a Global World

of wheat producers. Before the war, eastern Europe was a major
supplier of wheat in the world market. When this supply was
disrupted during the war, wheat production in Canada, America
and Australia expanded dramatically. But once the war was over,
production in eastern Europe revived and created a glut in wheat
output. Grain prices fell, rural incomes declined, and farmers fell
deeper into debt.

3.3 Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

In the US, recovery was quicker. We have already seen how the war
helped boost the US economy. After a short period of economic

69
Reprint 2025-26
 trouble in the years after the war, the US economy resumed
its strong growth in the early 1920s.

One important feature of the US economy of the 1920s

was mass production. The move towards mass production
had begun in the late nineteenth century, but in the 1920s it
became a characteristic feature of industrial production in
the US. A well-known pioneer of mass production was the
car manufacturer Henry Ford. He adapted the assembly line
of a Chicago slaughterhouse (in which slaughtered animals
were picked apart by butchers as they came down a conveyor
belt) to his new car plant in Detroit. He realised that the
‘assembly line’ method would allow a faster and cheaper way
of producing vehicles. The assembly line forced workers to
Fig. 21 – T-Model automobiles lined up outside the
repeat a single task mechanically and continuously – such as factory.
fitting a particular part to the car – at a pace dictated by the
conveyor belt. This was a way of increasing the output per worker
by speeding up the pace of work. Standing in front of a conveyor
belt no worker could afford to delay the motions, take a break, or
even have a friendly word with a workmate. As a result, Henry
Ford’s cars came off the assembly line at three-minute intervals, a
speed much faster than that achieved by previous methods. The T-
Model Ford was the world’s first mass-produced car.

At first workers at the Ford factory were unable to cope with the
stress of working on assembly lines in which they could not control
the pace of work. So they quit in large numbers. In desperation
Ford doubled the daily wage to $5 in January 1914. At the same
time he banned trade unions from operating in his plants.

Henry Ford recovered the high wage by repeatedly speeding up

India and the Contemporary World

the production line and forcing workers to work ever harder. So

much so, he would soon describe his decision to double the daily
wage as the ‘best cost-cutting decision’ he had ever made.

Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US. They were also
widely copied in Europe in the 1920s. Mass production lowered
costs and prices of engineered goods. Thanks to higher wages,
more workers could now afford to purchase durable consumer
goods such as cars. Car production in the US rose from 2 million in
1919 to more than 5 million in 1929. Similarly, there was a spurt
in the purchase of refrigerators, washing machines, radios,
gramophone players, all through a system of ‘hire purchase’ (i.e., on

70
Reprint 2025-26
credit repaid in weekly or monthly instalments). The demand
for refrigerators, washing machines, etc. was also fuelled by a boom
in house construction and home ownership, financed once again
by loans.

The housing and consumer boom of the 1920s created the basis of
prosperity in the US. Large investments in housing and household Box 3
goods seemed to create a cycle of higher employment
and incomes, rising consumption demand, more investment, and
yet more employment and incomes.

In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world

and became the largest overseas lender. US imports and capital
exports also boosted European recovery and world trade and
income growth over the next six years.

All this, however, proved too good to last. By 1929 the world
would be plunged into a depression such as it had never
experienced before.

3.4 The Great Depression

The Great Depression began around 1929 and lasted till the mid-
1930s. During this period most parts of the world experienced
catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and
trade. The exact timing and impact of the depression varied
across countries. But in general, agricultural regions and communities Fig. 22 – Migrant agricultural worker’s family,
were the worst affected. This was because the fall homeless and hungry, during the Great
Depression, 1936. Courtesy: Library of Congress,
in agricultural prices was greater and more prolonged than that Prints and Photographs Division.
in the prices of industrial goods.
M a n y y e a r s l a t e r, D o r o t h e a L a n g e , t h e
The depression was caused by a combination of several factors. We photographer who shot this picture, recollected

The Making of a Global World

the moment of her encounter with the
have already seen how fragile the post-war world economy was.
hungry mother:
First: agricultural overproduction remained a problem. This was
‘I saw and approached the hungry and desperate
made worse by falling agricultural prices. As prices slumped and mother, as if drawn by a magnet … I did not ask
agricultural incomes declined, farmers tried to expand production her name or her history. She told me her age,
that she was thirty-two. She said that they
and bring a larger volume of produce to the market to maintain
(i.e., she and her seven children) had been living
their overall income. This worsened the glut in the market, pushing on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields,
down prices even further. Farm produce rotted for a lack of buyers. and birds that the children killed … There she
sat … with her children huddled around her,
Second: in the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments and seemed to know that my pictures might
help her, and so she helped me …’
through loans from the US. While it was often extremely easy to
From: Popular Photography, February 1960.
raise loans in the US when the going was good, US overseas lenders
panicked at the first sign of trouble. In the first half of 1928, US

71
Reprint 2025-26
 overseas loans amounted to over $ 1 billion. A year later it was one
quarter of that amount. Countries that depended crucially on US
loans now faced an acute crisis.

The withdrawal of US loans affected much of the rest of the world,

though in different ways. In Europe it led to the failure of some
major banks and the collapse of currencies such as the British pound
sterling. In Latin America and elsewhere it intensified the slump
in agricultural and raw material prices. The US attempt to protect
its economy in the depression by doubling import duties also dealt
another severe blow to world trade.

The US was also the industrial country most severely affected by Fig. 23 – People lining up for unemployment
benefits, US, photograph by Dorothea Lange,
the depression. With the fall in prices and the prospect of a 1938. Courtesy: Library of Congress, Prints and
depression, US banks had also slashed domestic lending and Photographs Division.
When an unemployment census showed
called back loans. Farms could not sell their harvests, households 10 million people out of work, the local
were ruined, and businesses collapsed. Faced with falling government in many US states began making
small allowances to the unemployed. These long
incomes, many households in the US could not repay what they had queues came to symbolise the poverty and
borrowed, and were forced to give up their homes, cars and other unemployment of the depression years.

consumer durables. The consumerist prosperity of the 1920s now

disappeared in a puff of dust. As unemployment soared, people
trudged long distances looking for any work they could find.
Ultimately, the US banking system itself collapsed. Unable to
recover investments, collect loans and repay depositors, thousands
of banks went bankrupt and were forced to close. The numbers
are phenomenal: by 1933 over 4,000 banks had closed and
between 1929 and 1932 about 110, 000 companies had collapsed.

By 1935, a modest economic recovery was under way in most

industrial countries. But the Great Depression’s wider effects on
society, politics and international relations, and on peoples’ minds,
India and the Contemporary World

proved more enduring.

3.5 India and the Great Depression

If we look at the impact of the depression on India we realise
how integrated the global economy had become by the early
twentieth century. The tremors of a crisis in one part of the world
were quickly relayed to other parts, affecting lives, economies and
societies worldwide.

In the nineteenth century, as you have seen, colonial India had become
an exporter of agricultural goods and importer of manufactures.
The depression immediately affected Indian trade. India’s exports

72
Reprint 2025-26
and imports nearly halved between 1928 and 1934. As international
prices crashed, prices in India also plunged. Between 1928 and 1934,
wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent.

Peasants and farmers suffered more than urban dwellers. Though

agricultural prices fell sharply, the colonial government refused to
reduce revenue demands. Peasants producing for the world market
were the worst hit.

Consider the jute producers of Bengal. They grew raw jute that was
processed in factories for export in the form of gunny bags. But
as gunny exports collapsed, the price of raw jute crashed more than
60 per cent. Peasants who borrowed in the hope of better times or
to increase output in the hope of higher incomes faced ever lower
prices, and fell deeper and deeper into debt. Thus the Bengal jute
growers’ lament:

grow more jute, brothers, with the hope of greater cash.

Costs and debts of jute will make your hopes get dashed.
When you have spent all your money and got the crop off the ground,
… traders, sitting at home, will pay only Rs 5 a maund.

Across India, peasants’ indebtedness increased. They used up their

savings, mortgaged lands, and sold whatever jewellery and precious Discuss
metals they had to meet their expenses. In these depression years, Who profits from jute cultivation according to the
India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold. jute growers’ lament? Explain.
The famous economist John Maynard Keynes thought that Indian
gold exports promoted global economic recovery. They certainly
helped speed up Britain’s recovery, but did little for the Indian peasant.
Rural India was thus seething with unrest when Mahatma Gandhi

The Making of a Global World

launched the civil disobedience movement at the height of the
depression in 1931.

The depression proved less grim for urban India. Because of falling
prices, those with fixed incomes – say town-dwelling landowners
who received rents and middle-class salaried employees – now found
themselves better off. Everything cost less. Industrial investment also
grew as the government extended tariff protection to industries,
under the pressure of nationalist opinion.

73
Reprint 2025-26
 4 Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

The Second World War broke out a mere two decades after the
end of the First World War. It was fought between the Axis powers
(mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain,
France, the Soviet Union and the US). It was a war waged for six
years on many fronts, in many places, over land, on sea, in the air.
Once again death and destruction was enormous. At least 60 million
people, or about 3 per cent of the world’s 1939 population, are
believed to have been killed, directly or indirectly, as a result of the
war. Millions more were injured.
Unlike in earlier wars, most of these deaths took place outside the
battlefields. Many more civilians than soldiers died from war-related
causes. Vast parts of Europe and Asia were devastated, and several
cities were destroyed by aerial bombardment or relentless
artillery attacks. The war caused an immense amount of economic Fig. 24 – German forces attack Russia, July 1941.
devastation and social disruption. Reconstruction promised to Hitler’s attempt to invade Russia was a turning
point in the war.
be long and difficult.
Two crucial influences shaped post-war
reconstruction. The first was the US’s
emergence as the dominant economic, political
and military power in the Western world. The
second was the dominance of the Soviet
Union. It had made huge sacrifices to defeat
Nazi Germany, and transformed itself from
a backward agricultural country into a world
power during the very years when the capitalist
world was trapped in the Great Depression.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 25 – Stalingrad in Soviet Russia devastated by the war.

4.1 Post-war Settlement and the
Bretton Woods Institutions
Economists and politicians drew two key lessons from inter-war
economic experiences. First, an industrial society based on mass
production cannot be sustained without mass consumption. But to
ensure mass consumption, there was a need for high and stable
incomes. Incomes could not be stable if employment was unstable.
Thus stable incomes also required steady, full employment.
But markets alone could not guarantee full employment.
Therefore governments would have to step in to minimise

74
Reprint 2025-26
fluctuations of price, output and employment. Economic stability
could be ensured only through the intervention of the government.

The second lesson related to a country’s economic links with

the outside world. The goal of full employment could only be
achieved if governments had power to control flows of goods,
capital and labour.

Thus in brief, the main aim of the post-war international economic

system was to preserve economic stability and full employment in Fig. 26 – Mount Washington Hotel situated in
Bretton Woods, US.
the industrial world. Its framework was agreed upon at the United This is the place where the famous conference
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at was held.
Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.

The Bretton Woods conference established the International Monetary

Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member
nations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(popularly known as the World Bank) was set up to finance post-
war reconstruction. The IMF and the World Bank are referred to
as the Bretton Woods institutions or sometimes the Bretton Woods
twins. The post-war international economic system is also often
described as the Bretton Woods system.

The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial operations

in 1947. Decision-making in these institutions is controlled by
the Western industrial powers. The US has an effective right of
veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions.

The international monetary system is the system linking national

currencies and monetary system. The Bretton Woods system was Discuss
based on fixed exchange rates. In this system, national currencies,
Briefly summarise the two lessons learnt by
for example the Indian rupee, were pegged to the dollar at a fixed
economists and politicians from the inter-war

The Making of a Global World

exchange rate. The dollar itself was anchored to gold at a fixed
economic experience?
price of $35 per ounce of gold.

4.2 The Early Post-war Years

The Bretton Woods system inaugurated an era of unprecedented
growth of trade and incomes for the Western industrial nations and
Japan. World trade grew annually at over 8 per cent between 1950
and 1970 and incomes at nearly 5 per cent. The growth was also
mostly stable, without large fluctuations. For much of this period
the unemployment rate, for example, averaged less than 5 per cent
in most industrial countries.

75
Reprint 2025-26
 These decades also saw the worldwide spread of technology and Box 4
enterprise. Developing countries were in a hurry to catch up with
What are MNCs?
the advanced industrial countries. Therefore, they invested vast
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are large
amounts of capital, importing industrial plant and equipment
companies that operate in several countries at
featuring modern technology. the same time. The first MNCs were established
in the 1920s. Many more came up in the 1950s
and 1960s as US businesses expanded worldwide
4.3 Decolonisation and Independence and Western Europe and Japan also recovered
to become powerful industrial economies. The
When the Second World War ended, large parts of the world were worldwide spread of MNCs was a notable feature
still under European colonial rule. Over the next two decades most of the 1950s and 1960s. This was partly because
high import tariffs imposed by different
colonies in Asia and Africa emerged as free, independent nations. governments forced MNCs to locate their
They were, however, overburdened by poverty and a lack of manufacturing operations and become ‘domestic
producers’ in as many countries as possible.
resources, and their economies and societies were handicapped by
long periods of colonial rule.

The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial
New words
needs of the industrial countries. They were not equipped to cope
with the challenge of poverty and lack of development in the former Tariff – Tax imposed on a country’s imports
colonies. But as Europe and Japan rapidly rebuilt their economies, from the rest of the world. Tariffs are
they grew less dependent on the IMF and the World Bank. Thus levied at the point of entry, i.e., at the border
from the late 1950s the Bretton Woods institutions began to shift or the airport.
their attention more towards developing countries.

As colonies, many of the less developed regions of the world had

been part of Western empires. Now, ironically, as newly independent
countries facing urgent pressures to lift their populations out of
poverty, they came under the guidance of international agencies
dominated by the former colonial powers. Even after many years
of decolonisation, the former colonial powers still controlled vital
resources such as minerals and land in many of their former colonies.
India and the Contemporary World

Large corporations of other powerful countries, for example the

US, also often managed to secure rights to exploit developing
countries’ natural resources very cheaply.

At the same time, most developing countries did not benefit from
the fast growth the Western economies experienced in the 1950s
and 1960s. Therefore they organised themselves as a group – the
Group of 77 (or G-77) – to demand a new international economic
order (NIEO). By the NIEO they meant a system that would give
them real control over their natural resources, more development
assistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access for their
manufactured goods in developed countries’ markets.

76
Reprint 2025-26
4.4 End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of
‘Globalisation’
Despite years of stable and rapid growth, not all was well in
this post-war world. From the 1960s the rising costs of its
overseas involvements weakened the US’s finances and competitive
strength. The US dollar now no longer commanded confidence
as the world’s principal currency. It could not maintain its value
in relation to gold. This eventually led to the collapse of the
system of fixed exchange rates and the introduction of a system
of floating exchange rates.

From the mid-1970s the international financial system also changed

in important ways. Earlier, developing countries could turn to
international institutions for loans and development assistance. But
now they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks
and private lending institutions. This led to periodic debt crises in
the developing world, and lower incomes and increased poverty,
especially in Africa and Latin America.
The industrial world was also hit by unemployment that began
rising from the mid-1970s and remained high until the early 1990s.
From the late 1970s MNCs also began to shift production operations
to low-wage Asian countries.
China had been cut off from the post-war world economy since
its revolution in 1949. But new economic policies in China and
the collapse of the Soviet Union and Soviet-style communism in
New words
Eastern Europe brought many countries back into the fold of the
world economy. Exchange rates – They link national currencies
for purposes of international trade. There are
Wages were relatively low in countries like China. Thus they became
broadly two kinds of exchange rates: fixed
attractive destinations for investment by foreign MNCs competing

The Making of a Global World

exchange rate and floating exchange rate
to capture world markets. Have you noticed that most of the TVs,
Fixed exchange rates – When exchange rates
mobile phones, and toys we see in the shops seem to be made in
are fixed and governments intervene to prevent
China? This is because of the low-cost structure of the Chinese
movements in them
economy, most importantly its low wages.
Flexible or floating exchange rates – These rates
The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world fluctuate depending on demand and supply of
trade and capital flows. In the last two decades the world’s economic currencies in foreign exchange markets, in
geography has been transformed as countries such as India, China principle without interference by governments
and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.

77
Reprint 2025-26
 Write in brief

1. Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the
seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.
2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the
colonisation of the Americas.

Write in brief
3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:
a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws.
b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa.
c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War.
d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.
e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.
4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.
5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

Discuss

6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the
details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.
7. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic
exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians,
and write a short account of it.
Discuss
8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.
9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as
India and the Contemporary World

a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

Project
Find out more about gold and diamond mining in South Africa in the nineteenth century.
Who controlled the gold and diamond companies? Who were the miners and what were
their lives like? Project

78
Reprint 2025-26
 Chapter IV
The Age of Industrialisation

o f I n d us t r i a l isa t i o n
Fig. 1 – Dawn of the Century, published by E.T. Paull Music Co.,
New York, England, 1900.

In 1900, a popular music publisher E.T. Paull produced a music

book that had a picture on the cover page announcing the ‘Dawn
of the Century’ (Fig. 1). As you can see from the illustration, at the
g eof Industrialisation
centre of the picture is a goddess-like figure, the angel of progress,
bearing the flag of the new century. She is gently perched on a wheel
The Age of Industrialisation
with wings, symbolising time. Her flight is taking her into the future.
New words
Floating about, behind her, are the signs of progress: railway, camera,
T h e TheA Age

machines, printing press and factory. Orient – The countries to the east of
the Mediterranean, usually referring to
This glorification of machines and technology is even more marked
Asia. The term arises out of a western
in a picture which appeared on the pages of a trade magazine over
viewpoint that sees this region as pre-
a hundred years ago (Fig. 2). It shows two magicians. The one at the
modern, traditional and mysterious
top is Aladdin from the Orient who built a beautiful palace with his

79
Reprint 2025-26
 magic lamp. The one at the bottom is the modern mechanic, who
with his modern tools weaves a new magic: builds bridges, ships,
towers and high-rise buildings. Aladdin is shown as representing the
East and the past, the mechanic stands for the West and modernity.

These images offer us a triumphant account of the modern world.

Within this account the modern world is associated with rapid
technological change and innovations, machines and factories, railways
and steamships. The history of industrialisation thus becomes simply
a story of development, and the modern age appears as a wonderful
time of technological progress.

These images and associations have now become part of popular

imagination. Do you not see rapid industrialisation as a time of
progress and modernity? Do you not think that the spread of railways
and factories, and construction of high-rise buildings and bridges is
a sign of society’s development?

How have these images developed? And how do we relate to these

ideas? Is industrialisation always based on rapid technological
development? Can we today continue to glorify continuous Fig. 2 – Two Magicians, published in Inland
Printers, 26 January 1901.
mechanisation of all work? What has industrialisation meant to
people’s lives? To answer such questions we need to turn to the
history of industrialisation.

In this chapter we will look at this history by focusing first on Britain,

the first industrial nation, and then India, where the pattern of
industrial change was conditioned by colonial rule.

Activity
Give two examples where modern development that is associated
India and the Contemporary World

with progress has led to problems. You may like to think of areas
related to environmental issues, nuclear weapons or disease.

80
Reprint 2025-26
1 Before the Industrial Revolution

All too often we associate industrialisation with the growth of

factory industry. When we talk of industrial production we refer
to factory production. When we talk of industrial workers we
mean factory workers. Histories of industrialisation very often begin
with the setting up of the first factories.

There is a problem with such ideas. Even before factories began to

dot the landscape in England and Europe, there was large-scale New words
industrial production for an international market. This was not based Proto – Indicating the first or early form
on factories. Many historians now refer to this phase of of something
industrialisation as proto-industrialisation.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from the towns

in Europe began moving to the countryside, supplying money to
peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international
market. With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of
colonies in different parts of the world, the demand for goods
began growing. But merchants could not expand production within
towns. This was because here urban crafts and trade guilds were
powerful. These were associations of producers that trained
craftspeople, maintained control over production, regulated
competition and prices, and restricted the entry of new people into
the trade. Rulers granted different guilds the monopoly
right to produce and trade in specific products. It was
therefore difficult for new merchants to set up
business in towns. So they turned to the countryside.

In the countryside poor peasants and artisans began

working for merchants. As you have seen in the

The Age of Industrialisation

textbook last year, this was a time when open fields
were disappearing and commons were being
enclosed. Cottagers and poor peasants who had earlier
depended on common lands for their survival,
gathering their firewood, berries, vegetables, hay and
straw, had to now look for alternative sources of
income. Many had tiny plots of land which could not
provide work for all members of the household. So
Fig. 3 – Spinning in the eighteenth century.
when merchants came around and offered advances You can see each member of the family involved in the
to produce goods for them, peasant households production of yarn. Notice that one wheel is moving only one
spindle.
eagerly agreed. By working for the merchants, they

81
Reprint 2025-26
 could remain in the countryside and continue to cultivate their small
plots. Income from proto-industrial production supplemented their New words
shrinking income from cultivation. It also allowed them a fuller use Stapler – A person who ‘staples’ or sorts wool
of their family labour resources. according to its fibre
Within this system a close relationship developed between the town Fuller – A person who ‘fulls’ – that is, gathers
and the countryside. Merchants were based in towns but the work – cloth by pleating
was done mostly in the countryside. A merchant clothier in England Carding – The process in which fibres, such as
purchased wool from a wool stapler, and carried it to the spinners; cotton or wool, are prepared prior to spinning
the yarn (thread) that was spun was taken in subsequent stages
of production to weavers, fullers, and then to dyers. The finishing
was done in London before the export merchant sold the cloth in
the international market. London in fact came to be known as a
finishing centre.

This proto-industrial system was thus part of a network of

commercial exchanges. It was controlled by merchants and the goods
were produced by a vast number of producers working within
their family farms, not in factories. At each stage of production 20
to 25 workers were employed by each merchant. This meant that
each clothier was controlling hundreds of workers.

1.1 The Coming Up of the Factory

The earliest factories in England came up by the 1730s. But it
was only in the late eighteenth century that the number of
factories multiplied.

The first symbol of the new era was cotton. Its production boomed
in the late nineteenth century. In 1760 Britain was importing 2.5
million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By 1787
this import soared to 22 million pounds. This increase was linked to
India and the Contemporary World

a number of changes within the process of production. Let us look

briefly at some of these.

A series of inventions in the eighteenth century increased the efficacy

of each step of the production process (carding, twisting and
spinning, and rolling). They enhanced the output per worker, enabling
each worker to produce more, and they made possible the Fig. 4 – A Lancashire cotton mill, painted by
C.E. Turner, The Illustrated London News,
production of stronger threads and yarn. Then Richard Arkwright 1925.
created the cotton mill. Till this time, as you have seen, cloth The artist said: ‘Seen through the humid
atmosphere that makes Lancashire the best
production was spread all over the countryside and carried out within cotton-spinning locality in the world, a huge
village households. But now, the costly new machines could be cotton-mill aglow with electricity in the
twilight, is a most impressive sight.’
purchased, set up and maintained in the mill. Within the mill all the

82
Reprint 2025-26
processes were brought together under one roof and management.
This allowed a more careful supervision over the production process, Activity
a watch over quality, and the regulation of labour, all of which had The way in which historians focus on
been difficult to do when production was in the countryside. industrialisation rather than on small
workshops is a good example of how what we
In the early nineteenth century, factories increasingly became an
believe today about the past is influenced by
intimate part of the English landscape. So visible were the imposing
what historians choose to notice and what they
new mills, so magical seemed to be the power of new technology,
ignore. Note down one event or aspect of your
that contemporaries were dazzled. They concentrated their attention own life which adults such as your parents or
on the mills, almost forgetting the bylanes and the workshops where teachers may think is unimportant, but which
production still continued. you believe to be important.

Fig. 5 – Industrial Manchester by M. Jackson, The Illustrated London News, 1857.

Chimneys billowing smoke came to characterise the industrial landscape.

1.2 The Pace of Industrial Change

The Age of Industrialisation
Activity
How rapid was the process of industrialisation? Does industrialisation
Look at Figs. 4 and 5. Can you see any
mean only the growth of factory industries?
difference in the way the two images show
First: The most dynamic industries in Britain were clearly cotton and industrialisation? Explain your view briefly.
metals. Growing at a rapid pace, cotton was the leading sector in the
first phase of industrialisation up to the 1840s. After that the iron
and steel industry led the way. With the expansion of railways, in
England from the 1840s and in the colonies from the 1860s, the
demand for iron and steel increased rapidly. By 1873 Britain was
exporting iron and steel worth about £ 77 million, double the value
of its cotton export.

83
Reprint 2025-26
 Second: the new industries could not easily displace traditional
industries. Even at the end of the nineteenth century, less than 20 per
cent of the total workforce was employed in technologically
advanced industrial sectors. Textiles was a dynamic sector, but a
large portion of the output was produced not within factories, but
outside, within domestic units.

Third: the pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set
by steam-powered cotton or metal industries, but they did not remain
entirely stagnant either. Seemingly ordinary and small innovations Fig. 6 – A fitting shop at a railway works in
were the basis of growth in many non-mechanised sectors such as England, The Illustrated London News, 1849.
In the fitting shop new locomotive engines were
food processing, building, pottery, glass work, tanning, furniture completed and old ones repaired.
making, and production of implements.

Fourth: technological changes occurred slowly. They did not spread

dramatically across the industrial landscape. New technology was
expensive and merchants and industrialists were cautious about using
it. The machines often broke down and repair was costly. They
were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

Consider the case of the steam engine. James Watt improved the
steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine
in 1781. His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton manufactured the
new model. But for years he could find no buyers. At the beginning
of the nineteenth century, there were no more than 321 steam engines
all over England. Of these, 80 were
in cotton industries, nine in wool
industries, and the rest in mining,
canal works and iron works. Steam
engines were not used in any of the
other industries till much later in
India and the Contemporary World

the century. So even the most

powerful new technology that
enhanced the productivity of
labour manifold was slow to be
accepted by industrialists.

Historians now have come to

increasingly recognise that the typical
worker in the mid-nineteenth century Fig. 7 – A spinning factory in 1830.
was not a machine operator but the You can see how giant wheels moved by steam power could set in motion
hundreds of spindles to manufacture thread.
traditional craftsperson and labourer.

84
Reprint 2025-26
2 Hand Labour and Steam Power

In Victorian Britain there was no shortage of human labour. Poor Source A

peasants and vagrants moved to the cities in large numbers in search
of jobs, waiting for work. As you will know, when there is plenty of Will Thorne is one of those who went in search
labour, wages are low. So industrialists had no problem of labour of seasonal work, loading bricks and doing odd
jobs. He describes how job-seekers walked to
shortage or high wage costs. They did not want to introduce machines London in search of work:
that got rid of human labour and required large capital investment. ‘I had always wanted to go to London, and my
desire … was stimulated by letters from an old
In many industries the demand for labour was seasonal. Gas works workmate … who was now working at the Old
and breweries were especially busy through the cold months. So Kent Road Gas Works … I finally decided to go …
they needed more workers to meet their peak demand. Book- in November, 1881. With two friends I started
out to walk the journey, filled with the hope
binders and printers, catering to Christmas demand, too needed that we would be able to obtain employment,
extra hands before December. At the waterfront, winter was the when we get there, with the kind assistance of
time that ships were repaired and spruced up. In all such industries my friend … we had little money when we
started, not enough to pay for our food and
where production fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually lodgings each night until we arrived in London.
preferred hand labour, employing workers for the season. Some days we walked as much as twenty miles,
and other days less. Our money was gone at
the end of the third day … For two nights we
slept out – once under a haystack, and once in
an old farm shed … On arrival in London we tried
to find … my friend … but … were unsuccessful.
Our money was gone, so there was nothing for
us to do but to walk around until late at night,
and then try to find some place to sleep. We
found an old building and slept in it that night.
The next day, Sunday, late in the afternoon, we
got to the Old Kent Gas Works, and applied for
work. To my great surprise, the man we had
been looking for was working at the time. He
spoke to the foreman and I was given a job.’
Quoted in Raphael Samuel, ‘Comers and Goers’,
in H.J. Dyos and Michael Wolff, eds, The Victorian
City: Images and Realities, 1973.

Source The Age of Industrialisation

Fig. 8 – People on the move in search of work, The Illustrated

London News, 1879.
Some people were always on the move selling small goods and
looking for temporary work.
Activity
A range of products could be produced only with hand Imagine that you are a merchant writing back
to a salesman who has been trying to
labour. Machines were oriented to producing uniforms,
persuade you to buy a new machine. Explain
standardised goods for a mass market. But the demand in the market
in your letter what you have heard and why you
was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes. In
do not wish to invest in the new technology.
mid-nineteenth-century Britain, for instance, 500 varieties of

85
Reprint 2025-26
 hammers were produced and 45 kinds of axes. These required
human skill, not mechanical technology.

In Victorian Britain, the upper classes – the aristocrats and the

bourgeoisie – preferred things produced by hand. Handmade
products came to symbolise refinement and class. They were better
finished, individually produced, and carefully designed. Machine-
made goods were for export to the colonies.

In countries with labour shortage, industrialists were keen on using

mechanical power so that the need for human labour can be
minimised. This was the case in nineteenth-century America. Britain,
however, had no problem hiring human hands.

Fig. 9 – Workers in an iron works, north-east

2.1 Life of the Workers England, painting by William Bell Scott, 1861.
Many artists from the late nineteenth century
The abundance of labour in the market affected the lives of workers. began idealising workers: they were shown
As news of possible jobs travelled to the countryside, hundreds suffering hardship and pain for the cause of
the nation.
tramped to the cities. The actual possibility of getting a job depended
on existing networks of friendship and kin relations. If you had
a relative or a friend in a factory, you were more likely to get a
job quickly. But not everyone had social connections. Many job-
seekers had to wait weeks, spending nights under bridges or in night
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 10 – Houseless and Hungry, painting by Samuel Luke Fildes, 1874.

This painting shows the homeless in London applying for tickets to stay overnight in a workhouse. These shelters
were maintained under the supervision of the Poor Law Commissioners for the ‘destitute, wayfarers, wanderers and
foundling’. Staying in these workhouses was a humiliating experience: everyone was subjected to a medical
examination to see whether they were carrying disease, their bodies were cleansed, and their clothes purified. They
had to also do hard labour.

86
Reprint 2025-26
shelters. Some stayed in Night Refuges that were set up by private
spindles
individuals; others went to the Casual Wards maintained by the Poor
Law authorities.

Seasonality of work in many industries meant prolonged periods

without work. After the busy season was over, the poor were on
the streets again. Some returned to the countryside after the winter,
when the demand for labour in the rural areas opened up in places.
But most looked for odd jobs, which till the mid-nineteenth century
were difficult to find. spindles

Wages increased somewhat in the early nineteenth century. But they Fig. 11 – A Spinning Jenny, a drawing by
tell us little about the welfare of the workers. The average figures T.E. Nicholson, 1835.
Notice the number of spindles that could be
hide the variations between trades and the fluctuations from year to operated with one wheel.
year. For instance, when prices rose sharply during the prolonged
Napoleonic War, the real value of what the workers earned fell
significantly, since the same wages could now buy fewer things.
Moreover, the income of workers depended not on the wage rate
alone. What was also critical was the period of employment: the
number of days of work determined the average daily income of
New words
the workers. At the best of times till the mid-nineteenth century,
about 10 per cent of the urban population were extremely poor. In Spinning Jenny – Devised by James Hargreaves
periods of economic slump, like the 1830s, the proportion of in 1764, this machine speeded up the spinning
unemployed went up to anything between 35 and 75 per cent in process and reduced labour demand. By
different regions. turning one single wheel a worker could set in
motion a number of spindles and spin several
The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction
threads at the same time.
of new technology. When the Spinning Jenny was introduced in
Source B
Discuss
A magistrate reported in 1790 about an incident when he was
Look at Figs. 3, 7 and 11, then reread source B.

The Age of Industrialisation

called in to protect a manufacturer’s property from being attacked
by workers: Explain why many workers were opposed to the

‘From the depredations of a lawless Banditti of colliers and their use of the Spinning Jenny.
wives, for the wives had lost their work to spinning engines … they
advanced at first with much insolence, avowing their intention of
cutting to pieces the machine lately introduced in the woollen
manufacture; which they suppose, if generally adopted, will lessen
the demand for manual labour. The women became clamorous.
The men were more open to conviction and after some
expostulation were induced to desist from their purpose and return
peaceably home.’
J.L. Hammond and B. Hammond, The Skilled Labourer 1760-1832,
quoted in Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures.
Source
87
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 12 – A shallow underground railway being constructed in central London, Illustrated Times, 1868.
From the 1850s railway stations began coming up all over London. This meant a demand for large numbers of
workers to dig tunnels, erect timber scaffolding, do the brick and iron works. Job-seekers moved from one
construction site to another.

the woollen industry, women who survived on hand spinning began

attacking the new machines. This conflict over the introduction of
the jenny continued for a long time.

After the 1840s, building activity intensified in the cities, opening up

India and the Contemporary World

greater opportunities of employment. Roads were widened, new

railway stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug,
drainage and sewers laid, rivers embanked. The number of workers
employed in the transport industry doubled in the 1840s, and doubled
again in the subsequent 30 years.

88
Reprint 2025-26
3 Industrialisation in the Colonies

Let us now move to India to see how a colony industrialises. Once

again we will look not only at factory industries but also at the
non-mechanised sector. We will limit our discussion primarily to
textile industries.

3.1 The Age of Indian Textiles

Before the age of machine industries, silk and cotton goods from
India dominated the international market in textiles. Coarser cottons
were produced in many countries, but the finer varieties often came
from India. Armenian and Persian merchants took the goods from
Punjab to Afghanistan, eastern Persia and Central Asia. Bales of fine
textiles were carried on camel back via the north-west frontier, through
mountain passes and across deserts. A vibrant sea trade operated Activity
through the main pre-colonial ports. Surat on the Gujarat coast
On a map of Asia, find and draw the sea and
connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea Ports; Masulipatam on
land links of the textile trade from India to
the Coromandel coast and Hoogly in Bengal had trade links with
Central Asia, West Asia and Southeast Asia.
Southeast Asian ports.

A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this

network of export trade – financing production, carrying goods
and supplying exporters. Supply merchants linked the port towns to
the inland regions. They gave advances to weavers, procured the
woven cloth from weaving villages, and carried the supply to the
ports. At the port, the big shippers and export merchants had brokers
who negotiated the price and bought goods from the supply
merchants operating inland.

The Age of Industrialisation

By the 1750s this network, controlled by Indian merchants, was
breaking down.

The European companies gradually gained power – first securing a

variety of concessions from local courts, then the monopoly rights
to trade. This resulted in a decline of the old ports of Surat and
Hoogly through which local merchants had operated. Exports from
these ports fell dramatically, the credit that had financed the earlier
trade began drying up, and the local bankers slowly went bankrupt.
In the last years of the seventeenth century, the gross value of trade
that passed through Surat had been Rs 16 million. By the 1740s it
had slumped to Rs 3 million.

89
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 13 – The English factory at Surat, a seventeenth-century drawing.

While Surat and Hoogly decayed, Bombay and Calcutta grew. This
shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the
growth of colonial power. Trade through the new ports came to
be controlled by European companies, and was carried in European
ships. While many of the old trading houses collapsed, those that
wanted to survive had to now operate within a network shaped by
European trading companies.

How did these changes affect the life of weavers and other artisans?
India and the Contemporary World

3.2 What Happened to Weavers?

The consolidation of East India Company power after the 1760s
did not initially lead to a decline in textile exports from India. British
cotton industries had not yet expanded and Indian fine textiles were
in great demand in Europe. So the company was keen on expanding
textile exports from India.

Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the

1760s and 1770s, the East India Company had found it difficult to
ensure a regular supply of goods for export. The French, Dutch, Fig. 14 – A weaver at work, Gujarat.

90
Reprint 2025-26
Portuguese as well as the local traders competed in the market
to secure woven cloth. So the weaver and supply merchants
could bargain and try selling the produce to the best buyer. In
their letters back to London, Company officials continuously
complained of difficulties of supply and the high prices.

However, once the East India Company established political

power, it could assert a monopoly right to trade. It proceeded
to develop a system of management and control that would
eliminate competition, control costs, and ensure regular supplies
of cotton and silk goods. This it did through a series of steps.

First: the Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and

brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establish a more
direct control over the weaver. It appointed a paid servant called
the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies, and examine
the quality of cloth.

Second: it prevented Company weavers from dealing with other

buyers. One way of doing this was through the system of advances.
Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase
the raw material for their production. Those who took loans had to
hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. They could not
take it to any other trader.

As loans flowed in and the demand for fine textiles expanded,

weavers eagerly took the advances, hoping to earn more. Many
weavers had small plots of land which they had earlier cultivated
along with weaving, and the produce from this took care of their
family needs. Now they had to lease out the land and devote all their
time to weaving. Weaving, in fact, required the labour of the entire
family, with children and women all engaged in different stages of

The Age of Industrialisation

the process.
New words
Soon, however, in many weaving villages there were reports of
clashes between weavers and gomasthas. Earlier supply merchants had Sepoy – This is how the British pronounced
very often lived within the weaving villages, and had a close the word sipahi, meaning an Indian soldier in
relationship with the weavers, looking after their needs and helping the service of the British
them in times of crisis. The new gomasthas were outsiders, with no
long-term social link with the village. They acted arrogantly, marched
into villages with sepoys and peons, and punished weavers for delays
in supply – often beating and flogging them. The weavers lost the
space to bargain for prices and sell to different buyers: the price they
received from the Company was miserably low and the loans they
had accepted tied them to the Company.
91
Reprint 2025-26
 In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers deserted villages
and migrated, setting up looms in other villages where they had
some family relation. Elsewhere, weavers along with the village
traders revolted, opposing the Company and its officials. Over time
many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their workshops
and taking to agricultural labour.

By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers faced a

new set of problems.

3.3 Manchester Comes to India

In 1772, Henry Patullo, a Company official, had ventured to Source C
say that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce, since
no other nation produced goods of the same quality. Yet by The Commissioner of Patna wrote:
the beginning of the nineteenth century we see the beginning of ‘It appears that twenty yeas ago, a brisk trade
was carried on in the manufacture of cloth at
a long decline of textile exports from India. In 1811-12
Jahanabad, and Behar, which has in the former
piece-goods accounted for 33 per cent of India’s exports; by place entirely ceased, while in the latter the
1850-51 it was no more than 3 per cent. amount of manufacture is very limited, in
consequence of the cheap and durable goods
Why did this happen? What were its implications? from Manchester with which the Native
manufactures are unable to compete.’
As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups began Quoted in J. Krishnamurty, ‘Deindustrialisation in
worrying about imports from other countries. They pressurised Gangetic Bihar during the nineteenth century’,
the government to impose import duties on cotton textiles so that The Indian Economic and Social History Review,
1985.
Manchester goods could sell in Britain without facing any Source
competition from outside. At the same time industrialists persuaded
the East India Company to sell British manufactures in Indian
markets as well. Exports of British cotton goods increased
Source D
dramatically in the early nineteenth century. At the end of the
eighteenth century there had been virtually no import of cotton
Reporting on the Koshtis, a community of
piece-goods into India. But by 1850 cotton piece-goods constituted
India and the Contemporary World

weavers, the Census Report of Central Provinces

over 31 per cent of the value of Indian imports; and by the 1870s stated:
this figure was over 50 per cent. ‘The Koshtis, like the weavers of the finer kinds
of cloth in other parts of India, have fallen upon
Cotton weavers in India thus faced two problems at the same time: evil times. They are unable to compete with the
showy goods which Manchester sends in such
their export market collapsed, and the local market shrank, being
profusion, and they have of late years emigrated
glutted with Manchester imports. Produced by machines at lower in great numbers, chiefly to Berar, where as day
costs, the imported cotton goods were so cheap that weavers could labourers they are able to obtain wages …’
not easily compete with them. By the 1850s, reports from most Census Report of Central Provinces, 1872, quoted
in Sumit Guha, ‘The handloom industry in Central
weaving regions of India narrated stories of decline and desolation.
India, 1825-1950’, The Indian Economic and Social
History Review.
By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get
sufficient supply of raw cotton of good quality. When the American
Source

92
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 15 – Bombay harbour, a late-eighteenth-century drawing.
Bombay and Calcutta grew as trading ports from the 1780s. This marked the decline of the old trading order
and the growth of the colonial economy.

Civil War broke out and cotton supplies from the US were cut
off, Britain turned to India. As raw cotton exports from India
increased, the price of raw cotton shot up. Weavers in India
were starved of supplies and forced to buy raw cotton at
exorbitant prices. In this, situation weaving could not pay.

Then, by the end of the nineteenth century, weavers and other

craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in India began

The Age of Industrialisation

production, flooding the market with machine-goods. How could
weaving industries possibly survive?

93
Reprint 2025-26
 4 Factories Come Up

The first cotton mill in Bombay came up in 1854 and it went into
production two years later. By 1862 four mills were at work with
94,000 spindles and 2,150 looms. Around the same time jute mills
came up in Bengal, the first being set up in 1855 and another one
seven years later, in 1862. In north India, the Elgin Mill was started
in Kanpur in the 1860s, and a year later the first cotton mill of
Ahmedabad was set up. By 1874, the first spinning and weaving
mill of Madras began production.

Who set up the industries? Where did the capital come from? Who
came to work in the mills? Fig. 16 – Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy.
Jeejeebhoy was the son of a Parsi weaver. Like
many others of his time, he was involved in
4.1 The Early Entrepreneurs the China trade and shipping. He owned a
large fleet of ships, but competition from
Industries were set up in different regions by varying sorts of people. English and American shippers forced him to
sell his ships by the 1850s.
Let us see who they were.

The history of many business groups goes back to trade with China.
From the late eighteenth century, as you have read in your book last
year, the British in India began exporting opium to China and took
tea from China to England. Many Indians became junior players in
this trade, providing finance, procuring supplies, and shipping
consignments. Having earned through trade, some of these
businessmen had visions of developing industrial enterprises in India.
In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore made his fortune in the China trade
before he turned to industrial investment, setting up six joint-stock
companies in the 1830s and 1840s. Tagore’s enterprises sank along
with those of others in the wider business crises of the 1840s, but
India and the Contemporary World

later in the nineteenth century many of the China traders became

successful industrialists. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and
Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata who built huge industrial empires in
India, accumulated their initial wealth partly from exports to China,
and partly from raw cotton shipments to England. Seth Hukumchand,
a Marwari businessman who set up the first Indian jute mill in
Calcutta in 1917, also traded with China. So did the father as well as
grandfather of the famous industrialist G.D. Birla. Fig. 17 – Dwarkanath Tagore.
Dwarkanath Tagore believed that India would
Capital was accumulated through other trade networks. Some develop through westernisation and
industrialisation. He invested in shipping,
merchants from Madras traded with Burma while others had links shipbuilding, mining, banking, plantations
with the Middle East and East Africa. There were yet other and insurance.

94
Reprint 2025-26
commercial groups, but they were not directly involved in external
trade. They operated within India, carrying goods from one place
to another, banking money, transferring funds between cities, and
financing traders. When opportunities of investment in industries
opened up, many of them set up factories.

As colonial control over Indian trade tightened, the space within

which Indian merchants could function became increasingly limited.
They were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods,
and had to export mostly raw materials and food grains – raw
cotton, opium, wheat and indigo – required by the British. They
were also gradually edged out of the shipping business. Fig. 18 – Partners in enterprise – J.N. Tata,
R.D. Tata, Sir R.J. Tata, and Sir D.J. Tata.
Till the First World War, European Managing Agencies in fact In 1912, J.N. Tata set up the first iron and steel
works in India at Jamshedpur. Iron and steel
controlled a large sector of Indian industries. Three of the biggest industries in India started much later than
ones were Bird Heiglers & Co., Andrew Yule, and Jardine Skinner textiles. In colonial India industrial machinery,
railways and locomotives were mostly imported.
& Co. These Agencies mobilised capital, set up joint-stock companies So capital goods industries could not really
and managed them. In most instances Indian financiers provided develop in any significant way till Independence.

the capital while the European Agencies made all investment and
business decisions. The European merchant-industrialists had their
own chambers of commerce which Indian businessmen were not
allowed to join.

4.2 Where Did the Workers Come From?

Factories needed workers. With the expansion of factories, this
demand increased. In 1901, there were 584,000 workers in Indian
factories. By 1946 the number was over 2,436, 000. Where did the
workers come from?

In most industrial regions workers came from the districts around.

Peasants and artisans who found no work in the village went to the
industrial centres in search of work. Over 50 per cent workers in the The Age of Industrialisation
Bombay cotton industries in 1911 came from the neighbouring
district of Ratnagiri, while the mills of Kanpur got most of their
textile hands from the villages within the district of Kanpur. Most
often millworkers moved between the village and the city, returning
to their village homes during harvests and festivals.

Over time, as news of employment spread, workers travelled great

distances in the hope of work in the mills. From the United Provinces, Fig. 19 – Young workers of a Bombay
mill, early twentieth century.
for instance, they went to work in the textile mills of Bombay and in When workers went back to their village
the jute mills of Calcutta. homes, they liked dressing up.

95
Reprint 2025-26
 Getting jobs was always difficult, even when mills multiplied and
the demand for workers increased. The numbers seeking work were
always more than the jobs available. Entry into the mills was also
restricted. Industrialists usually employed a jobber to get new recruits.
Very often the jobber was an old and trusted worker. He got people
from his village, ensured them jobs, helped them settle in the city
and provided them money in times of crisis. The jobber therefore
became a person with some authority and power. He began
demanding money and gifts for his favour and controlling the lives
of workers.

The number of factory workers increased over time. However,

as you will see, they were a small proportion of the total
industrial workforce.

Source E

Vasant Parkar, who was once a millworker in Bombay, said: Fig. 20 – A head jobber.
‘The workers would pay the jobbers money to get their sons work Notice how the posture and clothes
emphasise the jobber’s position of
in the mill … The mill worker was closely associated with his village,
authority.
physically and emotionally. He would go home to cut the harvest
and for sowing. The Konkani would go home to cut the paddy
and the Ghati, the sugarcane. It was an accepted practice for
which the mills granted leave.’
Meena Menon and Neera Adarkar, One Hundred Years: One Hundred
Voices, 2004.
Source
Source F

Bhai Bhosle, a trade unionist of Bombay,

recollected his childhood in the 1930s and 1940s:
‘In those days, the shift was 10 hours – from
India and the Contemporary World

5 pm to 3 am – terrible working hours. My father

worked for 35 years; he got the asthma like
disease and could not work any more…Then my
father went back to village.’
Meena Menon and Neera Adarkar, One Hundred
Years: One Hundred Voices.
Source

Fig. 21 – Spinners at work in an Ahmedabad mill.

Women worked mostly in the spinning departments.

96
Reprint 2025-26
 5 The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth

European Managing Agencies, which dominated industrial

production in India, were interested in certain kinds of products.
They established tea and coffee plantations, acquiring land at cheap
rates from the colonial government; and they invested in mining,
indigo and jute. Most of these were products required primarily for
export trade and not for sale in India.

When Indian businessmen began setting up industries in the late

nineteenth century, they avoided competing with Manchester goods
in the Indian market. Since yarn was not an important part of British
imports into India, the early cotton mills in India produced coarse
cotton yarn (thread) rather than fabric. When yarn was imported it
was only of the superior variety. The yarn produced in Indian spinning
mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to China.

By the first decade of the twentieth century a series of changes

affected the pattern of industrialisation. As the swadeshi movement
gathered momentum, nationalists mobilised people to boycott foreign
cloth. Industrial groups organised themselves to protect their collective
interests, pressurising the government to increase tariff protection
and grant other concessions. From 1906, moreover, the export of
Indian yarn to China declined since produce from Chinese and
Japanese mills flooded the Chinese market.
So industrialists in India began shifting from
yarn to cloth production. Cotton piece-
goods production in India doubled between
1900 and 1912.

Yet, till the First World War, industrial growth

The Age of Industrialisation

was slow. The war created a dramatically
new situation. With British mills busy with
war production to meet the needs of the
army, Manchester imports into India
declined. Suddenly, Indian mills had a vast
home market to supply. As the war
prolonged, Indian factories were called
upon to supply war needs: jute bags, cloth
for army uniforms, tents and leather boots, Fig. 22 – The first office of the Madras Chamber of Commerce.
By the late nineteenth century merchants in different regions began
horse and mule saddles and a host of other meeting and forming Chambers of Commerce to regulate business and
items. New factories were set up and old decide on issues of collective concern.

97
Reprint 2025-26
 ones ran multiple shifts. Many new workers were employed and
everyone was made to work longer hours. Over the war years
industrial production boomed.

After the war, Manchester could never recapture its old position in
the Indian market. Unable to modernise and compete with the US,
Germany and Japan, the economy of Britain crumbled after the
war. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from
Britain fell dramatically. Within the colonies, local industrialists
gradually consolidated their position, substituting foreign
manufactures and capturing the home market.

5.1 Small-scale Industries Predominate

While factory industries grew steadily after the war, large industries
formed only a small segment of the economy. Most of them –
about 67 per cent in 1911 – were located in Bengal and Bombay.
Over the rest of the country, small-scale production continued to
predominate. Only a small proportion of the total industrial labour
force worked in registered factories: 5 per cent in 1911 and 10 per
cent in 1931. The rest worked in small workshops and household
units, often located in alleys and bylanes, invisible to the passer-by.

In fact, in some instances, handicrafts production actually expanded

in the twentieth century. This is true even in the case of the handloom
sector that we have discussed. While cheap machine-made thread
wiped out the spinning industry in the nineteenth century, the weavers Fig. 23 – A Hand-woven
Cloth.
survived, despite problems. In the twentieth century, handloom The intricate designs of
cloth production expanded steadily: almost trebling between 1900 hand-woven cloth could
not be easily copied by the
and 1940. mills.
India and the Contemporary World

How did this happen?

This was partly because of technological changes. Handicrafts people

adopt new technology if that helps them improve production New words
without excessively pushing up costs. So, by the second decade of
the twentieth century we find weavers using looms with a fly shuttle. Fly shuttle – It is a mechanical device used for
This increased productivity per worker, speeded up production and weaving, moved by means of ropes and pullies.
reduced labour demand. By 1941, over 35 per cent of handlooms It places the horizontal threads ( called the weft)
in India were fitted with fly shuttles: in regions like Travancore, into the verticle threads (called the warp). The
Madras, Mysore, Cochin, Bengal the proportion was 70 to 80 per invention of the fly shuttle made it possible
cent. There were several other small innovations that helped weavers for weavers to operate large looms and weave
improve their productivity and compete with the mill sector. wide pieces of cloth.

98
Reprint 2025-26
Certain groups of weavers were in a better position than others to
survive the competition with mill industries. Amongst weavers some
produced coarse cloth while others wove finer varieties. The coarser
cloth was bought by the poor and its demand fluctuated violently.
In times of bad harvests and famines, when the rural poor had little
to eat, and their cash income disappeared, they could not possibly
buy cloth. The demand for the finer varieties bought by the
well-to-do was more stable. The rich could buy these even when the
poor starved. Famines did not affect the sale of Banarasi or
Baluchari saris. Moreover, as you have seen, mills could not imitate
specialised weaves. Saris with woven borders, or the famous lungis
and handkerchiefs of Madras, could not be easily displaced by
mill production.

Weavers and other craftspeople who continued to expand

production through the twentieth century, did not necessarily prosper.
They lived hard lives and worked long hours. Very often the entire
household – including all the women and children – had to work at
various stages of the production process. But they were not simply
remnants of past times in the age of factories. Their life and labour
was integral to the process of industrialisation.

Punjab
United Provinces

Bihar

The Age of Industrialisation

Central Provinces
Bengal

Bombay

Madras

Fig. 24 – Location of large-scale industries in India, 1931.

The circles indicate the size of industries in the different
regions.

99
Reprint 2025-26
 6 Market for Goods

We have seen how British manufacturers attempted to take over

the Indian market, and how Indian weavers and craftsmen, traders
and industrialists resisted colonial controls, demanded tariff
protection, created their own spaces, and tried to extend the market
for their produce.

But when new products are produced people have to be

persuaded to buy them. They have to feel like using the product.
How was this done?

One way in which new consumers are created is through

advertisements. As you know, advertisements make products appear
desirable and necessary. They try to shape the minds of people and
create new needs. Today we live in a world where advertisements
surround us. They appear in newspapers, magazines, hoardings, street
walls, television screens. But if we look back into history we find
that from the very beginning of the industrial age, advertisements
have played a part in expanding the markets for products, and in
Fig. 25 – Gripe Water calendar of 1928 by
shaping a new consumer culture. M.V. Dhurandhar.
The image of baby Krishna was most
When Manchester industrialists began selling cloth in India, they put commonly used to popularise baby products.
labels on the cloth bundles. The label was needed to make the place
of manufacture and the name of the company familiar to the buyer.
The label was also to be a mark of quality. When buyers saw ‘MADE
IN MANCHESTER’ written in bold on the label, they were
expected to feel confident about buying the cloth.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 26(a) – Manchester labels, early

twentieth century.
Images of numerous Indian gods and
goddesses – Kartika, Lakshmi,
Saraswati – are shown in imported
cloth labels approving the quality of
the product being marketed.
Fig. 26(b) – Maharaja Ranjit Singh on
a Manchester label.
Historic figures are used to create
respect for the product.
Fig. 26(a) Fig. 26(b)

100
Reprint 2025-26
But labels did not only carry words and texts. They also carried
images and were very often beautifully illustrated. If we look
at these old labels, we can have some idea of the mind of the
manufacturers, their calculations, and the way they appealed to
the people.

Images of Indian gods and goddesses regularly appeared on these

labels. It was as if the association with gods gave divine approval to
the goods being sold. The imprinted image of Krishna or Saraswati
was also intended to make the manufacture from a foreign land
appear somewhat familiar to Indian people.

By the late nineteenth century, manufacturers were printing calendars

to popularise their products. Unlike newspapers and magazines,
calendars were used even by people who could not read. They were
hung in tea shops and in poor people’s homes just as much as in
offices and middle-class apartments. And those who hung the
calendars had to see the advertisements, day after day, through the
year. In these calendars, once again, we see the figures of gods being
used to sell new products. Fig. 27 – Sunlight soap calendar of 1934.
Here God Vishnu is shown bringing sunlight
Like the images of gods, figures of important personages, of from across the skies.

emperors and nawabs, adorned advertisement and calendars. The

message very often seemed to say: if you respect the royal figure,
then respect this product; when the product was being used by
kings, or produced under royal command, its quality could not
be questioned.

When Indian manufacturers advertised the nationalist message was

clear and loud. If you care for the nation then buy products that
Indians produce. Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist
message of swadeshi.

The Age of Industrialisation

Conclusion
Clearly, the age of industries has meant major technological changes,
growth of factories, and the making of a new industrial labour
force. However, as you have seen, hand technology and small-scale
production remained an important part of the industrial landscape.

Look again at Figs. 1 and 2. What would you now say of the images
they project? Fig. 28 – An Indian mill cloth label.
The goddess is shown offering cloth produced
in an Ahmedabad mill, and asking people to
use things made in India.

101
Reprint 2025-26
 Write in brief

1. Explain the following:

a) Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
b) In the seventeenth century merchants from towns in Europe began employing
peasants and artisans within the villages.
c) The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century.
d) The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.
2. Write True or False against each statement:

Write in brief
a) At the end of the nineteenth century, 80 per cent of the total workforce in
Europe was employed in the technologically advanced industrial sector.
b) The international market for fine textiles was dominated by India till the
eighteenth century.
c) The American Civil War resulted in the reduction of cotton exports from India.
d) The introduction of the fly shuttle enabled handloom workers to improve their
productivity.
3. Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation.

Discuss

1. Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines?
2. How did the East India Company procure regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from
Indian weavers?
India and the Contemporary World

Discuss
3. Imagine that you have been asked to write an article for an encyclopaedia on Britain and the
history of cotton. Write your piece using information from the entire chapter.
4. Why did industrial production in India increase during the First World War?

Project work
Project
Select any one industry in your region and find out its history. How has the technology changed?
Where do the workers come from? How are the products advertised and marketed? Try and talk
to the employers and some workers to get their views about the industry’s history.

102
Reprint 2025-26
SECTION III

EVERYDAY LIFE, CULTURE AND POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
 Chapter V
Print Culture and the Modern World
It is difficult for us to imagine a world without printed matter. We
find evidence of print everywhere around us – in books, journals,
newspapers, prints of famous paintings, and also in everyday things
like theatre programmes, official circulars, calendars, diaries,
advertisements, cinema posters at street corners. We read printed
literature, see printed images, follow the news through newspapers,
and track public debates that appear in print. We take for granted
this world of print and often forget that there was a time before

lture and the Modern World

print. We may not realise that print itself has a history which has, in
fact, shaped our contemporary world. What is this history? When
did printed literature begin to circulate? How has it helped create
the modern world?

In this chapter we will look at the development of print, from its

beginnings in East Asia to its expansion in Europe and in India. We
will understand the impact of the spread of technology and consider
how social lives and cultures changed with the coming of print.

C u Culture
P r i n t Print

Fig. 1 – Book making before the age of print, from

Akhlaq-i-Nasiri, 1595.
This is a royal workshop in the sixteenth century,
much before printing began in India. You can see
the text being dictated, written and illustrated. The
art of writing and illustrating by hand was
important in the age before print. Think about
what happened to these forms of art with the
coming of printing machines.

105
Reprint 2025-26
 1 The First Printed Books

The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan

and Korea. This was a system of hand printing. From AD 594
onwards, books in China were printed by rubbing paper – also
invented there – against the inked surface of woodblocks. As both
sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed, the traditional New words
Chinese ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side.
Calligraphy – The art of beautiful and stylised
Superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate, with remarkable accuracy,
writing
the beauty of calligraphy.

The imperial state in China was, for a very long time, the major
producer of printed material. China possessed a huge bureaucratic
system which recruited its personnel through civil service
examinations. Textbooks for this examination were printed in vast
numbers under the sponsorship of the imperial state. From the
sixteenth century, the number of examination candidates went up
and that increased the volume of print.

By the seventeenth century, as urban culture bloomed in China, the

uses of print diversified. Print was no longer used just by scholar-
officials. Merchants used print in their everyday life, as they collected
trade information. Reading increasingly became a leisure activity.
The new readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry,
autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces, and romantic
plays. Rich women began to read, and many women began
publishing their poetry and plays. Wives of scholar-officials published
their works and courtesans wrote about their lives.

This new reading culture was accompanied by a new technology.

Western printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported
India and the Contemporary World

in the late nineteenth century as Western powers established their

outposts in China. Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture,
catering to the Western-style schools. From hand printing there was
now a gradual shift to mechanical printing.

1.1 Print in Japan

Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing
technology into Japan around AD 768-770. The oldest Japanese book,
printed in AD 868, is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing six sheets
of text and woodcut illustrations. Pictures were printed on textiles, Fig. 2 a – A page from the Diamond Sutra.

106
Reprint 2025-26
playing cards and paper money. In
Belonging to the mid-13th
medieval Japan, poets and prose
century, printing woodblocks of
writers were regularly published, the Tripitaka Koreana are a Korean
and books were cheap and abundant. collection of Buddhist scriptures.
They were engraved on about
Printing of visual material led to 80,000 woodblocks. They were
interesting publishing practices. In inscribed on the UNESCO Memory
of the World Register in 2007.
the late eighteenth century, in the
Source: http://www.cha.go.kr
flourishing urban circles at Edo
Fig. 2b – Tripitaka Koreana
(later to be known as Tokyo),
illustrated collections of paintings
depicted an elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans,
and teahouse gatherings. Libraries and bookstores were packed
with hand-printed material of various types – books on women,
musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower
arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.

Box 1

Kitagawa Utamaro, born in Edo in 1753, was widely known for

his contributions to an art form called ukiyo (‘pictures of the floating
world’) or depiction of ordinary human experiences, especially urban
ones. These prints travelled to contemporary US and Europe and
influenced artists like Manet, Monet and Van Gogh. Publishers like
Tsutaya Juzaburo identified subjects and commissioned artists who
drew the theme in outline. Then a skilled woodblock carver pasted
the drawing on a woodblock and carved a printing block to
reproduce the painter’s lines. In the process, the original drawing Fig. 3 – An ukiyo
would be destroyed and only prints would survive. print by Kitagawa
Utamaro.

Print Culture

Fig. 4a – A morning scene,

ukiyo print by Shunman
Kubo, late eighteenth
century.
A man looks out of the
window at the snowfall while
women prepare tea and
perform other domestic
duties.

107
Reprint 2025-26
 2 Print Comes to Europe

For centuries, silk and spices from China flowed into Europe through New words
the silk route. In the eleventh century, Chinese paper reached Europe
Vellum – A parchment made from the skin
via the same route. Paper made possible the production of of animals
manuscripts, carefully written by scribes. Then, in 1295, Marco Polo,
a great explorer, returned to Italy after many years of exploration in
China. As you read above, China already had the technology of
woodblock printing. Marco Polo brought this knowledge back with
him. Now Italians began producing books with woodblocks, and
soon the technology spread to other parts of Europe. Luxury
editions were still handwritten on very expensive vellum, meant for
aristocratic circles and rich monastic libraries which scoffed at printed
books as cheap vulgarities. Merchants and students in the university
towns bought the cheaper printed copies.

As the demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe

began exporting books to many different countries. Book fairs were
held at different places. Production of handwritten manuscripts was
Fig. 4b – Jikji
also organised in new ways to meet the expanded demand. Scribes
or skilled handwriters were no longer solely employed by wealthy The Jikji of Korea is among the world’s oldest
existing books printed with movable metal type.
or influential patrons but increasingly by booksellers as well. More It contains the essential features of Zen
than 50 scribes often worked for one bookseller. Buddhism. About 150 monks of India, China and
Korea are mentioned in the book. It was printed
But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy in late 14th century. While the first volume of
the book is unavailable, the second one is available
the ever-increasing demand for books. Copying was an expensive, in the National Library of France. This work marked
laborious and time-consuming business. Manuscripts were fragile, an important technical change in the print
culture. That is why it was inscribed on the
awkward to handle, and could not be carried around or read easily.
India and the Contemporary World

UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 2001.

Their circulation therefore remained limited. With the growing
demand for books, woodblock printing gradually became more
and more popular. By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were
being widely used in Europe to print textiles, playing cards, and
religious pictures with simple, brief texts.

There was clearly a great need for even quicker and cheaper
reproduction of texts. This could only be with the invention of a
Activity
new print technology. The breakthrough occurred at Strasbourg, Imagine that you are Marco Polo. Write a letter
from China to describe the world of print which
Germany, where Johann Gutenberg developed the first-known
you have seen there.
printing press in the 1430s.

108
Reprint 2025-26
2.1 Gutenberg and the Printing Press
Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large
agricultural estate. From his childhood he had seen wine and olive
presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing stones, became a
master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead
moulds used for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge,
Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation.
The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds
were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system. The first book he printed
was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed and it took three Fig. 5 – A Portrait of
Johann Gutenberg,
years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast 1584.
production.

The new technology did not entirely displace the existing art of
producing books by hand. Frame

In fact, printed books at first closely resembled the written

manuscripts in appearance and layout. The metal letters imitated the
ornamental handwritten styles. Borders were illuminated by hand
Screw
with foliage and other patterns, and illustrations were painted. In the
books printed for the rich, space for decoration was kept blank on
Handle
the printed page. Each purchaser could choose the design and decide
on the painting school that would do the illustrations. Platen

In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were
set up in most countries of Europe. Printers from Germany travelled
to other countries, seeking work and helping start new presses. As Printing block
placed over
paper
the number of printing presses grew, book production boomed.
The second half of the fifteenth century saw 20 million copies of
printed books flooding the markets in Europe. The number went Fig. 6 – Gutenberg Printing Press.
Notice the long handle attached to the screw.
up in the sixteenth century to about 200 million copies. This handle was used to turn the screw and
press down the platen over the printing block
Print Culture

This shift from hand printing to mechanical printing led to the that was placed on top of a sheet of damp
paper. Gutenberg developed metal types for
print revolution. each of the 26 characters of the Roman
alphabet and devised a way of moving them
around so as to compose different words of the
New words text. This came to be known as the moveable
type printing machine, and it remained the basic
Platen – In letterpress printing, platen is a board which is print technology over the next 300 years.
Books could now be produced much faster than
pressed onto the back of the paper to get the impression from was possible when each print block was
the type. At one time it used to be a wooden board; later it prepared by carving a piece of wood by hand.
The Gutenberg press could print 250 sheets
was made of steel on one side per hour.

109
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 7 – Pages of Gutenberg’s Bible, the first printed book in Europe.
Gutenberg printed about 180 copies, of which no more than 50 have
survived.
Look at these pages of Gutenberg’s Bible carefully. They were not just
products of new technology. The text was printed in the new Gutenberg
press with metal type, but the borders were carefully designed, painted and
illuminated by hand by artists. No two copies were the same. Every page of
each copy was different. Even when two copies look similar, a careful
comparison will reveal differences. Elites everywhere preferred this lack of
uniformity: what they possessed then could be claimed as unique, for no
one else owned a copy that was exactly the same.
In the text you will notice the use of colour within the letters in various
places. This had two functions: it added colour to the page, and highlighted
all the holy words to emphasise their significance. But the colour on every
page of the text was added by hand. Gutenberg printed the text in black,
leaving spaces where the colour could be filled in later.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 8 – A printer’s workshop, sixteenth century.

This picture depicts what a printer’s shop looked like in the
sixteenth century. All the activities are going on under one roof. New words
In the foreground on the right, compositors are at work, while Compositor – The person who composes the
on the left galleys are being prepared and ink is being applied on
the metal types; in the background, the printers are turning the text for printing
screws of the press, and near them proofreaders are at work. Galley – Metal frame in which types are laid
Right in front is the final product – the double-page printed
sheets, stacked in neat piles, waiting to be bound. and the text composed

110
Reprint 2025-26
3 The Print Revolution and Its Impact

What was the print revolution? It was not just a development, a new
way of producing books; it transformed the lives of people,
changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with
institutions and authorities. It influenced popular perceptions and
opened up new ways of looking at things.
Let us explore some of these changes.

3.1 A New Reading Public

With the printing press, a new reading public emerged. Printing
reduced the cost of books. The time and labour required to produce Activity
each book came down, and multiple copies could be produced You are a bookseller advertising the availability
with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an of new cheap printed books. Design a poster
ever-growing readership. for your shop window.

Access to books created a new culture of reading. Earlier, reading

was restricted to the elites. Common people lived in a world of oral
culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited, and folk
tales narrated. Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively
heard a story, or saw a performance. As you will see in Chapter 8,
they did not read a book individually and silently. Before the age of
print, books were not only expensive but they could not be produced
in sufficient numbers. Now books could reach out to wider sections
of people. If earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public
came into being.
But the transition was not so simple. Books could be read only by
the literate, and the rates of literacy in most European countries
were very low till the twentieth century. How, then, could publishers
persuade the common people to welcome the printed book? To do
this, they had to keep in mind the wider reach of the printed work:
Print Culture

even those who did not read could certainly enjoy listening to books
being read out. So printers began publishing popular ballads and
folk tales, and such books would be profusely illustrated with pictures.
These were then sung and recited at gatherings in villages and in New words
taverns in towns. Ballad – A historical account or folk tale in
Oral culture thus entered print and printed material was orally verse, usually sung or recited
transmitted. The line that separated the oral and reading cultures Taverns – Places where people gathered to
became blurred. And the hearing public and reading public became drink alcohol, to be served food, and to meet
intermingled. friends and exchange news

111
Reprint 2025-26
 3.2 Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
Print created the possibility of wide circulation of
ideas, and introduced a new world of debate and
discussion. Even those who disagreed with
established authorities could now print and circulate
their ideas. Through the printed message, they could
persuade people to think differently, and move them
to action. This had significance in different spheres
of life.

Not everyone welcomed the printed book, and those

who did also had fears about it. Many were
apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to
the printed word and the wider circulation of books,
could have on people’s minds. It was feared that if
there was no control over what was printed and
read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might
spread. If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’
literature would be destroyed. Expressed by religious
authorities and monarchs, as well as many writers
and artists, this anxiety was the basis of widespread
criticism of the new printed literature that had begun Fig. 9 – J.V. Schley, L’Imprimerie, 1739.
to circulate. This is one of the many images produced in early modern
Europe, celebrating the coming of print. You can see the
Let us consider the implication of this in one sphere printing press descending from heaven, carried by a goddess.
On two sides of the goddess, blessing the machine, are
of life in early modern Europe – namely, religion. Minerva (the goddess of wisdom) and Mercury (the messenger
god, also symbolising reason). The women in the foreground
In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther wrote are holding plaques with the portraits of six pioneer printers of
different countries. In the middle ground on the left (figure
Ninety Five Theses criticising many of the practices encircled) is the portrait of Gutenberg.
India and the Contemporary World

and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. A printed

copy of this was posted on a church door in Wittenberg. It challenged
the Church to debate his ideas. Luther’s writings were immediately
reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This lead to a division
New words
within the Church and to the beginning of the Protestant
Reformation. Luther’s translation of the New Testament sold 5,000 Protestant Reformation – A sixteenth-century
copies within a few weeks and a second edition appeared within movement to reform the Catholic Church
three months. Deeply grateful to print, Luther said, ‘Printing is the dominated by Rome. Martin Luther was one
ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.’ Several scholars, in fact, of the main Protestant reformers. Several
think that print brought about a new intellectual atmosphere and traditions of anti-Catholic Christianity
helped spread the new ideas that led to the Reformation. developed out of the movement

112
Reprint 2025-26
3.3 Print and Dissent New words
Print and popular religious literature stimulated many distinctive
Inquisition – A former Roman Catholic court
individual interpretations of faith even among little-educated working
for identifying and punishing heretics
people. In the sixteenth century, Menocchio, a miller in Italy, began
Heretical – Beliefs which do not follow the
to read books that were available in his locality. He reinterpreted the
accepted teachings of the Church. In medieval
message of the Bible and formulated a view of God and Creation
times, heresy was seen as a threat to the right
that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. When the Roman Church
of the Church to decide on what should be
began its inquisition to repress heretical ideas, Menocchio was hauled
believed and what should not. Heretical beliefs
up twice and ultimately executed. The Roman Church, troubled by
were severely punished
such effects of popular readings and questionings of faith, imposed
Satiety – The state of being fulfilled much
severe controls over publishers and booksellers and began to maintain
beyond the point of satisfaction
an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.
Seditious – Action, speech or writing that is
seen as opposing the government

Source A

Fear of the book

Erasmus, a Latin scholar and a Catholic reformer,
who criticised the excesses of Catholicism but kept
his distance from Luther, expressed a deep anxiety
about printing. He wrote in Adages (1508):
‘To what corner of the world do they not fly,
these swarms of new books? It may be that one
here and there contributes something worth
knowing, but the very multitude of them is hurtful
to scholarship, because it creates a glut, and even
in good things satiety is most harmful ... [printers]
fill the world with books, not just trifling things
Fig. 10 – The macabre dance. (such as I write, perhaps), but stupid, ignorant,
This sixteenth-century print shows how the fear of printing was slanderous, scandalous, raving, irreligious and
dramatised in visual representations of the time. In this highly seditious books, and the number of them
interesting woodcut the coming of print is associated with the end is such that even the valuable publications lose
of the world. The interior of the printer’s workshop here is the site their value.’
of a dance of death. Skeletal figures control the printer and his
workers, define and dictate what is to be done and what is to be Source
Print Culture

produced.

Discuss
Write briefly why some people feared that the development of
print could lead to the growth of dissenting ideas.

113
Reprint 2025-26
 4 The Reading Mania

Through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries literacy rates went

New words
up in most parts of Europe. Churches of different denominations
set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to peasants and artisans. Denominations – Sub groups within a religion
By the end of the eighteenth century, in some parts of Europe Almanac – An annual publication giving
literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 per cent. As literacy and schools astronomical data, information about the
movements of the sun and moon, timing of
spread in European countries, there was a virtual reading mania.
full tides and eclipses, and much else that was
People wanted books to read and printers produced books in ever-
of importance in the everyday life of people
increasing numbers.
Chapbook – A term used to describe pocket-
New forms of popular literature appeared in print, targeting new size books that are sold by travelling pedlars
audiences. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around called chapmen. These became popular from
villages, carrying little books for sale. There were almanacs or ritual the time of the sixteenth-century print revolution
calendars, along with ballads and folktales. But other forms of reading
matter, largely for entertainment, began to reach ordinary readers as
well. In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty pedlars
known as chapmen, and sold for a penny, so that even the poor
could buy them. In France, were the “Biliotheque Bleue”, which
were low-priced small books printed on poor quality paper, and
bound in cheap blue covers. Then there were the romances, printed
on four to six pages, and the more substantial ‘histories’ which were
stories about the past. Books were of various sizes, serving many
different purposes and interests.

The periodical press developed from the early eighteenth century, Box 2
combining information about current affairs with entertainment.
Newspapers and journals carried information about wars and trade, In 1791, a London publisher, James Lackington,
India and the Contemporary World

wrote in his diary:

as well as news of developments in other places.
‘The sale of books in general has increased
Similarly, the ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more prodigiously within the last twenty years. The
poorer sort of farmers and even the poor country
accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific people in general who before that period spent
texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams their winter evenings in relating stories of witches,
ghosts, hobgoblins … now shorten the winter
were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to night by hearing their sons and daughters read
publish their discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle them tales, romances, etc. If John goes to town
with a load of hay, he is charged to be sure not
of scientifically minded readers. The writings of thinkers such as
to forget to bring home Peregrine Pickle’s
Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely Adventure … and when Dolly is sent to sell her
eggs, she is commissioned to purchase The
printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality
History of Joseph Andrews.’
found their way into popular literature.

114
Reprint 2025-26
4.1 ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
By the mid-eighteenth century, there was a common conviction that Source B
books were a means of spreading progress and enlightenment. Many
believed that books could change the world, liberate society from This is how Mercier describes the impact of the
printed word, and the power of reading in one
despotism and tyranny, and herald a time when reason and intellect
of his books:
would rule. Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in eighteenth-century
‘Anyone who had seen me reading would have
France, declared: ‘The printing press is the most powerful engine of compared me to a man dying of thirst who was
progress and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism gulping down some fresh, pure water … Lighting
my lamp with extraordinary caution, I threw
away.’ In many of Mercier’s novels, the heroes are transformed by myself hungrily into the reading. An easy
acts of reading. They devour books, are lost in the world books eloquence, effortless and animated, carried me
create, and become enlightened in the process. Convinced of the from one page to the next without my noticing
it. A clock struck off the hours in the silence of
power of print in bringing enlightenment and destroying the basis the shadows, and I heard nothing. My lamp began
of despotism, Mercier proclaimed: ‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of to run out of oil and produced only a pale light,
but still I read on. I could not even take out time
the world! Tremble before the virtual writer!’
to raise the wick for fear of interrupting my
pleasure. How those new ideas rushed into my
brain! How my intelligence adopted them!’
4.2 Print Culture and the French Revolution
Many historians have argued that print culture created the conditions Quoted by Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-
within which French Revolution occurred. Can we make such Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France, 1995.

a connection? Source
Three types of arguments have been usually put forward.

First: print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers.

New words
Collectively, their writings provided a critical commentary on tradition,
superstition and despotism. They argued for the rule of reason rather Despotism – A system of governance in which
than custom, and demanded that everything be judged through the absolute power is exercised by an individual,
application of reason and rationality. They attacked the sacred unregulated by legal and constitutional checks
authority of the Church and the despotic power of the state, thus
eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition. The
writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely; and those who
read these books saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were
Print Culture

questioning, critical and rational.

Second: print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All

values, norms and institutions were re-evaluated and discussed by a
public that had become aware of the power of reason, and
recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. Within
this public culture, new ideas of social revolution came into being.

Third: by the 1780s there was an outpouring of literature that mocked

the royalty and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised

115
Reprint 2025-26
 questions about the existing social order. Cartoons and caricatures
typically suggested that the monarchy remained absorbed only in
sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense
hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the
growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy.

How do we look at these arguments? There can be no doubt that

print helps the spread of ideas. But we must remember that people
did not read just one kind of literature. If they read the ideas of
Voltaire and Rousseau, they were also exposed to monarchical and Activity
Church propaganda. They were not influenced directly by everything
Imagine that you are a cartoonist in France
they read or saw. They accepted some ideas and rejected others.
before the revolution. Design a cartoon as it
They interpreted things their own way. Print did not directly shape
would have appeared in a pamphlet.
their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking differently.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 11 – The nobility and the common people before the French Revolution, a
cartoon of the late eighteenth century.
The cartoon shows how the ordinary people – peasants, artisans and workers – had a
hard time while the nobility enjoyed life and oppressed them. Circulation of cartoons
like this one had an impact on the thinking of people before the revolution.

Discuss
Why do some historians think that print culture created the basis for the French Revolution?

116
Reprint 2025-26
5 The Nineteenth Century

The nineteenth century saw vast leaps in mass literacy in Europe,

bringing in large numbers of new readers among children,
women and workers.

5.1 Children, Women and Workers

As primary education became compulsory from the late
nineteenth century, children became an important category
of readers. Production of school textbooks became critical
for the publishing industry. A children’s press, devoted to
literature for children alone, was set up in France in 1857.
This press published new works as well as old fairy tales
and folk tales. The Grimm Brothers in Germany spent years
compiling traditional folk tales gathered from peasants. What
they collected was edited before the stories were published
in a collection in 1812. Anything that was considered
unsuitable for children or would appear vulgar to the elites,
was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales
thus acquired a new form. In this way, print recorded old
tales but also changed them.

Women became important as readers as well as writers. Penny

magazines (see Fig. 12) were especially meant for women, as
Fig. 12 – Frontispiece of Penny Magazine.
were manuals teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping. Penny Magazine was published between 1832 and 1835
When novels began to be written in the nineteenth century, in England by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge. It was aimed primarily at the working class.
women were seen as important readers. Some of the best-
known novelists were women: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters,
George Eliot. Their writings became important in defining a new
type of woman: a person with will, strength of personality,
determination and the power to think.
Print Culture

Box 3
Lending libraries had been in existence from the seventeenth century
onwards. In the nineteenth century, lending libraries in England Thomas Wood, a Yorkshire mechanic, narrated
how he would rent old newspapers and read
became instruments for educating white-collar workers, artisans them by firelight in the evenings as he could not
and lower-middle-class people. Sometimes, self-educated working afford candles. Autobiographies of poor people
narrated their struggles to read against grim
class people wrote for themselves. After the working day was
obstacles: the twentieth-century Russian
gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had revolutionary author Maxim Gorky’s My Childhood
some time for self-improvement and self-expression. They wrote and My University provide glimpses of such
struggles.
political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

117
Reprint 2025-26
 5.2 Further Innovations
By the late eighteenth century, the press came to be made out of
metal. Through the nineteenth century, there were a series of further
innovations in printing technology. By the mid-nineteenth century,
Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven
cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour.
This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers. In the
late nineteenth century, the offset press was developed which could
print up to six colours at a time. From the turn of the twentieth
century, electrically operated presses accelerated printing operations.
A series of other developments followed. Methods of feeding paper
improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels
and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
The accumulation of several individual mechanical improvements
transformed the appearance of printed texts.

Printers and publishers continuously developed new strategies

to sell their product. Nineteenth-century periodicals serialised
important novels, which gave birth to a particular way of writing
novels. In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in
Activity
cheap series, called the Shilling Series. The dust cover or the
book jacket is also a twentieth-century innovation. With the Look at Fig. 13. What impact do such
advertisements have on the public mind?
onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, publishers feared a
Do you think everyone reacts to printed material
decline in book purchases. To sustain buying, they brought
in the same way?
out cheap paperback editions.
India and the Contemporary World

Fig. 13 – Advertisements at a railway station in England, a lithograph by Alfred Concanen, 1874.

Printed advertisements and notices were plastered on street walls, railway platforms and public buildings.

118
Reprint 2025-26
6 India and the World of Print

Let us see when printing began in India and how ideas and information
were written before the age of print.

6.1 Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts –
in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages.
Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They would be either Fig. 14 – Pages
from the Gita
pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure Govinda of
preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after Jayadeva,
eighteenth century.
the introduction of print, down to the late nineteenth century. This is a palm-leaf
handwritten
Manuscripts, however, were highly expensive and fragile. They had manuscript in
to be handled carefully, and they could not be read easily as the accordion format.

Print Culture

Fig. 15 – Pages from the Diwan of Hafiz, 1824.

Hafiz was a fourteenth-century poet whose collected works are known as Diwan. Notice the
beautiful calligraphy and the elaborate illustration and design. Manuscripts like this continued
to be produced for the rich even after the coming of the letterpress.

119
Reprint 2025-26
 script was written in different styles. So
manuscripts were not widely used in
everyday life. Even though pre-colonial
Bengal had developed an extensive network
of village primary schools, students very
often did not read texts. They only learnt
to write. Teachers dictated portions of
texts from memory and students wrote Fig. 16 – Pages from the Rigveda.
Handwritten manuscripts continued to be produced in India till much after
them down. Many thus became literate the coming of print. This manuscript was produced in the eighteenth
without ever actually reading any kinds century in the Malayalam script.

of texts.

6.2 Print Comes to India

The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries
in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and
printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed
in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic priests printed
the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first
Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant
missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations
of older works.
The English language press did not grow in India till quite late even
though the English East India Company began to import presses
from the late seventeenth century.

From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette,
a weekly magazine that described itself as ‘a commercial paper open
to all, but influenced by none’. So it was private English enterprise,
proud of its independence from colonial influence, that began English
India and the Contemporary World

printing in India. Hickey published a lot of advertisements, including

those that related to the import and sale of slaves. But he also Source C
published a lot of gossip about the Company’s senior officials in As late as 1768, a William Bolts affixed a notice
India. Enraged by this, Governor-General Warren Hastings on a public building in Calcutta:
persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the publication of officially ‘To the Public: Mr. Bolts takes this method of
sanctioned newspapers that could counter the flow of information informing the public that the want of a printing
press in this city being of a great disadvantage in
that damaged the image of the colonial government. By the business ... he is going to give the best
close of the eighteenth century, a number of newspapers and encouragement to any ... persons who are
journals appeared in print. There were Indians, too, who began versed in the business of printing.’

to publish Indian newspapers. The first to appear was the weekly Bolts, however, left for England soon after and
nothing came of the promise.
Bengal Gazette, brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who
was close to Rammohun Roy.
Source

120
Reprint 2025-26
7 Religious Reform and Public Debates

From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense
debates around religious issues. Different groups confronted the
changes happening within colonial society in different ways, and
offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different
religions. Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for
reform, while others countered the arguments of reformers. These
debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and
newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the
nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these
public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged
through these clashes of opinions.

This was a time of intense controversies between social and religious

reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow
immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In
Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated,
circulating a variety of arguments. To reach a wider audience, the
ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary
people. Rammohun Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika
to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were
published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year,
a Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance.

In north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse
of Muslim dynasties. They feared that colonial rulers would
encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. To counter
this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and
Urdu translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious
newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867,
Print Culture

published thousands upon thousands of fatwas telling Muslim

readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and
explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines. All through the
nineteenth century, a number of Muslim sects and seminaries New words
appeared, each with a different interpretation of faith, each keen Ulama – Legal scholars of Islam and the sharia
on enlarging its following and countering the influence of its ( a body of Islamic law)
opponents. Urdu print helped them conduct these battles in public. Fatwa – A legal pronouncement on Islamic
law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to
Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the reading of religious texts,
clarify issues on which the law is uncertain
especially in the vernacular languages. The first printed edition of

121
Reprint 2025-26
 the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out
from Calcutta in 1810. By the mid-nineteenth century, cheap
lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s,
the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar
Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars.
In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the
faithful at any place and time. They could also be read out to large
groups of illiterate men and women.

Religious texts, therefore, reached a very wide circle of people,

encouraging discussions, debates and controversies within and
among different religions.

Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions

amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people
in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news from one
place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.

Source D

Why Newspapers?
‘Krishnaji Trimbuck Ranade inhabitant of Poona intends to publish a Newspaper in the Marathi Language with a view of
affording useful information on every topic of local interest. It will be open for free discussion on subjects of general utility,
scientific investigation and the speculations connected with the antiquities, statistics, curiosities, history and geography of
the country and of the Deccan especially… the patronage and support of all interested in the diffusion of knowledge and
Welfare of the People is earnestly solicited.’
Bombay Telegraph and Courier, 6 January 1849
‘The task of the native newspapers and political associations is identical to the role of the Opposition in the House of
Commons in Parliament in England. That is of critically examining government policy to suggest improvements, by removing
those parts that will not be to the benefit of the people, and also by ensuring speedy implementation.
These associations ought to carefully study the particular issues, gather diverse relevant information on the nation as well
as on what are the possible and desirable improvements, and this will surely earn it considerable influence.’
India and the Contemporary World

Native Opinion, 3 April 1870.

Source

122
Reprint 2025-26
8 New Forms of Publication

Printing created an appetite for new kinds of writing. As more and

more people could now read, they wanted to see their own lives,
experiences, emotions and relationships reflected in what they read.
The novel, a literary firm which had developed in Europe, ideally
catered to this need. It soon acquired distinctively Indian forms and
styles. For readers, it opened up new worlds of experience, and
gave a vivid sense of the diversity of human lives.

Other new literary forms also entered the world of reading –

lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters. In
different ways, they reinforced the new emphasis on human lives
and intimate feelings, about the political and social rules that shaped
such things.
By the end of the nineteenth century, a new visual
culture was taking shape. With the setting up of an
increasing number of printing presses, visual images
could be easily reproduced in multiple copies. Painters
like Raja Ravi Varma produced images for mass
circulation. Poor wood engravers who made
woodblocks set up shop near the letterpresses, and
were employed by print shops. Cheap prints and
calendars, easily available in the bazaar, could be
bought even by the poor to decorate the walls of
their homes or places of work. These prints began
shaping popular ideas about modernity and tradition,
religion and politics, and society and culture.

By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being

published in journals and newspapers, commenting
on social and political issues. Some caricatures
ridiculed the educated Indians’ fascination with
Print Culture

Western tastes and clothes, while others expressed

the fear of social change. There were imperial
caricatures lampooning nationalists, as well as
nationalist cartoons criticising imperial rule.

Fig. 17 – Raja Ritudhwaj rescuing Princess Madalsa

from the captivity of demons, print by Ravi Varma.
Raja Ravi Varma produced innumerable mythological
paintings that were printed at the Ravi Varma Press.

123
Reprint 2025-26
 8.1 Women and Print
Lives and feelings of women began to be written in particularly
vivid and intense ways. Women’s reading, therefore, increased
enormously in middle-class homes. Liberal husbands and fathers
began educating their womenfolk at home, and sent them to schools
when women’s schools were set up in the cities and towns after the
mid-nineteenth century. Many journals began carrying writings by
women, and explained why women should be educated. They also
carried a syllabus and attached suitable reading matter which could
be used for home-based schooling.

But not all families were liberal. Conservative Hindus believed

that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that
educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.
Sometimes, rebel women defied such prohibition. We know the
story of a girl in a conservative Muslim family of north India
who secretly learnt to read and write in Urdu. Her family wanted
Fig. 18 – The cover page of Indian Charivari.
her to read only the Arabic Quran which she did not understand. The Indian Charivari was one of the many
So she insisted on learning to read a language that was her own. In journals of caricature and satire published in
the late nineteenth century.
East Bengal, in the early nineteenth century, Rashsundari Debi, a Notice that the imperial British figure is
young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in positioned right at the centre. He is
authoritative and imperial; telling the natives
the secrecy of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography
what is to be done. The natives sit on either
Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was the first full-length side of him, servile and submissive. The
autobiography published in the Bengali language. Indians are being shown a copy of Punch, the
British journal of cartoons and satire. You can
almost hear the British master say – ‘This is
Since social reforms and novels had already created a great interest
the model, produce Indian versions of it.’
in women’s lives and emotions, there was also an interest in what
women would have to say about their own lives. From the 1860s,
a few Bengali women like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books
highlighting the experiences of women – about how women were
imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic
India and the Contemporary World

labour and treated unjustly by the very people they served. In the Source E
1880s, in present-day Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita
In 1926, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein, a
Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives noted educationist and literary figure, strongly
of upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows. A woman in a condemned men for withholding education from
Tamil novel expressed what reading meant to women who were women in the name of religion as she addressed
the Bengal Women’s Education Conference:
so greatly confined by social regulations: ‘For various reasons, my
‘The opponents of female education say that
world is small … More than half my life’s happiness has come women will become unruly … Fie! They call
from books …’ themselves Muslims and yet go against the basic
tenet of Islam which gives Women an equal right
While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed to education. If men are not led astray once
early, Hindi printing began seriously only from the 1870s. Soon, a educated, why should women?’

large segment of it was devoted to the education of women. In

Source

124
Reprint 2025-26
the early twentieth century, journals, written for and sometimes
edited by women, became extremely popular. They discussed
issues like women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage
and the national movement. Some of them offered household
and fashion lessons to women and brought entertainment through
short stories and serialised novels.

In Punjab, too, a similar folk literature was widely printed from

the early twentieth century. Ram Chaddha published the fast-selling
Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient wives.
The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap booklets with a similar
message. Many of these were in the form of dialogues about the
qualities of a good woman.

In Bengal, an entire area in central Calcutta – the Battala – was

devoted to the printing of popular books. Here you could buy
cheap editions of religious tracts and scriptures, as well as literature
that was considered obscene and scandalous. By the late nineteenth Fig. 19 – Ghor Kali (The End of the
World), coloured woodcut, late
century, a lot of these books were being profusely illustrated with nineteenth century.
woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the Battala The artist’s vision of the destruction
of proper family relations. Here the
publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their husband is totally dominated by his
leisure time. wife who is perched on his shoulder.
He is cruel towards his mother,
dragging her like an animal, by the
noose.

Fig. 20 – An Indian
couple, black and white
woodcut.
The image shows the
artist’s fear that the
Print Culture

cultural impact of the

West has turned the
family upside down.
Notice that the man is
playing the veena while
the woman is smoking a
hookah. The move
towards women’s
education in the late
nineteenth century
created anxiety about the
breakdown of traditional
family roles.

125
Reprint 2025-26
 Fig. 21 – A European couple sitting on chairs,
nineteenth-century woodcut.
The picture suggests traditional family roles. The
Sahib holds a liquor bottle in his hand while the
Memsahib plays the violin.

8.2 Print and the Poor People

Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century
Madras towns and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people travelling Activity
to markets to buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early
Look at Figs. 19, 20 and 21 carefully.
twentieth century, expanding the access to books. These libraries were
Ø What comment are the artists making on the
located mostly in cities and towns, and at times in prosperous villages.
social changes taking place in society?
For rich local patrons, setting up a library was a way of acquiring prestige.
Ø What changes in society were taking place to
From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to provoke this reaction?
be written about in many printed tracts and essays. Jyotiba Phule, the Ø Do you agree with the artist’s view?
Maratha pioneer of ‘low caste’ protest movements, wrote about the
injustices of the caste system in his Gulamgiri (1871). In the twentieth
century, B.R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker
in Madras, better known as Periyar, wrote powerfully on caste and
their writings were read by people all over India. Local protest
movements and sects also created a lot of popular journals and tracts Fig. 22 – Lakshminath
Bezbaruah (1868–1938)
India and the Contemporary World

criticising ancient scriptures and envisioning a new and just future.

Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to
write much about their experiences. But Kashibaba, a Kanpur
millworker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938 to
He was a doyen of modern Assamese literature.
show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of Burhi Aair Sadhu (Grandma’s Tales) is among his
another Kanpur millworker, who wrote under the name of Sudarshan notable works. He penned the popular song of
Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published Assam, ‘O Mor Apunar Desh’ (O’ my beloved land).

in a collection called Sacchi Kavitayan. By the 1930s, Bangalore cotton

millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves, following the example
of Bombay workers. These were sponsored by social reformers who
tried to restrict excessive drinking among them, to bring literacy and,
sometimes, to propagate the message of nationalism.

126
Reprint 2025-26
 9 Print and Censorship

Before 1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was Box 4
not too concerned with censorship. Strangely, its early measures to
control printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India Sometimes, the government found it hard to
who were critical of Company misrule and hated the actions of find candidates for editorship of loyalist papers.
When Sanders, editor of the Statesman that had
particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such
been founded in 1877, was approached, he
criticisms might be used by its critics in England to attack its trade asked rudely how much he would be paid
monopoly in India. for suffering the loss of freedom. The Friend
of India refused a government subsidy, fearing
By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations that this would force it to be obedient to
government commands.
to control press freedom and the Company began encouraging
publication of newspapers that would celebrate Britsh rule. In 1835,
faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular
Box 5
newspapers, Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press laws.
Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules
The power of the printed word is most often
that restored the earlier freedoms. seen in the way governments seek to regulate
and suppress print. The colonial government kept
After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press
continuous track of all books and newspapers
changed. Enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the published in India and passed numerous laws to
‘native’ press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively control the press.
nationalist, the colonial government began debating measures of During the First World War, under the Defence
of India Rules, 22 newspapers had to furnish
stringent control. In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed,
securities. Of these, 18 shut down rather than
modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government comply with government orders. The Sedition
with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular Committee Report under Rowlatt in 1919 further
strengthened controls that led to imposition of
press. From now on the government kept regular track of the
penalties on various newspapers. At the outbreak
vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a of the Second World War, the Defence of India
report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if Act was passed, allowing censoring of reports of
war-related topics. All reports about the Quit India
the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the
movement came under its purview. In August
printing machinery confiscated. 1942, about 90 newspapers were suppressed.

Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers

in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and
Source F
Print Culture

encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist

criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed Gandhi said in 1922:
cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were ‘Liberty of speech ... liberty of the press ...
freedom of association. The Government of India
deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy
is now seeking to crush the three powerful
about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, vehicles of expressing and cultivating public
provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. opinion. The fight for Swaraj, for Khilafat ...
means a fight for this threatened freedom
before all else ...’
Source

127
Reprint 2025-26
 Write in brief

1. Give reasons for the following:

a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from
the mid-sixteenth century.
d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the
press, and freedom of association.

Write in brief
2. Write short notes to show what you know about:
a) The Gutenberg Press
b) Erasmus’s idea of the printed book
c) The Vernacular Press Act
3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
a) Women
b) The poor
c) Reformers

Discuss

Discuss
1. Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring
enlightenment and end despotism?
2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example
from Europe and one from India.
3. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?
India and the Contemporary World

4. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

Project

Find out more about the changes in print technology in the last 100 years. Write about the
changes, explaining why they have taken place, what their consequences have been.
Project

128
Reprint 2025-26
 Social Science

Democratic Politics-II
Textbook in Political Science for Class X

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 1 10-05-2022 17:06:28

 1072 – Democratic Politics-II ISBN 81-7450-711-6
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
March 2007 Chaitra 1928
 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
Reprinted or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of
February 2008, January 2009, the publisher.
January 2010, January 2011,
January 2012, November 2012,  This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
December 2013, December 2014,
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
January 2016, January 2017, which it is published.
December 2017, January 2019,
January 2020, March 2021 and  The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any
November 2021 revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other
means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.
Revised Edition
May 2022 Vaishakha 1944 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
December 2022 Agrahayana 1944 Division, NCERT
NCERT Campus
Reprinted Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
March 2024, Chaitra 1946
June 2024, Jyaishtha 1946 108, 100 Feet Road
Hosdakere Halli Extension
December 2024 Pausha 1946
Banashankari III Stage
Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740

Navjivan Trust Building

PD 200T BS
P.O.Navjivan
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
© National Council of Educational
CWC Campus
Research and Training, 2007, 2022
Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454
` 65.00
CWC Complex
Maligaon
Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

Publication Team
About the cover
Head, Publication : M.V. Srinivasan
The cartoons on the cover page are Division
from Yesudasan, R. K. Laxman and Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Irfaan Khan.
Chief Production : Jahan Lal
Officer (In charge)
Chief Business : Amitabh Kumar
Manager
Assistant Editor : Shashi Chaddha
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Production Officer : Sunil Sharma

Published at the Publication Division by the

Secretary, National Council of Educational Cover Layout Illustrations
Research and T raining Sri Aurobindo
Marg, New Delhi 110016 and printed at Fatma Nasir Parthiv Shah with Irfaan
VK Global Digital, Plot No. 928, Sector-68, Shroboni
IMT Faridabad, Haryana–121004

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 2 01-Jan-25 4:14:13 PM

 Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This
principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which
continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and
community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify
an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage
rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different
subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in
the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National
Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and
to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given
space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging
with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed
textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other
resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative
is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as
receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily timetable is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan. We also wish to thank
the Chief Advisors for this book, Professors Yogendra Yadav and Suhas
Palshikar along with Advisor for this book, Professor K. C. Suri for guiding
the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development
of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible.
We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 3 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially
grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the
Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development under the Chairmanship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed
to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products,
NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake
further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

iv

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 4 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 Rationalisation of Content
in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content

load on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises
upon reducing the content load and providing opportunities for
experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the
NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across
all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT
across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the

following

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas

in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class
in the same subject
• High difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children
through self-learning or peer-learning.
• Content, which is not relevant in the present context or outdated.

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 5 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 6 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 A Letter for You

Dear students, teachers and parents,

Political Science textbooks for Class IX and Class X together form an
integrated whole. That is why we called them Democratic Politics-I and
Democratic Politics-II. This book begins where the Political Science textbook
stopped last year in Class IX. Last year, the tour of democracy introduced you
mainly to some basic ideas, institutions and rules of democracy. This year, the
focus shifts from the institutions to the process. The book introduces you to
how democracy works in practice and what can be expected of it.
As a result of this shift, you would read much more directly about politics in
this book. Politics is about how thinking human beings determine and change the
way they live together. This involves ideas and ideals, cooperation and coordination.
This also involves conflict and competition, self and collective interest. Therefore
much of democratic politics is about power sharing.
This forms the subject matter of the first four chapters in this book. In these
chapters, we explore various forms of sharing and shaping of power in a democracy.
Chapters One and Two constitute the first unit that presents the idea of power
sharing and elaborates it in the context of power sharing between different levels of
government. The second unit is about power sharing and accommodation among
different social groups. The next chapter tells us how different political organisations
and movements are important in democratic politics. The fifth chapter takes up the
larger questions with which we began our tour last year. Thus, what democracies
have achieved and what is yet to be achieved is discussed in the fifth chapter on
outcomes. Thus ends the tour of democracy we began last year. As we travel through
the different chapters, the meaning of democracy expands.
This book is a continuation of the Class IX textbook in another sense as well.
Last year, the textbook had introduced a different style and form. Since we have had
a very positive feedback from many of you regarding these features, we continue
the experiment this year as well. This book also interacts with the students with the
help of stories, illustrations, puzzles and cartoons. This time we have increased the
visual elements and introduced a new feature called ‘Plus Box’. Do read about all the
old and new features in the ‘How to Use this Book’. Above all, this book does not
seek to teach and preach about democracy. It seeks to engage in a conversation with
you. You would agree that this is a democratic way of thinking about democracy.
We were fortunate this year as well that some of the leading political scientists
of the country agreed to join the Textbook Development Committee. We would
like to express our deep appreciation of the support we received in preparing this
textbook from Professor Krishna Kumar and Professor Hari Vasudevan and the
advice received from the National Monitoring Committee. We would like to thank
Professor Satish Deshpande for reading specific chapters and giving comments. A
group of teachers and educationists comprising Anuradha Sen, Suman Lata, Manish

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 7 1/4/2023 09:52:06

 Jain, Radhika Menon, Malini Ghose, Alex M. George and Pankaj Pushkar read the
drafts and made valuable suggestions. We would like to make a special mention of the
untiring efforts of Alex and Pankaj, the two ‘super advisors’ of this book, to ensure
that what is presented in the book was accurate, interesting and communicative.
Parthiv Shah and Shroboni gave the book its attractive look. Irfan Khan once again
created new-look Unni and Munni for you. Ahmed Raza of ARK Grafix provided
with informative and appealing graphics and maps. We are highly thankful to the
Lokniti and Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) for providing a
congenial home for the textbook development committee, for sparing space and
resources for this enterprise during the last two years.
At the end of this academic year, you will be taking the Board examinations.
We wish you all the best in your examinations. We wish and hope that the tour
of democracy undertaken in these two books will help you overcome two most
common reactions: that Political Science is boring and that politics is disgusting.
We hope you will continue to take interest in a critical and balanced understanding
of democratic politics either by opting for Political Science as a subject or by acting
as a responsible citizen in future.

K. C. Suri Yogendra Yadav, Suhas Palshikar

Advisor Chief Advisors

viii

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 8 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 How to Use this Book
This book retains several features with which you are familiar. These were
introduced in your Political Science textbook for Class IX. This book also
has some new features that you might wish to know about.

Overview comes at the beginning of every chapter. It tells you about the
purpose of the chapter and what is covered in it. Please read the overview
before and after reading the chapter.

Section and sub-section headings: Each chapter is divided into

sections and sub-sections. A section heading spreads over both columns on
the page. This indicates the beginning a major part of the chapter and often
covers a topic specified in the syllabus. The sub-section heading in a column
indicates one point under the section concerned.

Graphics, Collages, Photographs and Posters occupy more space in this

textbook than they did in your textbook for Class IX. You would continue
to find a wide range of political Cartoons. These images provide visual relief
and some fun. But you should not merely ‘see’ these images and turn the page.
You are expected to ‘read’ the meaning of these images. Very often politics
is carried out not through words but through images. The captions and
questions that often accompany these images help you to read these images.

Munni and Unni are back with you. Like you, they have also grown up
a little since you met them in Class IX. They keep popping up and asking
questions that you may have wished to ask. Do stop to engage with their
questions. And don’t hesitate to ask similar questions to your teachers and
parents.

+ Plus boxes contain supplementary information related to the theme of the

chapter. Sometimes the plus box has a story that invites you to reflect on
the dilemmas concerning our social and political life. You are supposed to
read and discuss these. But you need not memorise the information and
contents of the plus box. Nor is there a ‘correct’ answer to some of the moral
questions posed there. These are just meant to help you think hard. Each
plus box carries a special + sign.

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 9 10-05-2022 17:06:29

 Let us watch television, Let us listen to radio, Let us read newspaper, Let us
debate, Let’s find out or Let’s do it give students some activity in or outside
the classroom. These activities become more meaningful when the students
present their findings to the entire class and have the space for discussion. Where
necessary, please feel free to substitute one type of media with another.

Glossary appears at the margin of the page in which an unfamiliar word or

expression comes in the text. Such a word is highlighted in the text. Remember,
you don’t need to learn the definition by heart. You just need to understand the
word.

Let us revise usually comes at the end of every section. The questions invite you
to apply the points learnt in that section to a specific situation. Teachers can
come up with more such in-text exercises and use these to check the progress
that everyone has made.
Exercises

Exercises come at the end of every chapter. You would notice that we have
introduced some new kinds of exercises, particularly in multiple choice format,
which require reasoning and application of mind. Once you become familiar
with the format, you would enjoy the challenge.

Maps are essential not just for understanding geography but also for history and
politics. That is why some of the information is presented by way of maps in
this book. You are not expected to draw the maps, but understand the patterns
depicted here.

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 10 10-05-2022 17:06:32

 Textbook Development Committee

Chairperson, Advisory Committee for Textbooks at the Secondary Level

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Chief Advisors
Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Politics and Public Administration, University
of Pune, Pune
Advisor
K. C. Suri, Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad

Members
Sanjyot Apte, Senior Lecturer, Department of Politics, S. P. College, Pune
Rajeev Bhargava, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Peter R. deSouza, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Alex M. George, Independent Researcher, Eruvatty, District Kannur, Kerala
Malini Ghose, Nirantar, Center for Gender and Education, New Delhi
Manish Jain, Researcher, University of Delhi, Delhi
Suman Lata, Senior Lecturer, Department of Education, Gargi College, University of
Delhi, Delhi
Pratap Bhanu Mehta, President and Chief Executive, Center for Policy Research, New Delhi
Nivedita Menon, Reader, Department of Political Science, Faculty of Arts, University of
Delhi, Delhi
Radhika Menon, Lecturer, Department of Education, Mata Sunderi College, University
of Delhi, Delhi
Sanjeeb Mukherjee, Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science, Calcutta University,
Kolkata
Priyavadan Patel, Professor, Department of Political Science, M. S. University, Vadodara
Malla V. S. V. Prasad, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
Pankaj Pushkar, Senior Lecturer, Lokniti, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies,
Delhi
Madan Lal Sawhney, PGT (Pol. Sc.), Govt. Sr. Sec. School, Sec. VII, R.K. Puram, New
Delhi
Anuradha Sen, Principal, The Srijan School, Model Town III, Delhi
Meenakshi Tandon, PGT (Pol. Sc.), Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, Lodhi Road, New Delhi

Coordinator
Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT,
xi New Delhi

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 11 10-05-2022 17:06:32

 Acknowledgements
Maps, photographs, posters, graphics and cartoons for this book are drawn from a variety of
sources. We gratefully acknowledge the following institutions and persons (with their institutional
affiliation) in this regard:
Wikipedia for the map on page 2 and for the photographs on pages 4 and 5, which are available
under GNU license.
ARK Grafix for the maps on pages 3 and 14 and for the graphics on pages 35, 39 and 56.
UNFPA for the map on page 33.
The Hindu for the photographs on pages 47 and 50.
Zuban for generous help in searching several precious posters, including the ones on pages 30
and 31.
Oxfam GB for the poster on page 34.
Oxford University Press and Raza/ARK for the graphics on pages 52, 66 and 72, which are
taken from the Report on the State of Democracy in South Asia.
Ajit Ninan of Times of India for the cartoons on pages 21 and 42; Keshav of The Hindu for the
cartoons on page 60; Kutty for the cartoon on page 21; Manjul of DNA for the one on page 59;
Cagle Cartoons for the cartoons on pages 6, 8, 53, 57, 58, 65, 67-72; R.K. Laxman of Times of India
for the cartoons on pages 48 and 64.
Irfaan Khan, Yesudasan and R.K. Laxman for the cartoons on the Cover page. Zuban, INSAF
(Delhi), SAHMAT, Street Art Workers.com, Oxfam GB, Aalochana (Pune), Chandralekha
(Chennai), Nari Nirjatan Pratirodh Manch (West Bengal), Sakhi (Kerala), Institute of Development
Communication (Chandigarh), Sahiyar (Gujarat), Sheba Chhachhi for the posters on back cover.
We thank Uttam Kumar and Ritu Sharma, DTP Operators, NCERT, for their sincere efforts
in making this book error-free. We also thank Devyani Oniyal and Deepti Sharma of NCERT
for copy-editing the book.
The Council acknowledges the valuable inputs for analysing syllabi, textbooks and the content,
proposed to be rationalised for this edition by Kavita Jain, PGT Political Science, Maneesha Pandey,
Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Hindu College, Shankar Sharan, Professor,
DESS, NCERT, Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor, RIE, Bhopal and Sunita Kathuria,
PGT Political Science, MLC Saraswati Bal Mandir, New Delhi.

Request for feedback

How did you like this textbook? What was your experience in reading or using this? What
were the difficulties you faced? What changes would you like to see in the next version of
this book?
Write to us on all these and any other matter related to this textbook. You could be a teacher,
a parent, a student or just a general reader. We value any and every feedback.
Please write to:
Coordinator (Political Science)
Department of Education in Social Sciences (DESS)
NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016.

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 12 19/03/2024 10:37:04

 Contents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
A Letter for You vii
How to Use this Book ix

Unit I
Chapter 1
Power-sharing 1
Chapter 2
Federalism 13

Unit II
Chapter 3
Gender, Religion and Caste 29

Unit III
Chapter 4
Political Parties 46

Unit IV
Chapter 5
Outcomes of Democracy 63

xiii

Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 13 10-05-2022 17:06:32

 Reprint 2025-26

0_Prelims.indd 14 10-05-2022 17:06:35

 Power-sharing

Overview

Chapter I
With this chapter, we resume the tour of democracy that we started last
year. We noted last year that in a democracy all power does not rest
with any one organ of the government. An intelligent sharing of power
among legislature, executive and judiciary is very important to the design
of a democracy. In this and the next two chapters, we carry this idea of
power-sharing forward. We start with two stories from Belgium and Sri
Lanka. Both these stories are about how democracies handle demands for
power-sharing. The stories yield some general conclusions about the need
for power-sharing in democracy. This allows us to discuss various forms
of power-sharing that will be taken up in the following two chapters.

Po w e r - sh a r i n g

1
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 1 08-04-2022 12:29:05

 Belgium and Sri Lanka
Belgium is a small country in Europe, to tensions between the Dutch-
smaller in area than the state of speaking and French-speaking
Haryana. It has borders with France, communities during the 1950s and
the Netherlands, Germany and 1960s. The tension between the
Luxembourg. It has a population of two communities was more acute
a little over one crore, about half the in Brussels. Brussels presented a
population of Haryana. The ethnic special problem: the Dutch-speaking
I have a simple composition of this small country is people constituted a majority in
equation in mind. very complex. Of the country’s total the country, but a minority in the
Sharing power = population, 59 per cent lives in the capital.
dividing power = Flemish region and speaks Dutch Let us compare this to the
weakening the language. Another 40 per cent people situation in another country. Sri
country. Why do we live in the Wallonia region and speak Lanka is an island nation, just a few
start by talking of French. Remaining one per cent of kilometres off the southern coast
this? the Belgians speak German. In the of Tamil Nadu. It has about two
capital city Brussels, 80 per cent crore people, about the same as in
people speak French while 20 per Haryana. Like other nations in the
cent are Dutch-speaking. South Asia region, Sri Lanka has a
The minority French-speaking diverse population. The major social
community was relatively rich and groups are the Sinhala-speakers (74
powerful. This was resented by the per cent) and the Tamil-speakers (18
Dutch-speaking community who got per cent). Among Tamils there are
the benefit of economic development two sub-groups. Tamil natives of
and education much later. This led the country are called ‘Sri Lankan

Communities
and
regions of
Belgium
© Wikipedia

Ethnic: A social
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

division based on
shared culture. People
belonging to the same
ethnic group believe in
Brussels-Capital Region
their common descent
because of similarities Walloon (French-speaking)
of physical type or of
Flemish (Dutch-speaking)
culture or both. They
need not always have German-speaking Look at the maps of Belgium and Sri Lanka. In
the same religion or which region, do you find concentration of different
nationality. communities?
For more details, visit https://www.belgium.be/en

2
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 2 08-04-2022 12:29:07

 Tamils’ (13 per cent). The rest, the Dutch community could take
whose forefathers came from India as advantage of its numeric majority
plantation workers during colonial and force its will on the French and
period, are called ‘Indian Tamils’. German-speaking population. This
As you can see from the map, Sri would push the conflict among
Lankan Tamils are concentrated in communities further. This could
the north and east of the country. lead to a very messy partition of the
Most of the Sinhala-speaking people country; both the sides would claim
are Buddhists, while most of the control over Brussels. In Sri Lanka,
Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. There the Sinhala community enjoyed
are about 7 per cent Christians, who an even bigger majority and could
are both Tamil and Sinhala. impose its will on the entire country.
Just imagine what could happen Now, let us look at what happened
in situations like this. In Belgium, in both these countries.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent language and culture. They felt that
country in 1948. The leaders of the constitution and government
the Sinhala community sought to policies denied them equal political
secure dominance over government rights, discriminated against them in
by virtue of their majority. As a getting jobs and other opportunities
result, the democratically elected and ignored their interests. As a
government adopted a series of
majoritarian measures to establish Ethnic Communities
Sinhala supremacy. of Sri Lanka
In 1956, an Act was passed Sinhalese
Sri Lankan Tamil
to recognise Sinhala as the only Indian Tamil
Muslim
official language, thus disregarding
Tamil. The governments followed
preferential policies that favoured
Sinhala applicants for university
positions and government jobs. A
new constitution stipulated that
the state shall protect and foster
Buddhism.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

All these government measures, Majoritarianism: A

coming one after the other, gradually belief that the majority
increased the feeling of alienation community should be
among the Sri Lankan Tamils. able to rule a country in
whichever way it wants,
They felt that none of the major by disregarding the
political parties led by the Buddhist wishes and needs of the
Sinhala leaders was sensitive to their For more details, visit https://www.gov.lk minority.

3
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 3 08-04-2022 12:29:08

 result, the relations between the Tamil Eelam (state) in northern and
What’s wrong
Sinhala and Tamil communities eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
if the majority
strained over time. The distrust between the two
community rules?
If Sinhalas don’t The Sri Lankan Tamils launched communities turned into widespread
rule in Sri Lanka, parties and struggles for the recognition conflict. It soon turned into a civil
where else will of Tamil as an official language, for war. As a result thousands of people
they rule? regional autonomy and equality of of both the communities have been
opportunity in securing education killed. Many families were forced to
and jobs. But their demand for more leave the country as refugees and many
autonomytoprovincespopulatedbythe more lost their livelihoods. The civil
Tamils was repeatedly denied. By 1980s, war has caused a terrible setback to the
several political organisations were social, cultural and economic life of the
formed demanding an independent country. It ended in 2009.

Accommodation in Belgium
The Belgian leaders took a different the support of majority of members
path. They recognised the existence from each linguistic group. Thus, no
of regional differences and cultural single community can make decisions
diversities. Between 1970 and 1993, unilaterally.
they amended their constitution four  Many powers of the Central
times so as to work out an arrangement Government have been given to State
that would enable everyone to live Governments of the two regions of
together within the same country. the country. The State Governments
The arrangement they worked out is are not subordinate to the Central
Government.
different from any other country and is
very innovative. Here are some of the  Brusselshasaseparategovernment
elements of the Belgian model: in which both the communities have
Civil war: A violent equal representation. The French-
conflict between  Constitution prescribes that the speaking people accepted equal
opposing groups number of Dutch and French-speaking
within a country that representation in Brussels because
becomes so intense ministers shall be equal in the central the Dutch-speaking community has
that it appears like a government. Some special laws require accepted equal representation in the
war.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

© Wikipedia

What kind of a solution

is this? I am glad our
Constitution does not say The photograph here is of a street
address in Belgium. You will notice
which minister will come from
that place names and directions in two
which community. languages – French and Dutch.

4
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 4 19/03/2024 10:38:13

 accepted equal representation in the
Central Government.
Apart from the Central and
the State Government, there is a
third kind of government. This
‘community government’ is elected
by people belonging to one language
community – Dutch, French and
German-speaking – no matter where
they live. This government has the
power regarding cultural, educational
and language-related issues.
You might find the Belgian model
very complicated. It indeed is very
complicated, even for people living
in Belgium. But these arrangements European Parliament in Brussels, Belgium
have worked well so far. They helped
to avoid civic strife between the two
major communities and a possible Europe came together to form the
So you are
division of the country on linguistic European Union, Brussels was
saying that
lines. When many countries of chosen as its headquarters.
sharing of power
makes us more
powerful. Sounds
odd! Let me
think.
Read any newspaper for one week and make clippings of
news related to ongoing conflicts or wars. A group of five
students could pool their clippings together and do the following:
 Classify these conflicts by their location (your state, India,
outside India).
 Find out the cause of each of these conflicts. How many of these
are related to power sharing disputes?
 Which of these conflicts could be resolved by working out power
sharing arrangements?

What do we learn from these two and regions. Such a realisation

stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka? resulted in mutually acceptable
Both are democracies. Yet, they arrangements for sharing power.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

dealt with the question of power Sri Lanka shows us a contrasting

sharing differently. In Belgium, example. It shows us that if a
the leaders have realised that the majority community wants to
unity of the country is possible force its dominance over others
only by respecting the feelings and and refuses to share power, it can
interests of different communities undermine the unity of the country.

5
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 5 08-04-2022 12:29:11

 The cartoon at the left refers to the
problems of running the Germany’s grand
coalition government that includes the
two major parties of the country, namely
the Christian Democratic Union and the
Social Democratic Party. The two parties
are historically rivals to each other. They

© Tab - The Calgary Sun, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

had to form a coalition government
because neither of them got clear
majority of seats on their own in the 2005
elections. They take divergent positions
on several policy matters, but still jointly
run the government.
For details about the German Parliament,
visit https://www.bundestag.de/en

Tyranny of the majority is not just

oppressive for the minority; it often
affects majority adversely as well.
There is a second, deeper reason
why power sharing is good for
Why power sharing is desirable? democracies. Power sharing is
Thus, two different sets of reasons can the very spirit of democracy. A
be given in favour of power sharing. democratic rule involves sharing
Firstly, power sharing is good because power with those affected by its
it helps to reduce the possibility of exercise, and who have to live with
conflict between social groups. Since its effects. People have a right to be
social conflict often leads to violence consulted on how they are to be
and political instability, power sharing governed. A legitimate government
is a good way to ensure the stability is one where citizens, through
of political order. Imposing the will participation, acquire a stake in
of majority community over others the system.
may look like an attractive option in Let us call the first set of reasons
the short run, but in the long run it prudential and the second moral.
undermines the unity of the nation. While prudential reasons stress
that power sharing will bring out
better outcomes, moral reasons
emphasise the very act of power
sharing as valuable.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Annette studies in a Dutch medium school in the

northern region of Belgium. Many French-speaking students
Prudential: Based on
in her school want the medium of instruction to be French.
prudence, or on careful
calculation of gains Selvi studies in a school in the northern region of Sri Lanka.
and losses. Prudential All the students in her school are Tamil-speaking and they
decisions are usually want the medium of instruction to be Tamil.
contrasted with decisions If the parents of Annette and Selvi were to approach
based purely on moral respective governments to realise the desire of the child
considerations.
who is more likely to succeed? And why?

6
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 6 19/03/2024 10:39:19

 Khalil’s As usual, Vikram was driving the motorbike under a vow
of silence and Vetal was the pillion rider. As usual, Vetal

dilemma started telling Vikram a story to keep him awake while

driving. This time the story went as follows:

“In the city of Beirut, there lived a man called Khalil. His
parents came from different communities. His father was an Orthodox Christian and
mother a Sunni Muslim. This was not so uncommon in this modern, cosmopolitan
city. People from various communities that lived in Lebanon came to live in its
capital, Beirut. They lived together, intermingled, yet fought a bitter civil war among
themselves. One of Khalil’s uncles was killed in that war.

At the end of this civil war, Lebanon’s leaders came together and agreed to some basic
rules for power sharing among different communities. As per these rules, the country’s
President must belong to the Maronite sect of Catholic Christians. The Prime Minister
must be from the Sunni Muslim community. The post of Deputy Prime Minister is fixed
for Orthodox Christian sect and that of the Speaker for Shi’a Muslims. Under this pact,
the Christians agreed not to seek French protection and the Muslims agreed not to seek
unification with the neighbouring state of Syria.When the Christians and Muslims came
to this agreement, they were nearly equal in population. Both sides have continued to
respect this agreement though now the Muslims are in clear majority.

Khalil does not like this system one bit. He is a popular man with political ambition.
But under the present system, the top position is out of his reach. He does not practise
either his father’s or his mother’s religion and does not wish to be known by either. He
cannot understand why Lebanon can’t be like any other ‘normal’ democracy. “Just hold
an election, allow everyone to contest and whoever wins maximum votes becomes the
president, no matter which community he comes from. Why can’t we do that, like in
other democracies of the world?” he asks. His elders, who have seen the bloodshed of
the civil war, tell him that the present system is the best guarantee for peace…”

The story was not finished, but they had reached the TV tower
where they stopped every day. Vetal wrapped up quickly
and posed his customary question to Vikram: “If
you had the power to rewrite the rules
in Lebanon, what would you do? Would
you adopt the ‘regular’ rules followed
everywhere, as Khalil suggests? Or stick to
the old rules? Or do something else?” Vetal
did not forget to remind Vikram of their basic
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

pact: “If you have an answer in mind and yet

do not speak up, your mobike will freeze, and
so will you!”

Can you help poor Vikram in answering Vetal?

7
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 7 08-04-2022 12:29:19

 Forms of power-sharing
The idea of power-sharing has power should be distributed among
emerged in opposition to the notions as many citizens as possible.
of undivided political power. For a In modern democracies, power
long time, it was believed that all sharing arrangements can take many
power of a government must reside forms. Let us look at some of the
in one person or group of persons most common arrangements that we
located at one place. It was felt that have or will come across.
if the power to decide is dispersed,
1 Power is shared among different
it would not be possible to take
organs of government, such as the
quick decisions and to enforce them.
legislature, executive and judiciary.
But these notions have changed
Let us call this horizontal distribution
with the emergence of democracy.
of power because it allows different
One basic principle of democracy
organs of government placed at
is that people are the source of all
the same level to exercise different
political power. In a democracy,
powers. Such a separation ensures
people rule themselves through
that none of the organs can exercise
institutions of self-government. In
unlimited power. Each organ checks
a good democratic government, due
the others. This results in a balance
respect is given to diverse groups
of power among various institutions.
and views that exist in a society.
Last year, we studied that in a
Everyone has a voice in the shaping
democracy, even though ministers
of public policies. Therefore, it
and government officials exercise
follows that in a democracy, political
power, they are responsible to the
Reigning the Reins
Parliament or State Assemblies.
© Olle Johansson - Sweden, Cagle Cartoons Inc., 25 Feb. 2005

Similarly, although judges are

appointed by the executive, they can
check the functioning of executive or
laws made by the legislatures. This
arrangement is called a system of
checks and balances.
2 Power can be shared among
governments at different levels –
a general government for the entire
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

country and governments at the

provincial or regional level. Such a
general government for the entire
country is usually called federal
government. In India, we refer to it as
In 2005, some new laws were made in Russia giving more powers to the Central or Union Government.
its president. During the same time, the US president visited Russia.
What, according to this cartoon, is the relationship between democracy The governments at the provincial or
and concentration of power? Can you think of some other examples to regional level are called by different
illustrate the point being made here?
names in different countries.

8
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 8 08-04-2022 12:29:19

 In India, we call them State groups, who otherwise, would feel
Governments. This system is not alienated from the government. This
followed in all countries. There are method is used to give minority
many countries where there are no communities a fair share in power. In
provincial or state governments. Unit II, we shall look at various ways
But in those countries like ours, of accommodating social diversities.
where there are different levels 4 Power sharing arrangements
of government, the constitution can also be seen in the way political
clearly lays down the powers of parties, pressure groups and
different levels of government. This movements control or influence
is what they did in Belgium, but was those in power. In a democracy,
refused in Sri Lanka. This is called the citizens must have freedom to
federal division of power. The same choose among various contenders
principle can be extended to levels f or power . In contempor ar y
of government lower than the State democracies, this takes the form
government, such as the municipality of competition among different
and panchayat. Let us call division of parties. Such competition ensures
powers involving higher and lower that power does not remain in
levels of government vertical division one hand. In the long run, power
of power. We shall study these at is shared among different political
some length in the next chapter. parties that represent different
3 Power may also be shared ideologies and social groups.
among different social groups, Sometimes this kind of sharing can
such as the religious and linguistic be direct, when two or more parties
groups. ‘Community government’ form an alliance to contest elections.
in Belgium is a good example of this If their alliance is elected, they form
arrangement. In some countries, a coalition government and thus
there are constitutional and legal share power. In a democracy, we
arrangements, whereby socially find interest groups, such as those of
weaker sections and women are traders, businessmen, industrialists,
represented in the legislatures farmers and industrial workers.
and administration. Last year, we They also will have a share in In my school,
studied the system of ‘reserved governmental power, either through the class monitor
constituencies’ in assemblies and participation in governmental changes every
month. Is that
the parliament of our country. This committees or bringing influence on
what you call a
type of arrangement is meant to the decision-making process. In Unit
power sharing
give space in the government and III, we shall study the working of
arrangement?
administration to diverse social political parties.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

9
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 9 4/29/2022 5:00:31 PM

 Here are some examples of power sharing. Which of the four types of power
sharing do these represent? Who is sharing power with whom?
 The Bombay High Court ordered the Maharashtra State Government to immediately
take action and improve living conditions for the 2,000-odd children at seven
children’s homes in Mumbai.
 The government of Ontario state in Canada has agreed to a land claim settlement
with the aboriginal community. The Minister responsible for Native Affairs announced
that the government will work with aboriginal people in a spirit of mutual respect
and cooperation.
 Russia’s two influential political parties, the Union of Right Forces and the Liberal
Yabloko Movement, agreed to unite their organisations into a strong right-
wing coalition. They propose to have a common list of candidates in the next
parliamentary elections.
 The finance ministers of various states in Nigeria got together and demanded that
the federal government declare its sources of income. They also wanted to know the
formula by which the revenue is distributed to various State Governments.
Exercises

1. What are the different forms of power sharing in modern

democracies? Give an example of each of these.
2. State one prudential reason and one moral reason for power sharing
with an example from the Indian context.
3. After reading this chapter, three students drew different
conclusions. Which of these do you agree with and why? Give
your reasons in about 50 words.
Thomman - Power sharing is necessary only in societies which
have religious, linguistic or ethnic divisions.
Mathayi – Power sharing is suitable only for big countries that
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

have regional divisions.

Ouseph – Every society needs some form of power sharing even
if it is small or does not have social divisions.
4. The Mayor of Merchtem, a town near Brussels in Belgium, has
defended a ban on speaking French in the town’s schools. He
said that the ban would help all non-Dutch speakers integrate
in this Flemish town. Do you think that this measure is in
keeping with the spirit of Belgium’s power sharing
arrangements? Give your reasons in about 50 words.

10
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 10 08-04-2022 12:29:21

 5. Read the following passage and pick out any one of the
prudential reasons for power sharing offered in this.
“We need to give more power to the panchayats to realise the
dream of Mahatma Gandhi and the hopes of the makers of
our Constitution. Panchayati Raj establishes true democracy.
It restores power to the only place where power belongs in
a democracy – in the hands of the people. Giving power to
Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase
administrative efficiency. When people participate in the planning
and implementation of developmental schemes, they would
naturally exercise greater control over these schemes. This
would eliminate the corrupt middlemen. Thus, Panchayati Raj will
strengthen the foundations of our democracy.”
6. Different arguments are usually put forth in favour of and against

Exercises
power sharing. Identify those which are in favour of power sharing
and select the answer using the codes given below? Power sharing:
A. reduces conflict among different communities
B. decreases the possibility of arbitrariness
C. delays decision making process
D. accommodates diversities
E. increases instability and divisiveness
F. promotes people’s participation in government
G. undermines the unity of a country

(a) A B D F
(b) A C E F
(c) A B D G
(d) B C D G

7. Consider the following statements about power sharing

arrangements in Belgium and Sri Lanka.
A. In Belgium, the Dutch-speaking majority people tried to impose
their domination on the minority French-speaking community.
B. In Sri Lanka, the policies of the government sought to ensure the
dominance of the Sinhala-speaking majority.
C. The Tamils in Sri Lanka demanded a federal arrangement of
power sharing to protect their culture, language and equality of
opportunity in education and jobs.
D. The transformation of Belgium from unitary government to
a federal one prevented a possible division of the country on
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

linguistic lines.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) A, B, C and D (b) A, B and D (c) C and D (d) B, C and D

11
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 11 08-04-2022 12:29:22

 8. Match List I (forms of power sharing) with List II (forms of government)
and select the correct answer using the codes given below in the lists:

List I List II
1. Power shared among different A. Community government
organs of government
2. Power shared among B. Separation of powers
governments at different levels
3. Power shared by different social C. Coalition government
groups
4. Power shared by two or more D. Federal government
Exercises
political parties

1 2 3 4
(a) D A B C
(b) B C D A
(c) B D A C
(d) C D A B

9. Consider the following two statements on power sharing and

select the answer using the codes given below:
A. Power sharing is good for democracy.
B. It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups.
Which of these statements are true and false?

(a) A is true but B is false

(b) Both A and B are true
(c) Both A and B are false
(d) A is false but B is true
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

12
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 1.indd 12 08-04-2022 12:29:22

 Federalism

Overview

Chapter 2
In the previous chapter, we noted that vertical division of power among
different levels of government is one of the major forms of power-sharing
in modern democracies. In this chapter, we focus on this form of power-
sharing. It is most commonly referred to as federalism. We begin by
describing federalism in general terms. The rest of the chapter tries to
understand the theory and practice of federalism in India. A discussion
of the federal constitutional provisions is followed by an analysis of the
policies and politics that has strengthened federalism in practice. Towards
the end of the chapter, we turn to the local government, a new and third
tier of Indian federalism.

Federalism

13
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 13 08-04-2022 12:30:48

 What is federalism?
Let us get back to the contrast to be, for all practical purposes, a
between Belgium and Sri Lanka unitary system where the national
that we saw in the last chapter. You government has all the powers.
would recall that one of the key Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to
changes made in the Constitution become a federal system.
of Belgium was to reduce the
Federalism is a system of
power of the Central Government
I am confused.
government in which the power is
and to give these powers to the
What do we divided between a central authority
regional governments. Regional
call the Indian and various constituent units of the
governments existed in Belgium
government? Is it country. Usually, a federation has
even earlier. They had their roles
Union, Federal or and powers. But all these powers two levels of government. One is the
Central? were given to these governments government for the entire country
and could be withdrawn by the that is usually responsible for a
Central Government. The change few subjects of common national
that took place in 1993 was that the interest. The others are governments
regional governments were given at the level of provinces or states
constitutional powers that were that look after much of the day-
no longer dependent on the central to-day administering of their state.
government. Thus, Belgium shifted Both these levels of governments
from a unitary to a federal form of enjoy their power independent of
government. Sri Lanka continues the other.

Federal
political systems

Germany Russia
Canada

Belgium
Austria
Switzerland
United States
of America Spain
Bosnia and Pakistan
Herzegovina
St. Kitts India
Mexico and Nevis Nigeria Pacific Ocean
United
Venezuela Arab
Ethiopia
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Emirates
Atlantic Comoros Malaysia
Pacific Ocean Brazil Ocean Indian
Ocean
Micronesia Australia

Argentina
South Africa

Source: Montreal and Kingston, Handbook of Federal Countries: 2002, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002.

Though only 25 of the world’s 193 countries have federal political systems, their citizens make up 40 per cent of the
world’s population. Most of the large countries of the world are federations. Can you notice an exception to this rule in
this map?

14
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 14 08-04-2022 12:30:50

 In this sense, federations are 7 The federal system thus has dual
contrasted with unitary governments. objectives: to safeguard and promote
Under the unitary system, either unity of the country, while at the
there is only one level of government same time accommodate regional
or the sub-units are subordinate to diversity. Therefore, two aspects
the central government. The central are crucial for the institutions and
government can pass on orders to the practice of federalism. Governments
provincial or the local government. at different levels should agree to If federalism
But in a federal system, the central some rules of power-sharing. They works only in
government cannot order the state should also trust that each would big countries,
government to do something. State abide by its part of the agreement. why did Belgium
government has powers of its own An ideal federal system has both adopt it?
for which it is not answerable aspects : mutual trust and agreement
to the central government. Both
to live together.
these governments are separately
answerable to the people. The exact balance of power
between the central and the state
Let us look at some of the key
government varies from one
features of federalism :
federation to another. This balance
1 There are two or more levels (or
depends mainly on the historical
tiers) of government.
context in which the federation was
2 Different tiers of government
formed. There are two kinds of routes
govern the same citizens, but
through which federations have been
each tier has its own jurisdiction
formed. The first route involves
in specific matters of legislation,
independent States coming together
taxation and administration.
on their own to form a bigger unit,
3 The jurisdictions of the respective
so that by pooling sovereignty and
levels or tiers of government are
specified in the constitution. So the retaining identity, they can increase
existence and authority of each tier their security. This type of ‘coming
of government is constitutionally together’ federations include the
guaranteed. USA, Switzerland and Australia. In
4 The fundamental provisions this first category of federations, all
of the constitution cannot be the constituent States usually have
unilaterally changed by one level of equal power and are strong vis-à-vis
government. Such changes require the federal government.
the consent of both the levels of The second route is where a
government. large country decides to divide its
5 Courts have the power to power between the constituent
interpret the constitution and States and the national government.
the powers of different levels of India, Spain and Belgium are
government. The highest court examples of this kind of ‘holding Jurisdiction: The
acts as an umpire if disputes arise together’ federations. In this second area over which
between different levels of category, the Central Government
Federalism

someone has legal

government in the exercise of their tends to be more powerful vis-à- authority. The area
respective powers. vis the States. Very often different may be defined in
terms of geographical
6 Sources of revenue for each level constituent units of the federation boundaries or in terms
of government are clearly specified have unequal powers. Some units of certain kinds of
to ensure its financial autonomy. are granted special powers. subjects.

15
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 15 08-04-2022 12:30:50

 Some Nepalese citizens were discussing the proposals on the
adoption of federalism in their new constitution. This is what some of
them said:
Khag Raj: I don’t like federalism. It would lead to reservation of seats for
different caste groups as in India.
Sarita: Ours in not a very big country. We don’t need federalism.
Babu Lal: I am hopeful that the Terai areas will get more autonomy if they get
their own state government.
Ram Ganesh: I like federalism because it will mean that powers that were earlier
enjoyed by the king will now be exercised by our elected representatives.
If you were participating in this conversation, what would be your response to each
of these? Which of these reflect a wrong understanding of what federalism is?
What makes India a federal country?

What makes India a federal country?

in the form of Panchayats and
We have earlier seen how small Municipalities. As in any federation,
countries like Belgium and Sri Lanka these different tiers enjoy separate
face so many problems of managing jurisdiction. The Constitution
diversity. What about a vast country clearly provided a three-fold
like India, with so many languages, distribution of legislative powers
religions and regions? What are between the Union Government
the power sharing arrangements in and the State Governments. Thus,
our country? it contains three lists:
Let us begin with the Constitution.  Union List includes subjects
India had emerged as an independent of national importance, such as
nation after a painful and bloody defence of the country, foreign
Isn’t that partition. Soon after Independence, affairs, banking, communications
strange? Did several princely states became a part and currency. They are included
our constitution of the country. The Constitution in this list because we need a
makers not declared India as a Union of States. uniform policy on these matters
know about Although it did not use the word throughout the country. The Union
federalism? Or federation, the Indian Union is based Government alone can make laws
did they wish on the principles of federalism. relating to the subjects mentioned
to avoid talking in the Union List.
Let us go back to the seven
about it?  State List contains subjects
features of federalism mentioned
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

above. We can see that all these of State and local importance,
features apply to the provisions such as police, trade, commerce,
of the Indian Constitution. The agriculture and irrigation. The State
Constitution originally provided Governments alone can make laws
for a two-tier system of government, relating to the subjects mentioned
the Union Government or what in the State List.
we call the Central Government,  C o nc ur r ent List includes
representing the Union of India subjects of common interest to
and the State governments. Later, both the Union Government as
a third tier of federalism was added well as the State Governments, such

16
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 16 08-04-2022 12:30:52

 as education, forest, trade unions, There are some units of the
marriage, adoption and succession. Indian Union which enjoy very little
Both the Union as well as the State power. These are areas which are
Governments can make laws on too small to become an independent
the subjects mentioned in this list. State but which could not be merged
If their laws conflict with each with any of the existing States.
other, the law made by the Union These areas, like Chandigarh, or
If agriculture and
Government will prevail. Lakshadweep or the capital city of
commerce are
What about subjects that do not Delhi, are called Union Territories.
state subjects,
fall in any of the three lists? Or subjects These territories do not have the
why do we have
like computer software that came up powers of a State. The Central
ministers of
after the constitution was made? Government has special powers in
agriculture and
According to our constitution, the running these areas.
commerce in the
Union Government has the power to This sharing of power between Union cabinet?
legislate on these ‘residuary’ subjects. the Union Government and the State
We noted above that most Governments is basic to the structure
federations that are formed by of the Constitution. It is not easy to
‘holding together’ do not give equal make changes to this power sharing
power to its constituent units. Thus, arrangement. The Parliament cannot
all States in the Indian Union do not on its own change this arrangement.
have identical powers. Some States Any change to it has to be first passed
enjoy a special status. States such by both the Houses of Parliament
as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal with at least two-thirds majority.
Pradesh and Mizoram enjoy special Then it has to be ratified by the
powers under certain provisions of legislatures of at least half of the
the Constitution of India (Article total States.
371) due to their peculiar social The judiciary plays an important
and historical circumstances. These role in overseeing the implementation
special powers are especially enjoyed of constitutional provisions and
in relation to the protection of procedures. In case of any dispute
land rights of indigenous peoples, about the division of powers, the
their culture and also preferential High Courts and the Supreme Court
employment in government services. make a decision. The Union and
Indians who are not permanent State Governments have the power
residents of this State cannot buy to raise resources by levying taxes in
land or house here. Similar special order to carry on the government
provisions exist for some other States and the responsibilities assigned to
of India as well. each of them.

Listen to one national and one regional news bulletin broadcast by All India
Federalism

Radio daily for one week. Make a list of news items related to government
policies or decisions by classifying these into the following categories:
 News items that relate only to the Central Government,
 News items that relate only to your or any other State Government,
 News items about the relationship between the Central and State Governments.

17
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 17 08-04-2022 12:30:53

  Pokharan, the place where India conducted its nuclear tests, lies
in Rajasthan. Suppose the Government of Rajasthan was opposed to
the Central Government’s nuclear policy, could it prevent the Government
of India from conducting the nuclear tests?
 Suppose the Government of Sikkim plans to introduce new textbooks in its
schools. But the Union Government does not like the style and content of the new
textbooks. In that case, does the state government need to take permission from
the Union Government before these textbooks can be launched?
 Suppose the Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa have
different policies on how their state police should respond to the naxalites. Can the
Prime Minister of India intervene and pass an order that all the Chief Ministers will
have to obey?
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

18
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 18 08-04-2022 12:30:55

 How is federalism practised?
Constitutional provisions are If you look at the political map of
necessary for the success of federalism India when it began its journey as a
but these are not sufficient. If the democracy in 1947 and that of 2019,
federal experiment has succeeded you will be surprised by the extent
in India, it is not merely because of of the changes. Many old States have
the clearly laid out constitutional vanished and many new States have
provisions. The real success of been created. Areas, boundaries
federalism in India can be attributed and names of the States have been
to the nature of democratic politics changed.
in our country. This ensured that In 1947, the boundaries of several
the spirit of federalism, respect old States of India were changed in
for diversity and desire for living order to create new States. This was
together became shared ideals in our done to ensure that people who
country. Let us look at some of the spoke the same language lived in
major ways in which this happened. the same State. Some States were
created not on the basis of language
Linguistic States but to recognise differences based
The creation of linguistic States on culture, ethnicity or geography.
was the first and a major test for These include States like Nagaland,
democratic politics in our country. Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.

 Has your village / town / city

remained under the same State
since Independence? If not,
what was the name of the earlier
Federalism

State?
 Can you identify names of three
States in 1947 that have been
changed later?
 Identify any three States which
have been carved out of bigger
States.

19
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 19 08-04-2022 12:31:02

 When the demand for the think that this solution favoured the
formation of States on the basis of English-speaking elite. Promotion
language was raised, some national of Hindi continues to be the official
leaders feared that it would lead to policy of the Government of India.
the disintegration of the country. Promotion does not mean that the
The Central Government resisted Central Government can impose
linguistic States for some time. Hindi on States where people speak
But the experience has shown that a different language. The flexibility
the formation of linguistic States shown by Indian political leaders
has actually made the country helped our country avoid the kind of
more united. It has also made situation that Sri Lanka finds itself in.
administration easier.
Centre-State relations
Language policy Restructuring the Centre-State
A second test for Indian federation is relations is one more way in which
the language policy. Our Constitution federalism has been strengthened
did not give the status of national in practice. How the constitutional
language to any one language. Hindi arrangements for sharing power
was identified as the official language. work in reality depends to a large
Why Hindi? But Hindi is the mother tongue of extent on how the ruling parties and
Why not only about 40 per cent of Indians. leaders follow these arrangements.
Bangla or Therefore, there were many safeguards For a long time, the same party
Telugu? to protect other languages. Besides ruled both at the Centre and in most
Hindi, there are 22 other languages of the States. This meant that the
recognised as Scheduled Languages State Governments did not exercise
by the Constitution. A candidate in their rights as autonomous federal
an examination conducted for the units. As and when the ruling party
Central Government positions may at the State level was different, the
opt to take the examination in any parties that ruled at the Centre tried
of these languages. States too have to undermine the power of the
their own official languages. Much States. In those days, the Central
of the government work takes Government would often misuse
place in the official language of the the Constitution to dismiss the State
concerned State. Governments that were controlled
Unlike Sri Lanka, the leaders by rival parties. This undermined
of our country adopted a very the spirit of federalism.
cautious attitude in spreading the All this changed significantly
use of Hindi. According to the after 1990. This period saw the
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Constitution, the use of English rise of regional political parties in

for official purposes was to stop in many States of the country. This
Coalition government: 1965. However, many non-Hindi was also the beginning of the era
A government formed
speaking States demanded that the of coalition governments at the
by the coming together
of at least two political use of English continue. In Tamil Centre. Since no single party got a
parties. Usually Nadu, this movement took a violent clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the
partners in a coalition form. The Central Government major national parties had to enter
form a political alliance responded by agreeing to continue into an alliance with many parties
and adopt a common the use of English along with Hindi including several regional parties to
programme.
for official purposes. Many critics form a government at the Centre.
20
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 20 19/03/2024 10:40:43

 The States Plead for More Powers

© Kutty - Laughing with Kutty

Perils of Running a Coalition Government

© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons

Here are two cartoons showing the relationship between Centre and States. Should the
State go to the Centre with a begging bowl? How can the leader of a coalition keep the
partners of government satisfied?
Are you
suggesting that
Federalism

This led to a new culture of Central Government to dismiss state

power sharing and respect for the governments in an arbitrary manner. regionalism is
autonomy of State Governments. Thus, federal power sharing is more good for our
This trend was supported by a effective today than it was in the democracy? Are
major judgement of the Supreme early years after the Constitution you serious?
Court that made it difficult for the came into force.
21
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 21 08-04-2022 12:31:05

 +
Linguistic diversity of India
How many languages do we have  Make a bar or pie chart on
in India? The answer depends the basis of this information.
on how one counts it. The latest
 Prepare a map of linguistic
information that we have is from diversity of India by shading
the Census of India held in 2011. the region where each of these
This census recorded more than languages is spoken on the map
1300 distinct languages which of India.
people mentioned as their mother
 Find out about any three
tongues. These languages were
languages that are spoken in
grouped together under some
India but are not included in
major languages. For example,
this table.
languages like Bhojpuri, Magadhi,
Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi,
Rajasthani and many others were
grouped together under ‘Hindi’. Scheduled Languages of India
Even after this grouping,
Language Proportion of
the Census found 121 major
speakers (%)
languages. Of these, 22
Assamese 1.26
languages are now included in
the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Bengali 8.03
Constitution and are therefore Bodo 0.12
called ‘Scheduled Languages’. Dogri 0.21
Others are called Gujarati 4.58
‘non-Scheduled Languages’. In Hindi 43.63
terms of languages, India is Kannada 3.61
perhaps the most diverse country Kashmiri 0.56
in the world. Konkani 0.19
A look at the enclosed table Maithili 1.12
makes it clear that no one Malayalam 2.88
language is the mother tongue of Manipuri 0.15
the majority of our population. Marathi 6.86
The largest language, Hindi, is the
Nepali 0.24
mother tongue of only about 44
per cent Indians. If we add to that Odia 3.10
all those who knew Hindi as their Punjabi 2.74
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

second or third language, the total Sanskrit N

number was still less than 50 per Santali 0.61
cent in 2011. As for English, only
Sindhi 0.23
0.02 per cent Indians recorded it
as their mother tongue. Another
Tamil 5.70
11 per cent knew it as a second or Telugu 6.70
third language. Urdu 4.19
Read this table carefully, but
N — Stands for negligible.
you need not memorise it. Just do Source: http://www.censusindia.gov.in
the following:

22
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 22 08-04-2022 12:31:05

 ‘
Read the following excerpts from an article by noted historian,
Ramachandra Guha, that appeared in the Times of India on November 1,
2006:

‘ Federalism

Take the example of your own state or any other state that was affected by
linguistic reorganisation. Write a short note for or against the argument given by
the author here on the basis of that example.

23
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 23 08-04-2022 12:31:16

 Decentralisation in India
We noted above that federal power to the level of villages and
governments have two or more towns. Panchayats in villages and
tiers of governments. We have municipalities in urban areas were
so far discussed the two-tiers of set up in all the States. But these
government in our country. But were directly under the control of
a vast country like India cannot state governments. Elections to these
be run only through these local governments were not held
So, we are like a two-tiers. States in India are as large as regularly. Local governments did
three-tier coach independent countries of Europe. In not have any powers or resources of
in a train! I terms of population, Uttar Pradesh their own. Thus, there was very little
always prefer the is bigger than Russia, Maharashtra decentralisation in effective terms.
lower berth! is about as big as Germany. Many A major step towards decentra-
of these States are internally very lisation was taken in 1992. The
diverse. There is thus a need for Constitution was amended to make
power sharing within these States. the third-tier of democracy more
Federal power sharing in India needs powerful and effective.
another tier of government, below  Now it is constitutionally
that of the State governments. This mandatory to hold regular elections
is the rationale for decentralisation to local government bodies.
of power. Thus, resulted a third-
tier of government, called local  Seats are reserved in the elected
bodies and the executive heads of
government.
these institutions for the Scheduled
When power is taken away from Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other
Central and State governments and Backward Classes.
given to local government, it is called
decentralisation. The basic idea behind  At least one-third of all positions
are reserved for women.
decentralisation is that there are a large
number of problems and issues which  An independent institution
are best settled at the local level. People called the State Election Commission
have better knowledge of problems has been created in each State to
in their localities. They also have conduct panchayat and municipal
better ideas on where to spend money elections.
and how to manage things more  The State governments are
efficiently. Besides, at the local level required to share some powers and
it is possible for the people to directly revenue with local government
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

participate in decision making. This bodies. The nature of sharing varies

helps to inculcate a habit of democratic from State to State.
participation. Local government is the Rural local government is
best way to realise one important popularly known by the name
principle of democracy, namely local panchayati raj. Each village, or a
self-government. group of villages in some States, has
The need for decentralisation a gram panchayat. This is a council
was recognised in our Constitution. consisting of several ward members,
Since then, there have been often called panch, and a president
several attempts to decentralise or sarpanch. They are directly

24
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 24 08-04-2022 12:31:16

 elected by all the adult population the zilla (district) parishad. Most
living in that ward or village. It is members of the zilla parishad are
the decision-making body for the elected. Members of the Lok Sabha
entire village. The panchayat works and MLAs of that district and some
under the overall supervision of the other officials of other district level
gram sabha. All the voters in the bodies are also its members. Zilla
village are its members. It has to parishad chairperson is the political
meet at least twice or thrice in a year head of the zilla parishad.
to approve the annual budget of the Prime Minister
Similarly, local government
gram panchayat and to review the runs the country.
bodies exist for urban areas as
performance of the gram panchayat. Chief Minister
well. Municipalities are set up in
runs the state.
The local government structure towns. Big cities are constituted
Logically, then, the
goes right up to the district level. A into municipal corporations. Both
chairperson of Zilla
few gram panchayats are grouped municipalities and municipal
Parishad should
together to form what is usually corporations are controlled
run the district.
called a panchayat samiti or block by elected bodies consisting of
Why does the
or mandal. The members of this people’s representatives. Municipal
D.M. or Collector
representative body are elected by all chairperson is the political head of
administer the
the panchyat members in that area. the municipality. In a municipal
district?
All the panchayat samitis or mandals corporation, such an officer is called
in a district together constitute the mayor.

Federalism

What do these newspaper clippings have to say about efforts of decentralisation in India?

25
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 25 08-04-2022 12:31:18

 + An experiment in Brazil
A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has carried out an extraordinary experiment
in combining decentralisation with participative democracy. The city has set up
a parallel organisation operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local
inhabitants to take real decisions for their city. The nearly 13 lakh people in this
city get to participate in making the budget for their own city. The city is divided
into many sectors or what we call wards. Each sector has a meeting, like that of
the gram sabha, in which anyone living in that area can participate. There are
some meetings to discuss issues that affect the entire city. Any citizen of the city
can participate in those meetings. The budget of the city is discussed in these
meetings. The proposals are put to the municipality that takes a final decision
about it.
About 20,000 people participate in this decision making exercise every year.
This method has ensured that the money cannot be spent only for the benefit
of the colonies where rich people live. Buses now run to the poor colonies and
builders cannot evict slum-dwellers without resettling them.
In our own country, a similar experiment has taken place in some areas in
Kerala. Ordinary people have participated in making a plan for the development
of their locality.

This new system of local increased women’s representation

government is the largest experiment and voice in our democracy. At
in democracy conducted anywhere the same time, there are many
in the world. There are now about difficulties. While elections are
36 lakh elected representatives in held regularly and enthusiastically,
the panchayats and municipalities gram sabhas are not held regularly.
etc., all over the country. This Most state governments have not
number is bigger than the population transferred significant powers to the
of many countries in the world. local governments. Nor have they
Constitutional status for local given adequate resources. We are
government has helped to deepen thus still a long way from realising
democracy in our country. It has also the ideal of self-government.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Find out about the local government in the village or town you live in.
If you live in a village, find out the names of the following: your panch or
ward member, your sarpanch, your panchayat samiti, the chairperson of your zilla
parishad. Also find out when did the last meeting of the gram sabha take place and
how many people took part in that.
If you live in urban areas, find out the name of your municipal councillor, and the
municipal chairperson or mayor. Also find out about the budget of your municipal
corporation, municipality and the major items on which money was spent.

26
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 26 08-04-2022 12:31:19

 1. Locate the following States on a blank outline political map of India:
Manipur, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh and Goa.
2. Identify and shade three federal countries (other than India) on a
blank outline political map of the world.
3. Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is
similar to and one feature that is different from that of Belgium.
4. What is the main difference between a federal form of government
and a unitary one? Explain with an example.
5. State any two differences between the local government before and
after the Constitutional amendment in 1992.
6. Fill in the blanks:
Since the United States is a ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­___________________ type of

Exercises
federation, all the constituent States have equal powers and States
are ______________vis-à-vis the federal government. But India is a
_____________________ type of federation and some States have
more power than others. In India, the ____________ government
has more powers.
7. Here are three reactions to the language policy followed in India.
Give an argument and an example to support any of these positions.
Sangeeta: The policy of accommodation has strengthened
national unity.
Arman: Language-based States have divided us by making
everyone conscious of their language.
Harish: This policy has only helped to consolidate the
dominance of English over all other languages.
8. The distinguishing feature of a federal government is:
(a) National government gives some powers to the provincial
governments.
(b) Power is distributed among the legislature, executive and
judiciary.
(c) Elected officials exercise supreme power in the government.
(d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of
government.
9. A few subjects in various Lists of the Indian Constitution are given
here. Group them under the Union, State and Concurrent Lists as
provided in the table below.
A. Defence; B. Police; C. Agriculture; D. Education;
E. Banking; F. Forests; G. Communications; H. Trade; I. Marriages
Federalism

Union List
State List
Concurrent List

27
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 27 08-04-2022 12:31:20

 10. Examine the following pairs that give the level of government in India
and the powers of the government at that level to make laws on the
subjects mentioned against each. Which of the following pairs is not
correctly matched?

(a) State government State List

(b) Central government Union List
(c) Central and State governments Concurrent List
(d) Local governments Residuary powers

11. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:

List I List II
Exercises
1. Union of India A. Prime Minister
2. State B. Sarpanch
3. Municipal Corporation C. Governor
4. Gram Panchayat D. Mayor

1 2 3 4
(a) D A B C
(b) B C D A
(c) A C D B
(d) C D A B

12. Consider the following two statements.

A. In a federation, the powers of the federal and provincial
governments are clearly demarcated.
B. India is a federation because the powers of the Union and State
Governments are specified in the Constitution and they have
exclusive jurisdiction on their respective subjects.
C. Sri Lanka is a federation because the country is divided into
provinces.
D. India is no longer a federation because some powers of the States
have been devolved to the local government bodies.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) A, B and C (b) A, C and D (c) A and B only (d) B and C only
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

28
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 2.indd 28 08-04-2022 12:31:21

 Gender,
Religion and
Caste

Chapter 3
Overview
The existence of social diversity does not threaten democracy. Political
expression of social differences is possible and sometimes quite desirable
in a democratic system. In this chapter we apply these ideas to the practice
of democracy in India. We look at three kinds of social differences that
can take the form of social divisions and inequalities. These are social
differences based on gender, religion and caste. In each case we look at
the nature of this division in India and how it gets expressed in politics.
We also ask whether different expressions based on these differences are
healthy or otherwise in a democracy.

Gender, Religion and Caste

29
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 29 08-04-2022 14:15:08

 Gender and politics
Public/private division
Boys and girls are brought up to
believe that the main responsibility
of women is housework and bringing
up children. This is reflected in a
sexual division of labour in most
families: women do all work inside
the home such as cooking, cleaning,
washing clothes, tailoring, looking
after children, etc., and men do all
the work outside the home. It is not
that men cannot do housework; they
simply think that it is for women to
attend to these things. When these
© Zuban

jobs are paid for, men are ready to

A poster from Bengal affirming women’s take up these works. Most tailors or
strength. cooks in hotels are men. Similarly,
Let us begin with gender division. it is not that women do not work
This is a form of hierarchical social outside their home. In villages,
division seen everywhere, but is women fetch water, collect fuel and
Sexual division of labour: work in the fields. In urban areas,
rarely recognised in the study of
A system in which all
politics. The gender division tends poor women work as domestic
work inside the home
is either done by the to be understood as natural and helper in middle class homes, while
women of the family, unchangeable. However, it is not middle class women work in offices.
or organised by them In fact, the majority of women do
based on biology but on social
through the domestic
expectations and stereotypes. some sort of paid work in addition
helpers.
to domestic labour. But their work
is not valued and does not get
recognition.
The result of this division of
labour is that although women
constitute half of the humanity, their
role in public life, especially politics,
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

is minimal in most societies. Earlier,

only men were allowed to participate
Why not? If in public affairs, vote and contest
Why are we
politics is about for public offices. Gradually the
discussing things
power, then
like household gender issue was raised in politics.
surely male
work in this Women in different parts of the
dominance in the
textbook on world organised and agitated for
household should
Political Science? equal rights. There were agitations
be considered
Is this politics? in different countries for the
political.
extension of voting rights to women.
30
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 30 08-04-2022 14:15:13

 These agitations demanded on this question helped to improve
enhancing the political and legal women’s role in public life. We now
status of women and improving their find women working as scientists,
educational and career opportunities. doctors, engineers, lawyers,
More radical women’s movements managers and college and university
aimed at equality in personal and teachers which were earlier not
family life as well. These movements considered suitable for women. In
are called feminist movements. some parts of the world, for example
Political expression of gender in Scandinavian countries, such as
division and political mobilisation Sweden, Norway and Finland, the

Gender, Religion and Caste

Feminist: A
woman or a man
© Zuban

who believes in
equal rights and
Discuss all these perceptions of an ideal woman that prevail in our society. Do you opportunities for
agree with any of these? If not, what is your image of an ideal woman? women and men.

31
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 31 08-04-2022 14:15:18

 participation of women in public life disadvantage, discrimination and
is very high. oppression in various ways:
In our country, women still lag  The literacy rate among women
much behind men despite some is only 54 per cent compared with
improvement since Independence. 76 per cent among men. Similarly, a
Ours is still a male-dominated, smaller proportion of girl students
patriarchal society. Women face go for higher studies. When we

+ A ‘time use survey’ was conducted in six states of our country. It

shows that an average woman works every day for a little over
seven and half hours while an average man works for six and a
half hours. Yet the work done by men is more visible because
most of their work leads to generation of income. Women also do
a lot of direct income generating work, but the bulk of their work
is household related. This work remains unpaid and invisible.

Daily time use (hours: minutes)

Activities Men Women

Income generating work 6:00 2:40

Household and related work 0:30 5:00

Talking, Gossip 1:25 1:20

No work/ Leisure 3:40 3:50

Sleep, self-care, reading etc. 12:25 11:10

Source: Government of India, Time Use Survey, 1998-99.

You can conduct a similar time use survey in your own

household. Observe all the adult male and female members of
your family for one week. Every day note down the number of
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

hours each of them spends on the following activities: income

generating activity (working at the office or shop or factory
Patriarchy: Literally, or field, etc.), household related activity (cooking, cleaning,
rule by father, this washing, fetching water, looking after children or elders, etc.),
concept is used to reading and recreation, talking/gossiping, self-care, taking rest
refer to a system that or sleeping. If necessary make new categories. Add up the time
values men more and taken on each activity for a week and calculate the daily average
gives them power for each activity for each member. Do women work more in your
over women. family as well?

32
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 32 08-04-2022 14:15:18

 look at school results, girls perform  The Equal Remuneration Act,
Mummy always
as well as boys, if not better in 1976 provides that equal wages
says to outsiders:
some places. But they drop out should be paid to equal work.
“I don’t work. I
because parents prefer to spend their However in almost all areas of
am a housewife.”
resources for their boys’ education work, from sports and cinema, to
But I see her
factories and fields, women are paid
rather than spending equally on their working non-stop
less than men, even when both do
sons and daughters. all the time. If
exactly the same work. what she does is
 No wonder the proportion of
 In many parts of India, parents not work, what
women among the highly paid and prefer to have sons and find ways to else is work?
valued jobs, is still very small. On have the girl child aborted before
an average, an Indian woman works she is born. Such sex-selective
one hour more than an average man abortion led to a decline in child sex
every day. Yet much of her work ratio (number of girl children per
is not paid and therefore, often thousand boys) in the country to
not valued. merely 919. As the map shows, this

Can you identify

your State on this
map? What is the
child sex ratio in
it? How is it
different from
others with a
different colour?

Identify the States

which have child
sex ratio below
900.
Compare this map
with the poster
on the next page.
How do the two of

Gender, Religion and Caste

them tell us about
the same issue?
Source: Census Report of 2011

33
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 33 08-04-2022 14:15:25

 even within their own home from
beating, harassment and other forms
of domestic violence.
Women’s political
representation
All this is well known. Yet issues
related to women’s well being or
otherwise are not given adequate
attention. This has led many
feminists and women’s movements
to the conclusion that unless women
control power, their problems will
not get adequate attention. One way
to ensure this is to have more women
© Oxfam GB

as elected representatives.
In India, the proportion of
women in legislature has been very
ratio has fallen below 850 or even low. For example, the percentage
800 in some States. of elected women members in Lok
There are reports of various Sabha has touched 14.36 per cent of
kinds of harassment, exploitation its total strength for the first time
and violence against women. Urban in 2019. Their share in the state
areas have become particularly assemblies is less than 5 per cent.
unsafe for women. They are not safe In this respect, India is among the

Women in national parliaments in different

regions of the world (in%)

World
45
Average
40 42.3

35
24
30
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

25 29.5
26.4
20 23.7

Could you think of some 15 19.8

18.6
reasons why women’s 10 15.6
representation is so 11.8
low in India? Do you 5
think Americas and 0
Nordic Americas Europe Sub- Asia Arab Pacific India
Europe have achieved countries Saharan Africa States
a satisfactory level of
women’s representation? Region
Note: Figures are for the per cent of women in the directly elected houses of parliament as on 1 October
2018.
Source: http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm

34
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 34 08-04-2022 14:15:28

 bottom group of nations in the similar reservation of at least one-
world (see the graph below). India third of seats in Lok Sabha and
is behind the averages for several State Assemblies for women. A
developing countries of Africa and bill with this proposal was pending
Latin America. In the government, before the Parliament for many
cabinets are largely all-male even decades. In 2023, Nari shakti Vandan
when a woman becomes the Chief Adhiniyam (Womens’ Reservation
Minister or the Prime Minister. Act, 2023) has been passed which
will give 33 percent reservation of If casteism and
One way to solve this problem is
seats for women in Lok Sabha, State communalism
to make it legally binding to have a fair are bad, what
Legislative Assemblies and also Delhi
proportion of women in the elected Assembly. makes feminism
bodies. This is what the Panchayati a good thing?
Gender division is an example
Raj has done in India. One-third of Why don’t we
that some form of social division
seats in local government bodies – in oppose all those
needs to be expressed in politics. This who divide the
panchayats and municipalities – are
also shows that disadvantaged groups society on any
now reserved for women. Now there
do benefit when social divisions lines – caste,
are more than 10 lakh elected women
become a political issue. Do you religion or
representatives in rural and urban think that women could have made gender?
local bodies. the gains we noted above if their
Women’s organizations and unequal treatment was not raised in
activists had been demanding a the political domain?

Gender, Religion and Caste

35
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 35 02/04/2024 11:57:11

 Religion, communalism and politics
Let us now turn to a very different and politics. But they do not
kind of social division, the division seem very wrong or dangerous.
based on religious differences. Ideas, ideals and values drawn
This division is not as universal from different religions can and
as gender, but religious diversity perhaps should play a role in
is fairly widespread in the world politics. People should be able
today. Many countries including to express in politics their needs,
India have in their population, interests and demands as a member
followers of different religions. As of a religious community. Those
we noticed in the case of Northern who hold political power should
Ireland, even when most of the sometimes be able to regulate the
people belong to the same religion, practice of religion so as to prevent
there can be serious differences discrimination and oppression.
about the way people practice that These political acts are not wrong
as long as they treat every religion
religion. Unlike gender differences,
equally.
the religious differences are often
expressed in the field of politics. Communalism
Consider the following: The problem begins when religion
 Gandhiji used to say that is seen as the basis of the nation.
religion can never be separated The example of Northern Ireland
from politics. What he meant by in Chapter 3 shows the dangers of
religion was not any particular such an approach to nationalism.
religion like Hinduism or Islam The problem becomes more acute
but moral values that inform all when religion is expressed in
religions. He believed that politics politics in exclusive and partisan
terms, when one religion and
must be guided by ethics drawn
its followers are pitted against
from religion.
another. This happens when beliefs
 Human rights groups in our of one religion are presented as
country have demanded that the superior to those of other religions,
Government should take special when the demands of one religious
steps to prevent communal riots group are formed in opposition to
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

and protect religious minorities. another and when state power is

 Women’s movement has argued used to establish domination of one
that family laws of all religions religious group over the rest. This
I am not
discriminate against women. manner of using religion in politics
religious. So they have demanded that is communal politics.
Why should I government should change these Communal politics is based
bother about laws to make them more equitable. on the idea that religion is the
communalism All these instances involve principal basis of social community.
and secularism? a relationship between religion Communalism involves thinking
36
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 36 02/04/2024 11:58:46

 along the following lines. The that we often fail to notice it, even
I often crack
followers of a particular religion when we believe in it.
jokes about
must belong to one community.  A communal mind often leads to a people from one
Their fundamental interests are quest for political dominance of one’s religion. Does
the same. Any difference that they own religious community. For those that make me
may have is irrelevant or trivial belonging to majority community, communal?
for community life. It also follows this takes the form of majoritarian
that people who follow different dominance. For those belonging
religions cannot belong to the same to the minority community, it can
social community. If the followers take the form of a desire to form a
of different religions have some separate political unit.
commonalities these are superficial  Political mobilisation on
and immaterial, their interests are religious lines is another frequent
bound to be different and involve form of communalism. This involves
a conflict. In its extreme form, the use of sacred symbols, religious
communalism leads to the belief leaders, emotional appeal and plain
that people belonging to different fear in order to bring the followers
religions cannot live as equal citizens of one religion together in the
within one nation. Either, one of political arena. In electoral politics,
them has to dominate the rest or this often involves special appeal to
they have to form different nations. the interests or emotions of voters of
This belief is fundamentally one religion in preference to others.
flawed. People of one religion  Sometimes communalism takes
do not have the same interests its most ugly form of communal
and aspirations in every context. violence, riots and massacre. India
Everyone has several other roles, and Pakistan suffered some of the
positions and identities. There worst communal riots at the time of
are many voices inside every the Partition. The post-Independence
community. All these voices have period has also seen large scale
a right to be heard. Therefore any communal violence.

Gender, Religion and Caste

attempt to bring all followers of one
Secular state
religion together in context other
Communalism was and continues
than religion is bound to suppress
to be one of the major challenges
many voices within that community.
to democracy in our country. The
Communalism can take various Family laws: Those
makers of our Constitution were
forms in politics: laws that deal with
aware of this challenge. That is why,
family related matters
 The most common expression they chose the model of a secular such as marriage,
of communalism is in everyday state. This choice was reflected in divorce, adoption,
beliefs. These routinely involve several constitutional provisions that inheritance, etc.
religious prejudices, stereotypes of we studied last year: In our country,
religious communities and belief in  There is no official religion for different family laws
the superiority of one’s religion over the Indian state. Unlike the status of apply to followers of
other religions. This is so common Buddhism in Sri Lanka, that of Islam different religions.

37
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 37 08-04-2022 14:15:31

 in Pakistan and that of Christianity in Caste inequalities
England, our Constitution does not Unlike gender and religion, caste
give a special status to any religion. division is special to India. All societies
 The Constitution provides to have some kind of social inequality
all individuals and communities and some form of division of labour.
freedom to profess, practice and In most societies, occupations are
propagate any religion, or not to passed on from one generation to
follow any. another. Caste system is an extreme
 The Constitution prohibits form of this. What makes it different
discrimination on grounds of from other societies is that in this
religion. system, hereditary occupational
division was sanctioned by rituals.
 At the same time, the Constitution
Members of the same caste group
allows the state to intervene in
were supposed to form a social
the matters of religion in order to community that practiced the same
ensure equality within religious or similar occupation, married
communities. For example, it bans within the caste group and did
untouchability. not eat with members from other
Understood in this sense, caste groups.
secularism is not just an ideology of Caste system was based on
some parties or persons. This idea exclusion of and discrimination
constitutes one of the foundations against the ‘outcaste’ groups. They
of our country. Communalism were subjected to the inhuman
should not be seen as a threat to practice of untouchability about
some people in India. It threatens which you have studied in Class
the very idea of India. That is why IX. That is why political leaders
communalism needs to be combated. and social reformers like Jotiba
A secular Constitution like ours Phule, Gandhiji, B.R. Ambedkar
is necessary but not sufficient to and Periyar Ramaswami Naicker
combat communalism. Communal advocated and worked to establish
prejudices and propaganda need to a society in which caste inequalities
be countered in everyday life and are absent.
religion- based mobilisation needs to Partly due to their efforts and
be countered in the arena of politics. partly due to other socio-economic
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

changes, castes and caste system

Caste and politics in modern India have undergone
great changes. With economic
We have seen two instances of the development, large scale
expression of social divisions in the urbanisation, growth of literacy and
arena of politics, one largely positive education, occupational mobility
and the other largely negative. Let us and the weakening of the position
turn to our final case, that of caste of landlords in the villages, the old
and politics, that has both positive notions of caste hierarchy are
and the negative aspects. breaking down. Now, most of the
38
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 38 08-04-2022 14:15:31

 Social and Religious Diversity of India
The Census of India records the religion of each and every Indian after every ten years.
The person who fills the Census form visits every household and records the religion of
each member of that household exactly the way each person describes it. If someone
says she has ‘no religion’ or that he is an ‘atheist’, this is exactly how it is recorded.
Thus we have reliable information on the proportion of different religious communities
in the country and how it has changed over the years. The pie chart below presents
the population proportion of six major religious communities in the country. Since
Independence, the total population of each community has increased substantially but
their proportion in the country’s population has not changed much. In percentage terms,
the population of the Hindus, Jains and Christians has declined marginally since 1961.
The proportion of Muslim, Sikh and Buddhist population has increased slightly. There is
a common but mistaken impression that the proportion of the Muslims in the country’s
population is going to overtake other religious communities. Expert estimates done for
the Prime Minister’s High Level Committee (popularly known as Sachar Committee)
show that the proportion of the Muslims is expected to go up a little, by about 3 to 4
per cent, in the next 50 years. It proves that in overall terms, the population balance
of different religious communities is not likely to change in a big way.
The same is true of the major caste groups. The Census of India counts two social
groups: the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Both these broad groups
include hundreds of castes or tribes whose names are listed in an official Schedule.
Hence the prefix ‘Scheduled’ in their name. The Scheduled Castes, commonly known
as Dalits, include those that were previously regarded as ‘outcaste’ in the Hindu social
order and were subjected to exclusion and untouchability. The Scheduled Tribes, often
referred to as Adivasis, include those communities that led a secluded life usually in hills
and forests and did not interact much with the rest of society. In 2011, the Scheduled
Castes were 16.6 per cent and the
Scheduled Tribes were 8.6 per cent Population of different religious
of the country’s population. communities in India, 2011

Gender, Religion and Caste

The Census does not yet count the
Other Backward Classes, the group Hindu
we discussed in Class IX. Hence there 79.8
are some differences about their
proportion in the country’s population. In % Muslim
The National Sample Survey of 14.2
2004–05 estimates their population
to be around 41 per cent. Thus the
SC, ST and the OBC together account Others 2%
for about two-thirds of the country’s Others include Buddhist 0.7% Jain 0.4% Christian 2.3
population and about three-fourths of Other Religions and Persuasions 0.7%
Sikh 1.7
Religion not stated 0.2%
the Hindu population.
Source: Census of India, 2011

39
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 39 08-04-2022 14:15:31

 naturally lagged behind. That is why
I don’t care what Now you don’t like
my caste is. Why
there is a disproportionately large
it! Didn’t you tell
are we discussing presence of ‘upper caste’ among
me that wherever
all this in the there is domination,
the urban middle classes in our
textbook? Are we we should discuss it country. Caste continues to be
not promoting in Political Science? closely linked to economic status.
casteism by Will caste disappear (See Plus Box on Page 41.)
talking about if we keep mum
caste?
Caste in politics
about it?
As in the case of communalism,
casteism is rooted in the belief
that caste is the sole basis of social
community. According to this way
of thinking, people belonging to
the same caste belong to a natural
social community and have the
same interests which they do not
times, in urban areas it does not share with anyone from another
matter much who is walking along caste. As we saw in the case of
next to us on a street or eating at communalism, such a belief is not
the next table in a restaurant. The borne out by our experience. Caste
Constitution of India prohibited any is one aspect of our experience but it
caste-based discrimination and laid is not the only relevant or the most
the foundations of policies to reverse important aspect.
the injustices of the caste system. If
Caste can take various forms
a person who lived a century ago
in politics:
were to return to India, she would
be greatly surprised at the change  When parties choose candidates
Urbanisation: Shift that has come about in the country. in elections, they keep in mind the
of population from caste composition of the electorate
rural areas to urban Yet caste has not disappeared
and nominate candidates from
areas. from contemporary India. Some
different castes so as to muster
Occupational of the older aspects of caste have
necessary support to win elections.
mobility: Shift from persisted. Even now most people
When governments are formed,
one occupation to marry within their own caste or
political parties usually take care that
another, usually tribe. Untouchability has not ended
when a new representatives of different castes and
completely, despite constitutional
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

generation takes up tribes find a place in it.

prohibition. Effects of centuries
occupations other of advantages and disadvantages  Political parties and candidates
than those practiced in elections make appeals to caste
continue to be felt today. The caste
by their ancestors. sentiment to muster support. Some
groups that had access to education
Caste hierarchy: A political parties are known to favour
ladder-like formation under the old system have done very
well in acquiring modern education some castes and are seen as their
in which all the caste
as well. Those groups that did not representatives.
groups are placed
from the ‘highest’ to have access to education or were  Universal adult franchise and
the ‘lowest’ castes. prohibited from acquiring it have the principle of one-person-one-vote

40
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 40 08-04-2022 14:15:32

 Caste inequality today
Caste is an important source of economic inequality because it regulates
access to resources of various kinds. For example, in the past, the so-called
‘untouchable’ castes were denied the right to own land, while only the so-called
‘twice born’ castes had the right to education. Although this kind of explicit and
formalised inequality based on caste is now outlawed, the effects of centuries of
accumulated advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt. Moreover, new
kinds of inequalities have also developed.
The relationship between caste and economic status has certainly changed a
lot. Today, it is possible to find very rich and very poor people in every caste,
whether ‘low’ or ‘high’. This was not true even twenty or thirty years ago – it
was very rare indeed to find rich people among the ‘lowest’ castes. However,
as this evidence from the National Sample Survey shows, caste continues to be
very strongly linked to economic status in many important ways:
 The average economic status (measured by criteria like monthly
consumption expenditure) of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy –
the ‘upper’ castes are best off, the Dalits and Adivasis are worst off, and the
backward classes are in between.
 Although every caste has some poor members, the proportion living in
extreme poverty (below the official ‘poverty line’) is much higher for the lowest
castes and much lower for the upper castes, with the backward classes once
again in between.
 Although every caste has some members who are rich, the upper castes are
heavily over-represented among the rich while the lower castes are severely
under-represented.
Percentage of population living below the poverty line, 1999–—
—– 2000
Caste and Community groups Rural Urban
Scheduled Tribes 45.8 35.6

Gender, Religion and Caste

Scheduled Castes 35.9 38.3
Other Backward Classes 27.0 29.5
Muslim Upper Castes 26.8 34.2
Hindu Upper Castes 11.7 9.9
Christian Upper Castes 9.6 5.4
Sikh Upper Castes 0.0 4.9
Other Upper Castes 16.0 2.7
All Groups 27.0 23.4
Note: ‘Upper Caste’ here means those who are not from SC, ST, or OBC. Below the poverty line
means those who spent `327 or less per person per month in rural and `454 or less per person per
month in urban areas.
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Government of India, 55th Round, 1999–2000

41
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 41 08-04-2022 14:15:32

 compelled political leaders to gear up the voters from that caste vote for
to the task of mobilising and securing that party.
political support. It also brought new  Many political parties may put
consciousness among the people of up candidates from the same caste
castes that were hitherto treated as (if that caste is believed to dominate
inferior and low. the electorate in a particular
The focus on caste in politics constituency). Some voters have
can sometimes give an impression more than one candidate from their
that elections are all about caste and caste while many voters have no
nothing else. That is far from true. candidate from their caste.
Just consider these:  The ruling party and the sitting
 No parliamentary constituency MP or MLA frequently lose elections
in the country has a clear majority in our country. That could not
of one single caste. So, every have happened if all castes and
candidate and party needs to win the communities were frozen in their
confidence of more than one caste political preferences.
and community to win elections. Clearly, while caste matters in
 No party wins the votes of all electoral politics, so do many other
the voters of a caste or community. factors. The voters have strong
When people say that a caste is a attachment to political parties which
‘vote bank’ of one party, it usually is often stronger than their attachment
means that a large proportion of to their caste or community. People
within the same caste or community
have different interests depending
on their economic condition. Rich
and poor or men and women from
the same caste often vote very
differently. People’s assessment of
the performance of the government
and the popularity rating of the
© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons

leaders matter and are often decisive

in elections.
Politics in caste
We have so far looked at what caste
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

does to politics. But it does not mean

that there is only a one-way relation
between caste and politics. Politics
too influences the caste system and
caste identities by bringing them
into the political arena. Thus, it is
Do you think that political leaders are right to treat people belonging to a
not politics that gets caste-ridden, it
caste as ‘vote banks’?

42
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 42 08-04-2022 14:15:32

 is the caste that gets politicised. This power. In this sense, caste politics
takes several forms: has helped people from Dalits and
 Each caste group tries to become OBC castes to gain better access to
bigger by incorporating within it decision making. Several political
neighbouring castes or sub-castes and non-political organisations have
which were earlier excluded from it. been demanding and agitating for
an end to discrimination against
 Various caste groups are required
particular castes, for more dignity
to enter into a coalition with other
and more access to land, resources
castes or communities and thus enter
and opportunities.
into a dialogue and negotiation.
At the same time, exclusive
 New kinds of caste groups
attention to caste can produce
have come up in the political arena negative results as well. As in the
like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ case of religion, politics based on
caste groups. caste identity alone is not very
Thus, caste plays different healthy in a democracy. It can
kinds of roles in politics. In some divert attention from other pressing
situations, expression of caste issues like poverty, development
differences in politics gives many and corruption. In some cases, caste
disadvantaged communities the division leads to tensions, conflict
space to demand their share of and even violence.

Gender, Religion and Caste

43
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 43 19/03/2024 10:44:04

 1. Mention different aspects of life in which women are discriminated or
disadvantaged in India.
2. State different forms of communal politics with one example each.
3. State how caste inequalities are still continuing in India.
4. State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine election
results in India.
5. What is the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative
bodies?
6. Mention any two constitutional provisions that make India a secular
state.
Exercises
7. When we speak of gender divisions, we usually refer to:
(a) Biological difference between men and women
(b) Unequal roles assigned by the society to men and women
(c) Unequal child sex ratio
(d) Absence of voting rights for women in democracies
8. In India seats are reserved for women in
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) State legislative assemblies
(c) Cabinets
(d) Panchayati Raj bodies
9. Consider the following statements on the meaning of communal
politics. Communal politics is based on the belief that:
A. One religion is superior to that of others.
B. People belonging to different religions can live together happily as
equal citizens.
C. Followers of a particular religion constitute one community.
D. State power cannot be used to establish the domination of one
religious group over others.
Which of the statements are correct?
(a) A, B, C, and D (b) A, B, and D (c) A and C (d) B and D
10. Which among the following statements about India’s Constitution is
wrong? It
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

(a) prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.

(b) gives official status to one religion.
(c) provides to all individuals freedom to profess any religion.
(d) ensures equality of citizens within religious communities.
11. Social divisions based on _________ are peculiar to India.

44
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 44 08-04-2022 14:15:36

 12. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists:
List I List II
1. A person who believes in equal rights and
opportunities for women and men A. Communalist
2. A person who says that religion is the
principal basis of community B. Feminist
3. A person who thinks that caste is the
principal basis of community C. Secularist
4. A person who does not discriminate others
on the basis of religious beliefs D. Castiest

Exercises
1 2 3 4
(a) B C A D
(b) B A D C
(c) D C A B
(d) C A B D

Gender, Religion and Caste

45
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 3.indd 45 08-04-2022 14:15:36

 Political Parties

Overview
In this tour of democracy, we have come across political parties several

Chapter 4
times. In Class IX, we noticed the role of political parties in the rise of
democracies, in the formation of constitutional designs, in electoral politics
and in the making and working of governments. In this textbook, we have
glanced at political parties as vehicles of federal sharing of political power
and as negotiators of social divisions in the arena of democratic politics.
Before concluding this tour, let us take a close look at the nature and
working of political parties, especially in our country. We begin by asking
two common questions: Why do we need parties? How many parties are
good for a democracy? In the light of these, we introduce the national
and regional political parties in today’s India and then look at what is
wrong with political parties and what can be done about it.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

46
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 46 08-04-2022 12:33:27

 Why do we need political parties?
Political parties are easily one of to be very critical of political parties.
the most visible institutions in a They tend to blame parties for all So, you agree
with me. Parties
democracy. For most ordinary that is wrong with our democracy
are partial,
citizens, democracy is equal to and our political life. Parties have
partisan and lead
political parties. If you travel to become identified with social and
to partitions.
remote parts of our country and political divisions.
Parties do
speak to the less educated citizens, Therefore, it is natural to ask – do nothing but
you could come across people who we need political parties at all? About divide people.
may not know anything about our hundred years ago, there were few That is their real
Constitution or about the nature of countries of the world that had function!
our government. But chances are any political party. Now there are
that they would know something few that do not have parties. Why
about our political parties. At the did political parties become so
same time, this visibility does not omnipresent in democracies all over
mean popularity. Most people tend the world? Let us first answer what
political parties are and what they
do, before we say why we need them.
Meaning
© (1) M Govarthan (2) A Muralidharan (3) M Moorthy (4) T Singaravelou, The Hindu

A political party is a group of

people who come together to contest
elections and hold power in the
government. They agree on some
policies and programmes for the
society with a view to promote the
collective good. Since there can be
(1) different views on what is good for

(3)
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

(2)

Election Commission has officially banned wall

writing by parties during election times. Most
political parties argue that was the cheapest way
for their campaign. These election times used to
create amazing graffiti on the walls. Here are some
examples from Tamil Nadu. (4)

47
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 47 08-04-2022 12:33:31

 © RK Laxman - Brushing up the years

all, parties try to persuade people mainly among the candidates put
why their policies are better than up by political parties. Parties select
others. They seek to implement their candidates in different ways.
these policies by winning popular In some countries, such as the USA,
support through elections. members and supporters of a party
Thus, parties reflect fundamental choose its candidates. Now more
political divisions in a society. Parties and more countries are following
are about a part of the society and this method. In other countries
thus, involve partisanship. Thus, like India, top party leaders choose
a party is known by which part it candidates for contesting elections.
stands for, which policies it supports 2 Parties put forward different
and whose interests it upholds. A policies and programmes and the
political party has three components: voters choose from them. Each of
 the leaders, us may have different opinions and
Partisan: A person  the active members and views on what policies are suitable
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

who is strongly  the followers for the society. But no government

committed to a Functions can handle such a large variety
party, group or of views. In a democracy, a large
What does a political party do?
faction. Partisanship number of similar opinions have
Basically, political parties fill political
is marked by a to be grouped together to provide
offices and exercise political power.
tendency to take a a direction in which policies can
Parties do so by performing a series
side and inability be formulated by the governments.
of functions:
This is what the parties do. A party
to take a balanced
1 Parties contest elections. In most reduces a vast multitude of opinions
view on an issue.
democracies, elections are fought into a few basic positions which it

48
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 48 08-04-2022 12:33:33

 supports. A government is expected That is why, they feel close to parties
to base its policies on the line taken even when they do not fully trust
by the ruling party. them. Parties have to be responsive
3 Parties play a decisive role to people’s needs and demands.
in making laws for a country. Otherwise people can reject those
Formally, laws are debated and parties in the next elections.
passed in the legislature. But since Necessity
most of the members belong to a
This list of functions in a sense
party, they go by the direction of
answers the question asked above:
the party leadership, irrespective of
we need political parties because
their personal opinions.
they perform all these functions.
4 Parties form and run governments. But we still need to ask why modern
As we noted last year, the big policy democracies cannot exist without
decisions are taken by political political parties. We can understand
executive that comes from the the necessity of political parties by
political parties. Parties recruit imagining a situation without parties.
leaders, train them and then Every candidate in the elections
make them ministers to run the will be independent. So no one
government in the way they want. will be able to make any promises
5 Those parties that lose in the to the people about any major
elections play the role of opposition policy changes. The government
to the parties in power, by voicing may be formed, but its utility will
different views and criticising remain ever uncertain. Elected
Okay, granted
government for its failures or representatives will be accountable
that we can’t
wrong policies. Opposition parties to their constituency for what they
live without
also mobilise opposition to the do in the locality. But no one will political parties.
government. be responsible for how the country But tell me on
6 Parties shape public opinion. will be run. what grounds do
They raise and highlight issues. We can also think about it by people support a
Parties have lakhs of members and looking at the non-party based political party?
activists spread all over the country. elections to the panchayat in many
Many of the pressure groups are the states. Although, the parties do not
extensions of political parties among contest formally, it is generally
different sections of society. Parties noticed that the village gets split into
sometimes also launch movements more than one faction, each of which
for the resolution of problems puts up a ‘panel’ of its candidates.
faced by people. Often opinions in This is exactly what the party does.
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

the society crystallise on the lines That is the reason we find political
parties take. parties in almost all countries of the
7 Parties provide people access world, whether these countries are
to government machinery and big or small, old or new, developed
welfare schemes implemented by or developing.
Ruling Party: Political
governments. For an ordinary citizen The rise of political parties is party that runs
it is easy to approach a local party directly linked to the emergence government.
leader than a government officer. of representative democracies.

49
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 49 08-04-2022 12:33:34

 As we have seen, large societies responsible government could be
need representative democracy. formed. They needed a mechanism to
As societies became large and support or restrain the government,
complex, they also needed some make policies, justify or oppose
agency to gather different views them. Political parties fulfill these
on various issues and to present needs that every representative
these to the government. They government has. We can say that
needed some ways, to bring various parties are a necessary condition for
representatives together so that a a democracy.

Categorise these photographs by the functions of political parties they

illustrate. Find one photograph or news clipping from your own area for
each of the functions listed above.
© (1) C V Subrahmanyan (2) K Gopinathan

2
(3) A Chakrabarty, The Hindu

1 3

1: Activists of BJP Mahila Morcha demonstrate against hike in prices of onions and LPG in
Visakhapatnam.
2: Minister distributes ` One lakh cheque to the families of hooch victims at their houses.
3: Activists of CPI (M), CPI, OGP and JD (S) take out a rally in Bhubaneswar to protest against
POSCO, the Korean steel company for being permitted by the State Government to export iron
ore from Orissa to feed steel plants in China and Korea.

How many parties should we have?

D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

In a democracy any group of citizens the race to win elections and form
is free to form a political party. In the government. So the question is:
this formal sense, there are a large how many major or effective parties
number of political parties in each are good for a democracy?
country. More than 750 parties In some countries, only one
are registered with the Election party is allowed to control and run
Commission of India. But not all the government. These are called
these parties are serious contenders one-party systems. In Class IX,
in the elections. Usually only a we noted that in China, only the
handful of parties are effectively in Communist Party is allowed to
50
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 50 08-04-2022 12:33:38

 rule. Although, legally speaking, coalition. When several parties in a
people are free to form political multi-party system join hands for the
parties, it does not happen because purpose of contesting elections and
the electoral system does not permit winning power, it is called an alliance
free competition for power. We or a front. For example, in India
cannot consider one-party system as there were three such major alliances
a good option because this is not a in 2004 parliamentary elections– the
democratic option. Any democratic National Democratic Alliance, the
system must allow at least two parties United Progressive Alliance and the
to compete in elections and provide a Left Front. The multiparty system
fair chance for the competing parties often appears very messy and leads
to come to power. to political instability. At the same
time, this system allows a variety
In some countries, power usually
of interests and opinions to enjoy
changes between two main parties.
political representation.
Several other parties may exist,
So, which of these is better? I wonder how
contest elections and win a few seats
Perhaps the best answer to this very politicians
in the national legislatures. But only manage these
common question is that this is not
the two main parties have a serious coalitions. I can’t
a very good question. Party system
chance of winning majority of seats even remember
is not something any country can
to form government. Such a party the names of all
choose. It evolves over a long time,
system is called two-party system. the parties.
depending on the nature of society,
The United States of America and
its social and regional divisions, its
the United Kingdom are examples
history of politics and its system of
of two-party system.
elections. These cannot be changed
If several parties compete for very quickly. Each country develops a
power, and more than two parties party system that is conditioned by its
have a reasonable chance of coming special circumstances. For example, if
to power either on their own strength India has evolved a multiparty system,
or in alliance with others, we call it it is because the social and geographical
a multiparty system. Thus in India, diversity in such a large country is
we have a multiparty system. In this not easily absorbed by two or even
system, the government is formed by three parties. No system is ideal for all
various parties coming together in a countries and all situations.
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

Let us apply what we have learnt about party systems to the various
states within India. Here are three major types of party systems that
exist at the State level. Can you find the names of at least two States for
each of these types?
 Two-party system
 Multiparty system with two alliances
 Multiparty system

51
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 51 08-04-2022 12:33:39

 Popular
participation
in
It is often said that political parties are facing a
crisis because they are very unpopular and the
political parties citizens are indifferent to political parties. The
available evidence shows that this belief is only
partly true for India. The evidence, based on a series of large
sample surveys conducted over several decades, shows that:
 Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people in
South Asia. The proportion of those who say their trust in political
parties is ‘not much’ or ‘not at all’ is more than those who have
‘some’ or ‘great’ trust.
 The same is true of most other democracies as well. Political
parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world.
 Yet the level of participation in the activities of political parties
was fairly high. The proportion of those who said they were
members of some political party was higher in India than many
advanced countries like Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea.
 Over the last three decades, the proportion of those who
report to be members of
political parties in India has
gone up steadily.
 The proportion of those
who say they feel ‘close to
a political party’ has also
gone up in India in this
period.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007

52
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 52 08-04-2022 12:33:42

 © Tab - The Calgary Sun, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
Crunching the Numbers

Does the cartoon reflect the data graphics shown on the

previous page?

National parties
Democracies that follow a federal special facilities are ‘recognised’ by
system all over the world tend to the Election Commission for this
have two kinds of political parties: purpose. That is why these parties
parties that are present in only one of are called, ‘recognised political For more details
the federal units and parties that are parties’. The Election Commission about registration
present in several or all units of the has laid down detailed criteria of and recognition of
federation. This is the case in India the proportion of votes and seats political parties by the
as well. There are some country-wide that a party must get in order to Election Commission
parties, which are called ‘national be a recognised party. A party that of India, visit https://
parties’. These parties have their secures at least six per cent of the eci.gov.in
units in various states. But by and total votes in an election to the
large, all these units follow the same Legislative Assembly of a State and
policies, programmes and strategy wins at least two seats is recognised
that is decided at the national level. as a State party. A party that secures
Every party in the country at least six per cent of the total votes
has to register with the Election in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
Commission. While the Commission elections in four States and wins at
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

treats all parties equally, it offers least four seats in the Lok Sabha is
some special facilities to large and recognised as a national party.
established parties. These parties According to this classification,
are given a unique symbol – only there are six recognized national
the official candidates of that party parties in the country as per
can use that election symbol. Parties notification of the Election
that get this privilege and some other Commission of India issued in 2023.

53
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 53 19/03/2024 10:45:03

 Aam Aadmi Party 3.63 per cent votes and secured 10
(AAP): Formed on seats in the Lok Sabha.
26 November 2012, Bharatiya Janata Party
following the 2011 (BJP): Founded in 1980
anti-corruption movement. The by reviving the erstwhile
party was founded on the idea of Bharatiya Jana Sangh,
accountability, clean administration, formed by Syama Prasad
transparency and good governance. Mukherjee in 1951. Wants to build a
In the year after its formation, AAP strong and modern India by drawing
emerged as the second largest party inspiration from India’s ancient
in the Delhi Legislative Assembly culture and values; and Deendayal
election. It formed a government Upadhyaya’s ideas of integral
with the support of Indian National humanism and Antyodaya. Cultural
Congress (INC). It also emerged nationalism (or ‘Hindutva’) is an
as the third front in the politics of important element in its conception
Gujarat after 2022 Gujarat Legislative of Indian nationhood and politics.
Wants full territorial and political
Assembly election. Presently, AAP
integration of Jammu and Kashmir
formed governments in Punjab and
with India, a uniform civil code
Delhi. In the Lok Sabha election held
for all people living in the country
in 2019, it secured one seat in the Lok irrespective of religion, and ban on
Sabha. religious conversions. Its support
Bahujan Samaj base increased substantially in the
Party (BSP): 1990s. Earlier limited to north and
Formed in 1984 west and to urban areas, the party
expanded its support in the south,
under the leadership of Kanshi
east, the north-east and to rural areas.
Ram. Seeks to represent and secure
Came to power in 1998 as the leader
power for the bahujan samaj which
of the National Democratic Alliance
includes the dalits, adivasis, OBCs (NDA) including several regional
and religious minorities. Draws parties. Emerged as the largest party
inspiration from the ideas and with 303 members in the 2019 Lok
teachings of Sahu Maharaj, Mahatma Sabha elections. Currently leads
Phule, Periyar Ramaswami Naicker the ruling NDA government at
and Babasaheb Ambedkar. Stands for the Centre.
the cause of securing the interests and
Communist Party
welfare of the dalits and oppressed
of India - Marxist
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

people. It has its main base in the ( C P I - M ) : Fo unded

state of Uttar Pradesh and substantial in 1964. Believes
presence in neighbouring states like in Marxism-Leninism. Supports
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, socialism, secularism and
Uttarakhand, Delhi and Punjab. democracy and opposes imperialism
Formed government in Uttar and communalism. Accepts
Pradesh several times by taking democratic elections as a useful
the support of different parties at and helpful means for securing the
different times. In the Lok Sabha objective of socio-economic justice in
elections held in 2019, it polled about India. Enjoys strong support in West

54
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 54 19/03/2024 10:50:20

 Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially its ideological orientation, the party
among the poor, factory workers, espouses secularism and welfare of
farmers, agricultural labourers and weaker sections and minorities. The
the intelligentsia. Critical of the new INC supports new economic reforms
economic policies that allow free flow but with a human face. Leader of the
of foreign capital and goods into the United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
country. Was in power in West Bengal government from 2004 to 2019. In the
without a break for 34 years. In the 2019 2019 Lok Sabha election, it won 19.5%
Lok Sabha elections, it won about 1.75 votes and 52 seats.
per cent of votes and 3 seats.
National People’s Party
Indian National Congress
(NPP): Formed in July 2013
(INC): Popularly known
under the leadership of P.A
as the Congress Party. One
Sangma. NPP is the first
of the oldest parties of the
political party from North
world. Founded in 1885 and
East India to have attained
has experienced many splits. Played
a dominant role in Indian politics at the status of a national party. It
the national and state level for several believes in diversity of the country and
decades after India’s Independence. recognizes that different regions have
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal different developmental challenges.
Nehru, the party sought to build a The core philosophy of the party is
modern secular democratic republic in education and employment to all as
India. Ruling party at the centre till 1977 well as empowerment of all sections of
and then from 1980 to 1989. After 1989, the society. It formed government in
its support declined, but it continues Meghalaya and has presence in many of
to be present throughout the country, North Eastern States. In the Lok Sabha
cutting across social divisions. A centrist election held in 2019, NPP secured one
party (neither rightist nor leftist) in seat in the Lok Sabha.

State parties
Other than these seven parties, most Over the last three decades, the
of the major parties of the country are number and strength of these parties has
classified by the Election Commission expanded. This made the Parliament
as ‘State parties’. These are commonly of India politically more and more
referred to as regional parties. Yet diverse. No one national party is able
these parties need not be regional in to secure on its own a majority in the
their ideology or outlook. Some of Lok Sabha, until 2014. As a result, the
these parties are all India parties that national parties are compelled to form
happen to have succeeded only in alliances with State parties. Since 1996,
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

some states. Parties like the Samajwadi nearly every one of the State parties has
Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have got an opportunity to be a part of one
national level political organisation or the other national level coalition
with units in several states. Some of government. This has contributed to
these parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim the strengthening of federalism and
Democratic Front, Mizo National democracy in our country. (See the
Front and Telangana Rashtra Samithi map on the next page for details of
are conscious about their State identity. these parties).

55
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 55 02/04/2024 12:48:42

 D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Map not to scale

56
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 56 08-04-2022 12:33:45

 Challenges to political parties
We have seen how crucial political in the working of political parties.
parties are for the working of Political parties need to face and
democracy. Since parties are the overcome these challenges in order
most visible face of democracy, it is to remain effective instruments
natural that people blame parties for of democracy.
whatever is wrong with the working The first challenge is lack of
of democracy. All over the world, internal democracy within parties.
people express strong dissatisfaction All over the world there is a tendency
with the failure of political parties in political parties towards the
to perform their functions well. concentration of power in one or
This is the case in our country too. few leaders at the top. Parties do not
Popular dissatisfaction and criticism keep membership registers, do not
has focussed on four problem areas hold organisational meetings, and
Berlusconi Puppet Theatre do not conduct internal elections
regularly. Ordinary members of
the party do not get sufficient
information on what happens inside
the party. They do
not have the means
or the connections
needed to influence
the decisions. As a
result, the leaders
assume greater
power to make
decisions in the
name of the party.
Since one or few
leaders exercise
© Riber Hansson - Svenska Dagbladet, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

paramount power
in the party, those
who disagree with
the leadership find Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

Berlusconi was the Prime

Minister of Italy. He is also Why don’t
one of the top businessmen parties give
in Italy. He is the leader of enough tickets
the Forza Italia founded in
1993. His company owns TV to women? Is
channels, the most important that also due to
publishing company, a foot lack of internal
ball club (AC Milan) and a
bank. This cartoon was made
democracy?
during the last elections.

57
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 57 08-04-2022 12:33:46

 it difficult to continue in the party. The third challenge is about
More than loyalty to party principles the growing role of money and
and policies, personal loyalty to the muscle power in parties, especially
leader becomes more important. during elections. Since parties are
The second challenge of dynastic focussed only on winning elections,
succession is related to the first they tend to use short-cuts to win
one. Since most political parties do elections. They tend to nominate
not practice open and transparent those candidates who have or can
procedures for their functioning, raise lots of money. Rich people and
there are very few ways for an companies who give funds to the
ordinary worker to rise to the top parties tend to have influence on the
in a party. Those who happen to be policies and decisions of the party. In
the leaders are in a position of unfair some cases, parties support criminals
advantage to favour people close to who can win elections. Democrats
them or even their family members. all over the world are worried about
In many parties, the top positions the increasing role of rich people and
are always controlled by members big companies in democratic politics.
of one family. This is unfair to other The fourth challenge is that
members of that party. This is also very often parties do not seem to
bad for democracy, since people who offer a meaningful choice to the
do not have adequate experience or voters. In order to offer meaningful
popular support come to occupy choice, parties must be significantly
positions of power. This tendency different. In recent years, there has
is present in some measure all over been a decline in the ideological
the world, including in some of the differences among parties in most
older democracies.   parts of the world. For example,
the difference between the Labour
Party and the Conservative Party
in Britain is very little. They agree
on more fundamental aspects but
differ only in details on how policies
© Huffaker - Cagle Cartoons Inc., 16 June 2004

are to be framed and implemented.

In our country too, the differences
among all the major parties on the
economic policies have reduced.
Those who want really different
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

policies have no option available

to them. Sometimes people cannot
even elect very different leaders
either, because the same set of
leaders keep shifting from one
party to another.

This cartoon was drawn during the Presidency of George Bush of the
Republican Party in the USA. The party’s symbol is elephant. The cartoon
seems to suggest that the Corporate America controls all major institutions
of the country.

58
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 58 08-04-2022 12:33:46

 Does this
suggest that
in democracies
people contest
elections only to
make money?
But isn’t it
true that there
are politicians

© Manjul - DNA
committed to
the well-being
of the people?

Can you identify which of the challenges described in this section are being
highlighted in these cartoons (on pages 57 to 59)? What are the ways to
curb the misuse of money and muscle power in politics?

How can parties be reformed?

In order to face these challenges, leaders. If all of them do not wish to
political parties need to be reformed. reform, how can anyone force them
The question is: Are political parties to change?
willing to reform? If they are willing, Let us look at some of the
what has prevented them from recent efforts and suggestions in our
reforming so far? If they are not country to reform political parties
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

willing, is it possible to force them and its leaders:

to reform? Citizens all over the  The Constitution was amended Defection: Changing
world face this question. This is not to prevent elected MLAs and MPs party allegiance from
a simple question to answer. In a from changing parties. This was done the party on which a
democracy, the final decision is made because many elected representatives person got elected (to
by leaders who represent political were indulging in defection in order a legislative body) to
parties. People can replace them, to become ministers or for cash a different party.
but only by another set of party rewards. Now the law says that if
59
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 59 08-04-2022 12:33:48

 is mere formality. It is not clear if
this step has led to greater internal
democracy in political parties.
Besides these, many suggestions
are often made to reform political
parties:
 A law should be made to regulate
the internal affairs of political parties.
It should be made compulsory for
political parties to maintain a register
of its members, to follow its own
© Keshav - The Hindu

constitution, to have an independent

authority, to act as a judge in case of
party disputes, to hold open elections
to the highest posts.
 It should be made mandatory for
Do you agree that this form of reforming political parties will be
acceptable to them? political parties to give a minimum
any MLA or MP changes parties, number of tickets, about one-third,
he or she will lose the seat in the to women candidates. Similarly,
legislature. This new law has helped there should be a quota for women
bring defection down. At the same in the decision making bodies of
time, this has made any dissent even the party.
more difficult. MPs and MLAs have  There should be state funding of
to accept whatever the party leaders elections. The government should
decide. give parties money to support their
 The Supreme Court passed an election expenses. This support
order to reduce the influence of could be given in kind: petrol, paper,
money and criminals. Now, it is telephone, etc. Or it could be given in
mandatory for every candidate who cash on the basis of the votes secured
contests elections to file an affidavit by the party in the last election.
giving details of his property and These suggestions have not yet
criminal cases pending against him. been accepted by political parties. If
The new system has made a lot of and when these are accepted these
information available to the public. could lead to some improvement.
But there is no system to check if the But we must be very careful about
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

information given by the candidates legal solutions to political problems.

is true. As yet we do not know if it Over-regulation of political parties
has led to decline in the influence of can be counter-productive. This
the rich and the criminals. would force all parties to find ways
Affidavit: A signed to cheat the law. Besides, political
 The Election Commission
document submitted parties will not agree to pass a law
passed an order making it necessary
to an officer, where a that they do not like.
for political parties to hold their
person makes a sworn There are two other ways
organisational elections and file their
statement regarding her in which political parties can be
income tax returns. The parties have
personal information. started doing so but sometimes it reformed. One, people can put
60
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 60 08-04-2022 12:33:48

 pressure on political parties. This can those who want this, join political
be done through petitions, publicity parties. The quality of democracy
and agitations. Ordinary citizens, depends on the degree of public
pressure groups and movements and participation. It is difficult to reform
the media can play an important role politics if ordinary citizens do not
in this. If political parties feel that take part in it and simply criticise
they would lose public support by it from the outside. The problem of
not taking up reforms, they would bad politics can be solved by more
become more serious about reforms. and better politics. We shall return
Two, political parties can improve if to this theme in the final chapter.

1. State the various functions political parties perform in a democracy.

2. What are the various challenges faced by political parties?

Exercises
3. Suggest some reforms to strengthen parties so that they perform
their functions well?
4. What is a political party?
5. What are the characteristics of a political party?
6. A group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government is called a _____________________.
7. Match List I (organisations and struggles) with List II and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List I List II
1. Congress Party A. National Democratic Alliance
2. Bharatiya Janata Party B. State party
3. Communist Party of India (Marxist) C. United Progressive Alliance
4. Telugu Desam Party D. Left Front

1 2 3 4
(a) C A B D
(b) C D A B
(c) C A D B
(d) D C A B

8. Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj

Party?
A. Kanshi Ram
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

B. Sahu Maharaj
C. B.R. Ambedkar
D. Jotiba Phule
9. What is the guiding philosophy of the Bharatiya Janata Party?
A. Bahujan Samaj
B. Revolutionary democracy
C. Integral humanism
D. Modernity

61
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 61 08-04-2022 12:33:49

 10. Consider the following statements on parties.
A. Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people.
B. Parties are often rocked by scandals involving top party leaders.
C. Parties are not necessary to run governments.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) A, B, and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C

11. Read the following passage and answer the questions given
below:
Muhammad Yunus is a famous economist of Bangladesh.
He received several international honours for his efforts to
promote economic and social development for the benefit of
the poor. He and the Grameen Bank that he started jointly,
Exercises
received the Nobel Peace Prize for the year 2006. In February
2007, he decided to launch a political party and contest in the
parliamentary elections. His objective was to foster proper
leadership, good governance and build a new Bangladesh.
He felt that only a political party different from the traditional
ones would bring about new political culture. His party would
be democratic from the grassroots level.
The launching of the new party, called Nagarik Shakti
(Citizens’ Power), has caused a stir among the Bangladeshis.
While many welcomed his decision, some did not like it. “Now
I think Bangladesh will have a chance to choose between
good and bad and eventually have a good government,” said
Shahedul Islam, a government official. “That government, we
hope, would not only keep itself away from corruption but also
make fighting corruption and black money a top priority.”
But leaders of traditional political parties who dominated
the country’s politics for decades were apprehensive. “There
was no debate (over him) winning the Nobel, but politics is
different – very challenging and often controversial,” said
a senior leader of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. Some
others were highly critical. They asked why he was rushing
into politics. “Is he being planted in politics by mentors from
outside the country,” asked one political observer.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Do you think Yunus made a right decision to float a new political

party?
Do you agree with the statements and fears expressed by various
people? How do you want this new party organised to make it
different from other parties? If you were the one to begin this
political party, how would you defend it?

62
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 4.indd 62 08-04-2022 12:33:50

 Outcomes of
Democracy

Overview

Chapter 5
As we begin to wind up our tour of democracy, it is time to move
beyond our discussion of specific themes and ask a general set of
questions: What does democracy do? Or, what outcomes can we
reasonably expect of democracy? Also, does democracy fulfil these
expectations in real life? We begin by thinking about how to assess
the outcomes of democracy. After some clarity on how to think on
this subject, we proceed to look at the expected and actual outcomes
of democracy in various respects: quality of government, economic
well-being, inequality, social differences and conflict and finally
freedom and dignity.

Outcomes of Democracy

63
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 63 4/29/2022 4:57:46 PM

 How do we assess democracy’s outcomes?
Do you remember how students principle, but felt to be not so good in
in Madam Lyngdoh’s class argued its practice. This dilemma invites us
about democracy? This was in to think hard about the outcomes of
Chapter 2 of Class IX textbook. democracy. Do we prefer democracy
It emerged from that conversation only for moral reasons? Or are there
that democracy is a better form of some prudential reasons to support
government when compared with democracy too?
dictatorship or any other alternative. Over a hundred countries of
Did we We felt that democracy was better the world today claim and practice
reach these because it:
conclusions
some kind of democratic politics:
 Promotes equality among they have formal constitutions, they
in Madam
citizens; hold elections, they have parties and
Lyngdoh’s class?
 Enhances the dignity of the they guarantee rights of citizens.
I loved that
individual; While these features are common to
class because
 Improves the quality of most of them, these democracies are
students were
decision-making; very much different from each other
not being
dictated any
 Provides a method to resolve in terms of their social situations,
conclusions. conflicts; and their economic achievements and
 Allows room to correct mistakes. their cultures. Clearly, what may be
Are these expectations realised achieved or not achieved under each
under democracies? When we talk of these democracies will be very
to people around us, most of them different. But is there something that
support democracy against other we can expect from every democracy,
alternatives, such as rule by a monarch just because it is democracy?
or military or religious leaders. But Our interest in and fascination
not so many of them would be for democracy often pushes us into
satisfied with the democracy in taking a position that democracy
practice. So we face a dilemma: can address all socio-economic and
democracy is seen to be good in political problems. If some of our
expectations are not met, we start
blaming the idea of democracy. Or,
we start doubting if we are living in
a democracy. The first step towards
thinking carefully about the outcomes
© RK Laxman - Brushing up the years
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

of democracy is to recognise
that democracy is just a form
of government. It can only create
conditions for achieving something.
The citizens have to take advantage
of those conditions and achieve
those goals. Let us examine some of
the things we can reasonably expect
Is democracy all about coping with multiple pressures and
from democracy and examine the
accommodating diverse demands? record of democracy.
64
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 64 08-04-2022 12:36:51

 Accountable, responsive and legitimate government
There are some things that democracy Governmental Secrecy
must provide. In a democracy, we
are most concerned with ensuring
that people will have the right
to choose their rulers and people
will have control over the rulers.

© Mike Keefe - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Whenever possible and necessary,
citizens should be able to participate
in decision making, that affects
them all. Therefore, the most basic
outcome of democracy should
be that it produces a government
that is accountable to the citizens,
and responsive to the needs and
expectations of the citizens.
Before we go into this question, Now look at the other side –
we face another common question: Is democracy ensures that decision
Can you think of
the democratic government efficient? making will be based on norms and what and how the
Is it effective? Some people think that procedures. So, a citizen who wants government knows
democracy produces less effective to know if a decision was taken about you and your
family (for example
government. It is, of course, true that through the correct procedures ration cards and
non-democratic rulers do not have to can find this out. She has the right voter identity cards)?
bother about deliberation in assemblies and the means to examine the What are the sources
of information for
or worry about majorities and public process of decision making. This you about the
opinion. So, they can be very quick is known as transparency. This government?
and efficient in decision making factor is often missing from a
and implementation. Democracy non-democratic government.
is based on the idea of deliberation Therefore, when we are trying to
and negotiation. So, some delay is find out the outcomes of democracy,
bound to take place. Does that make it is right to expect democracy to
democratic government inefficient? produce a government that follows
Let us think in terms of costs. procedures and is accountable to the
people. We can also expect that the
Outcomes of Democracy
Imagine a government that may
take decisions very fast. But it may democratic government develops
take decisions that are not accepted mechanisms for citizens to hold
by the people and may therefore the government accountable and
face problems. In contrast, the mechanisms for citizens to take part
democratic government will take in decision making whenever they
more time to follow procedures think fit.
before arriving at a decision. But If you wanted to measure
because it has followed procedures, democracies on the basis of this
its decisions may be both more expected outcome, you would look
acceptable to the people and more for the following practices and
effective. So, the cost of time that institutions: regular, free and fair
democracy pays is perhaps worth it. elections; open public debate on
65
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 65 08-04-2022 12:36:51

 major policies and legislations; the demands of a majority of its
So, the best and citizens’ right to information population. The routine tales of
outcome of about the government and its corruption are enough to convince us
democracy functioning. The actual performance that democracy is not free of this evil.
is that it is a of democracies shows a mixed At the same time, there is nothing
democracy! That record on this. Democracies have to show that non-democracies are
is what we have had greater success in setting up less corrupt or more sensitive to
discovered after regular and free elections and in the people.
all this mental setting up conditions for open There is one respect in which
gymnastics? public debate. But most democracies democratic government is certainly
fall short of elections that provide better than its alternatives: demo-
a fair chance to everyone and in cratic government is legitimate
subjecting every decision to public government. It may be slow,
debate. Democratic governments do less efficient, not always very
not have a very good record when responsive or clean. But a democratic
it comes to sharing information government is people’s own
with citizens. All one can say in government. That is why, there is
favour of democratic regimes is an overwhelming support for the
that they are much better than any idea of democracy all over the world.
non-democratic regime in As the accompanying evidence from
these respects. South Asia shows, the support
In substantive terms, it may be exists in countries with democratic
reasonable to expect from democracy regimes as well as countries without
a government that is attentive to the democratic regimes. People wish to
needs and demands of the people be ruled by representatives elected
and is largely free of corruption. by them. They also believe that
The record of democracies is not democracy is suitable for their
impressive on these two counts. country. Democracy’s ability to
Democracies often frustrate the generate its own support is itself an
needs of the people and often ignore outcome that cannot be ignored.

Democracy is preferred Very few doubt the suitability of democracy

over dictatorship for their own country
How suitable is democracy for your country?
South Asia everywhere except
28 Pakistan Very suitable Suitable
South Asia 88
Those who agree with one of
Bangladesh 93
the statements
10 Sri Lanka 92
62 India 92
Pakistan 84
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Nepal 79
0 50 100
Overwhelming support for democracy
Those who agree with the rule of leaders elected by the people
Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka
Strongly agree Agree
Democracy is South Asia 94
preferable 69 70 62 37 71
Sri Lanka 98
Sometimes dictatorship Bangladesh 96
is better 6 9 10 14 11 India 95
Nepal 94
Doesn’t Pakistan 81
matter to me 25 21 28 49 18
0 50 100

Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007

66
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 66 08-04-2022 12:36:53

 Economic growth and development
If democracies are expected to size, global situation, cooperation
produce good governments, then from other countries, economic
is it not fair to expect that they priorities adopted by the country,
would also produce development? etc. However, the difference in the
Evidence shows that in practice, rates of economic development
many democracies did not fulfil this between less developed countries
expectation. with dictatorships and democracies
If you consider all democracies is negligible. Overall, we cannot say
and all dictatorships for the fifty that democracy is a guarantee of
years between 1950 and 2000, economic development. But we can
dictatorships have slightly higher rate expect democracy not to lag behind
of economic growth. The inability
dictatorships in this respect.
of democracy to achieve higher
economic development worries us. When we find such significant Cartoon on this page
and next three pages tell
But this alone cannot be reason difference in the rates of economic
us about the disparities
to reject democracy. As you have growth between countries under between the rich and
already studied in economics, dictatorship and democracy, it is poor. Should the gains
of economic growth
economic development depends on better to prefer democracy as it has be evenly distributed?
several factors: country’s population several other positive outcomes. How can the poor get a
voice for a better share
in a nation? What can
the poor countries do to
receive a greater share in
the world’s wealth?
The Rich Get Buff

Outcomes of Democracy
© RJ Matson - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

67
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 67 08-04-2022 12:36:53

 Economic outcomes
of democracy
Arguments about democracy tend to be
very passionate. This is how it should
Poor Kids
be, for democracy appeals to some of
our deep values. These debates cannot

© Jimmy Margulies - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

be resolved in a simple manner. But
some debates about democracy can and
should be resolved by referring to some
facts and figures. The debate about the
economic outcomes of democracy is
one such debate. Over the years, many
students of democracy have gathered
careful evidence to see what the
relationship of democracy with economic
growth and economic inequalities is.
The tables and the cartoon here present
some of the evidences:
 Table 1 shows that on an average dictatorial regimes have had a slightly better record
of economic growth. But when we compare their record only in poor countries, there is
virtually no difference.
 Table 2 shows that within democracies there can be very high degree of inequalities.
In democratic countries like South Africa and Brazil, the top 20 per cent people take away
more than 60 per cent of the national income, leaving less than 3 per cent for the bottom
20 per cent population. Countries like Denmark and Hungary are much better in this
respect.
 You can see in the cartoon, there is often inequality of opportunities available to the
poorer sections.
What would be your verdict on democracy if you had to base it purely on economic
performance of democratic regimes in terms of growth and equal distribution?

Table 2
Inequality of income in selected countries
Table 1
Name of the % share of national
Rates of economic growth for different countries,
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Countries income
1950 – 2000
Top 20 % Bottom 20 %
Type of regimes and countries Growth Rate South Africa 64.8 2.9
All democratic regimes 3.95 Brazil 63.0 2.6
All dictatorial regimes 4.42 Russia 53.7 4.4
Poor countries under dictatorship 4.34 USA 50.0 4.0
Poor countries under democracy 4.28 United Kingdom 45.0 6.0
Source: A Przeworski, M E Alvarez, J A Cheibub and F Limongi, Democracy and
Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950 -1990.
Denmark 34.5 9.6
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hungary 34.4 10.0

68
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 68 08-04-2022 12:36:54

 Reduction of inequality and poverty
Perhaps more than development, it Democracies are based on political
is reasonable to expect democracies equality. All individuals have equal
to reduce economic disparities. Even weight in electing representatives.
when a country achieves economic Parallel to the process of bringing
growth, will wealth be distributed individuals into the political arena
in such a way that all citizens of the on an equal footing, we find growing
country will have a share and lead economic inequalities. A small
a better life? Is economic growth number of ultra-rich enjoy a highly
Democracy is
in democracies accompanied by disproportionate share of wealth and
a rule of the
increased inequalities among the incomes. Not only that, their share majority. The
people? Or do democracies lead in the total income of the country poor are in
to a just distribution of goods and has been increasing. Those at the majority. So
opportunities? bottom of the society have very little democracy must
to depend upon. Their incomes have be a rule of the
Voice of the Poor been declining. Sometimes they find poor. How can
it difficult to meet their basic needs this not be the
of life, such as food, clothing, house, case?
education and health.
In actual life, democracies do
not appear to be very successful in
reducing economic inequalities. In
Class IX Economics textbook, you
have already studied about poverty in
India. The poor constitute a large
proportion of our voters and no
party will like to lose their
votes. Yet democratically
elected governments do
not appear to be as keen
to address the question
of poverty as you would
© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

expect them to. The

situation is much worse Outcomes of Democracy
in some other countries.
In Bangladesh, more than
half of its population
lives in poverty. People
in several poor countries
are now dependent on the
rich countries even for
food supplies.

69
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 69 08-04-2022 12:36:55

 World’s Wealth Owned by a Few

© Manny Francisco - The Phillippines, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Accommodation of social diversity
Do democracies lead to peaceful and often turn a blind eye to or suppress
harmonious life among citizens? internal social differences. Ability to
It will be a fair expectation that handle social differences, divisions
democracy should produce a and conflicts is thus a definite plus
harmonious social life. We have point of democratic regimes. But
All you are seen in the earlier chapters how the example of Sri Lanka reminds
saying is that democracies accommodate various us that a democracy must fulfil two
democracy social divisions. We saw in the first conditions in order to achieve this
ensures that chapter how Belgium has successfully outcome:
people do not negotiated differences among ethnic  It is necessary to understand
break each populations. Democracies usually that democracy is not simply rule
other’s head. develop a procedure to conduct by majority opinion. The majority
This is not their competition. This reduces always needs to work with the
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

harmony. Should the possibility of these tensions minority so that governments

we be happy becoming explosive or violent. function to represent the general
about it?
No society can fully and view. Majority and minority
permanently resolve conflicts among opinions are not permanent.
different groups. But we can certainly  It is also necessary that rule by
learn to respect these differences and majority does not become rule by
we can also evolve mechanisms to majority community in terms of
negotiate the differences. Democracy religion or race or linguistic group,
is best suited to produce this etc. Rule by majority means that in
outcome. Non-democratic regimes case of every decision or in case of
70
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 70 08-04-2022 12:36:56

 every election, different persons and of time. If someone is barred from
groups may and can form a majority. being in majority on the basis of
Democracy remains democracy only birth, then the democratic rule ceases
as long as every citizen has a chance to be accommodative for that person
of being in majority at some point or group.

Enemies

© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Greeting

The two images depict two different kinds of

effects democratic politics can have on social
divisions. Take one example for each image
and write a paragraph each on the outcome of
democratic politics in both situations.

Dignity and freedom of the citizens

Democracy stands much superior in various degrees in various
to any other form of government democracies. For societies which Outcomes of Democracy
in promoting dignity and freedom have been built for long on the basis
of the individual. Every individual of subordination and domination, it
wants to receive respect from is not a simple matter to recognise
fellow beings. Often conflicts arise that all individuals are equal.
among individuals because some feel Take the case of dignity of
that they are not treated with due women. Most societies across
respect. The passion for respect and the world were historically male
freedom are the basis of democracy. dominated societies. Long struggles
Democracies throughout the world by women have created some
have recognised this, at least in sensitivity today that respect to
principle. This has been achieved and equal treatment of women are
71
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 71 08-04-2022 12:37:00

 necessary ingredients of a democratic What is most distinctive about
I am anxious society. That does not mean that democracy is that its examination
about my board women are actually always treated never gets over. As democracy
exams. But with respect. But once the principle passes one test, it produces another
democracy has is recognised, it becomes easier for test. As people get some benefits of
so many exams. women to wage a struggle against democracy, they ask for more and
And millions of
what is now unacceptable legally want to make democracy even better.
examiners!
and morally. In a non-democratic That is why, when we ask people
set up, this unacceptability would about the way democracy functions,
not have legal basis because the they will always come up with more
principle of individual freedom and expectations, and many complaints.
dignity would not have the legal and The fact that people are complaining
moral force there. The same is true is itself a testimony to the success of
of caste inequalities. Democracy in democracy: it shows that people have
India has strengthened the claims of developed awareness and the ability
the disadvantaged and discriminated to expect and to look critically at
castes for equal status and equal power holders and the high and
opportunity. There are instances the mighty. A public expression of
still of caste-based inequalities and dissatisfaction with democracy shows
atrocities, but these lack the moral the success of the democratic project:
and legal foundations. Perhaps, it is it transforms people from the status
the recognition that makes ordinary of a subject into that of a citizen.
citizens value their democratic rights. Most individuals today believe that
Expectations from democracy their vote makes a difference to the
also function as the criteria for way the government is run and to
judging any democratic country. their own self-interest.

Rosa Parks Still Inspires

Belief in the efficacy of vote is placed above the

calculus of utility
Those who say that their vote makes a difference...
© Pat Bagley - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

South Asia 65
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Bangladesh 66
India 67
Nepal 75
Pakistan 50
Sri Lanka 65

0 80
Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South
Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007.
The above cartoon and graph illustrate a point made in this section
(Dignity and freedom of the citizens). Underline the sentences from this
section which connect to the cartoon or graph.

72
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 72 08-04-2022 12:37:01

 1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and
legitimate government?
2. What are the conditions under which democracies accommodate
social diversities?
3. Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions:
 Industrialised countries can afford democracy but the poor
need dictatorship to become rich.
 Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between
different citizens.
 Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty
reduction, health, education and spend more on industries
and infrastructure.
 In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that
there is absence of any domination and conflict.

Exercises
4. Identify the challenges to democracy in the following descriptions.
Also suggest policy/institutional mechanism to deepen democracy in
the given situations:
 Following a High Court directive, a temple in Orissa that had
separate entry doors for dalits and non-dalits allowed entry for
all from the same door.
 A large number of farmers are committing suicide in different
states of India.
 Following an allegation of killing of three civilians in Gandwara
in a fake encounter by Jammu and Kashmir police, an enquiry
has been ordered.
5. In the context of democracies, which of the following ideas is correct–
democracies have successfully eliminated:
A. conflicts among people
B. economic inequalities among people
C. differences of opinion about how marginalised sections
are to be treated
D. the idea of political inequality
6. In the context of assessing democracy, which among the following is
the odd one out. Democracies need to ensure:
A. free and fair elections
Outcomes of Democracy
B. dignity of the individual
C. majority rule
D. equal treatment before law
7. Studies on political and social inequalities in democracy show that:
A. democracy and development go together.
B. inequalities exist in democracies.
C. inequalities do not exist under dictatorship.
D. dictatorship is better than democracy.

73
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 73 08-04-2022 12:37:03

 8. Read the passage below:
Nannu is a daily wage earner. He lives in Welcome Mazdoor
Colony, a slum habitation in East Delhi. He lost his ration card
and applied for a duplicate one in January 2004. He made
several rounds to the local Food and Civil Supplies office for
the next three months. But the clerks and officials would
not even look at him, leave alone do his job or bother to
tell him the status of his application. Ultimately, he filed an
application under the Right to Information Act asking for the
daily progress made on his application, names of the officials,
who were supposed to act on his application and what action
would be taken against these officials for their inaction. Within
a week of filing application under the Right to Information Act,
he was visited by an inspector from the Food Department,
Exercises
who informed him that the card had been made and he could
collect it from the office. When Nannu went to collect his card
next day, he was given a very warm treatment by the Food
and Supply Officer (FSO), who is the head of a Circle. The FSO
offered him tea and requested him to withdraw his application
under the Right to Information, since his work had already
been done.
What does Nannu’s example show? What impact did Nannu’s
action have on officials? Ask your parents their experiences
when they approach government officials to attend to their
problems.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Source: Election Commission of India

74
Reprint 2025-26

Chapter 5.indd 74 19/03/2024 10:52:11

 UNDERSTANDING
ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS X

Reprint 2025-26
1070 – UNDERSTANDING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ISBN 81-7450-655-1
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
December 2006 Agrahayana 1928 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
Reprinted transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
December 2007 Agrahayana 1929
q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent,
February 2000 Magha 1930 re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any
January 2010 Magha 1931 form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
January 2011 Magha 1932 q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised
price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect
January 2012 Magha 1933 and should be unacceptable.
November 2012 Kartika 1934
November 2013 Kartika 1935
January 2015 Pausa 1936
December 2015 Pausa 1937 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
January 2017 Pausa 1938 DIVISION, NCERT

December 2017 Pausa 1939 NCERT Campus

Sri Aurobindo Marg
February 2019 Magha 1940 New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
October 2019 Ashwina 1941
108, 100 Feet Road
February 2021 Phalguna 1942 Hosdakere Halli Extension
November 2021 Agrahayana 1943 Banashankari III Stage
Bengaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740
October 2022 Kartika 1944
January 2024 Megha 1945 Navjivan Trust Building
P.O.Navjivan
March 2024 Chaitra 1946 Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
June 2024 Jyaishtha 1946 CWC Campus
August 2024 Shravan 1946 Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop
Panihati
December 2024 Pausha 1946 Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454

CWC Complex
Maligaon
PD 250T GS Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869

© National Council of Educational

Research and Training, 2006

Publication Team
Head, Publication : M.V. Srinivasan
Division
Chief Editor : Bijnan Sutar
Chief Production : Jahan Lal
` 80.00 Officer (In charge)
Chief Business : Amitabh Kumar
Manager
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
Assistant Editor : R.N. Bhardwaj
watermark
Production Officer : Sunil Sharma
Published at the Publication Division by
the Secretary, National Council of
Educational Research and Training, Cover
Cover,, Layout and Illustrations
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 Karen Haydock
and printed at VK Global Digital,
Plot No. 928, Sector -68, IMT Faridabad,
Haryana–121004

Reprint 2025-26
 FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that
children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning,
which continues to shape our system, and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed
on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea.
They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of
sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-
centered system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by
adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of
examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible
if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as
receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as
rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required
number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods
used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience,
rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have
tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration
for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space
to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development
committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson
of the advisory committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the
secondary level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for
this book, Professor Tapas Majumdar for guiding the work of this
committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this

Reprint 2025-26
textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible.
We are indebted to the institutions and organisations, which have
generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National
Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary
and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an
organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision
and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

(iv)

Reprint 2025-26
A FEW INTRODUCTORY WORDS FOR TEACHERS
This book introduces you to a simplified view of the process of development in
the Indian economy. In Economics, we usually try to look at development as a
process of change in the economic life of the people, as producers or consumers
of goods and services. Sometimes, development is studied mainly as a
phenomenon that acquired significance only with the growth of the modern
industrial civilisation. This is because the state of development (or
underdevelopment) of a country has often depended on outcomes of wars and
conquests and on colonial exploitation of one country by another. However, in
this book, we have not emphasised on the external factors. We have taken a
long view of the process of development: a process that could have started
before any external factors intervened or interrupted it. The process of
development may also restart after such interruptions, and continue on
independent lines after the period of subjugation ends. This has happened in
the case of our own country, India.
In this book the first beginnings of development are seen in terms of the
emergence of agriculture, manufacturing and services as three distinct sectors
of the economy. We have also tried to look at economic development not in
isolation but as part of a more general concept of human development that
includes the development of health and education and other indicators that,
along with income, broadly define the quality of life of a people.
In the first chapter, we will study how people actually perceive development
and how it can be measured. There are various measures available for this
purpose. We will look at the extent to which some of the important developmental
indicators help in understanding development and how the process may affect
different people differently.
Development as a process had probably started quite early in history. To
begin with, perhaps no country could be distinguished as developed in the
sense that we understand development. Perhaps the process would have started
in most human settlements when people started living in relative peace and in
more or less fixed habitations without which agriculture would not have been
possible on any significant scale. Once agriculture began and developed, the
extraction of other natural products, like mineral ores, probably was started.
This latter process of recovering stones and other minerals is called ‘quarrying’.
Humans learnt to use the non-food products like wood from trees and the
minerals obtained from quarrying as raw materials for making their tools,
weapons, utensils, fishing nets and so on. These were the first human-made
products called ‘artefacts’. Economists called the process of making the artefacts
‘manufacture’ as distinguished from ‘agriculture (including quarrying)’ that
covered the gathering, cultivating or extracting of purely natural products such
as fruit, rice or minerals.
The separation of productive activities between the two distinct sectors of
agriculture including quarrying (also called the Primary Sector) and
(v)

Reprint 2025-26
 manufacture (also called the Secondary Sector) was probably the first visible
manifestation of economic development. This separation came about through
the process of “division of labour” as Adam Smith, regarded as the father of
economics had called it. The process is briefly explained below.
At first every person, or at least members of every household, presumably,
had to do everything all by themselves. Then at some point the advantage of
‘division of labour’ must have been felt. Humans found out with experience
that production became more efficient if some people concentrated on learning
how to fish, others on how to till the soil, still others on how to produce
pottery, or trap or hunt animals and birds for food and so on. This was also
‘development’ of a kind. Then there emerged specialists who were not
themselves producing any good at all: they were people specialising in
teaching others how to do these things better. There were also doctors who
healed people when they were injured or had fallen ill. Naturally division of
labour between people increased the productivity of all the people and the
economy grew.
The second chapter will look at the way economic activities in a modern
economy can be classified and understood within the framework of primary,
secondary and tertiary sectors. The discussion here is focussed on India and
the changes that have occurred in the three sectors over the past decades. Besides
this, it also provides two other ways of classifying economic activities — organised
and unorganised, and private and public sectors. The relevance of additional
ways of classification for understanding the problems and challenges of the
modern Indian economy is illustrated using real life examples and case studies.
The third chapter initiates the learners into the world of money — its role in
a modern economy, forms and its linkage with various institutions such as
banks. Then the chapter moves on to discuss the role of banks and other
institutions in providing credit to the people. Issues stressed in the discussion
on credit are (a) pervasiveness of credit in economic life across a very large
section of the population (b) the preponderance of informal credit in India and
(c) role of credit in creating either a self-sustaining virtuous cycle of productive
investment, higher income streams, higher standards of living leading to more
productive investments contributing to development, or a vicious cycle of
indebtedness, poverty and debt-trap leading to increased poverty. These ideas
are presented through case studies.
Globalisation is an important phenomenon, which has influenced
development and people around the world in various ways. The fourth chapter
focuses on a particular dimension of globalisation that is economic in nature
— the complex organisation of production. How multinational companies
facilitate globalisation through trade and investment is also explained. Some
important factors and institutions that facilitate globalisation also find place
in this chapter. In the end, the chapter appraises the impacts of globalisation
(positive and negative) on the Indian economy.
The process of development leads to not only higher levels of production in
different sectors of the economy, but has some down sides too. The examples
Labour is the and case studies in this chapter and elsewhere try to examine whether the
source of all
wealth benefits of development are spreading to all people (producers big and small,
workers in the organised or unorganised sectors, consumers belonging to all
(vi)

Reprint 2025-26
income groups, men and women and so on) or are being confined to only some
privileged sections.
Our final chapter presents a relevant study of how, and to what extent, we
can protect the rights of citizens as consumers. During the process of rapid
development and emergence of new brands and advertisement campaigns by
unscrupulous producers, consumers are often at the receiving end of business
malpractices. After tracing the historical root of the consumer movement and
through various real-life instances, this chapter tells of different inexpensive
consumer protection mechanisms evolved over the years. It also offers details
of how people can now assert some of their rights at very little expense at the THIS IS GOOD
special consumer courts that operate outside the existing cumbersome, DEVELOPMENT!
expensive and time-consuming legal procedures.

Features of this Textbook

The purpose of the book is to understand the economic life around us and
also to think about what we would mean by economic development for people.
There are many examples and case studies that we have used both as an
aid for conceptual clarity and to relate these ideas to real life. These have to
be read and used, keeping this overall objective in view.
The chapters start with Note for the teacher
teacher. Teachers could read this page
before they start teaching a chapter. It contains the details of (i) the broad approach
and content of the chapter; (ii) some pointers to how the chapter could be taught;
and (iii) sources for additional details relating to different topics.
There are several internal exercises in Let’s work this out out, given after
each section in the chapters. This contains a few questions to review the section
and open-ended questions and activities that can be taken up within and
outside the classroom. Some of the internal exercises should be done in the
discussion mode. Students can discuss these in groups and present their
conclusions and the answers may be put up for debate with the entire class.
This will require more time but it is essential as this allows students to
explore and learn from each other. The intention is to allow for more
interaction than is usually observed but there is no fixed formula for doing
this. Each teacher would find his or her own ways and we would like to
express our faith in their abilities to do so.
Wherever possible, we have attempted to provide the latest statistics. Not all
authentic data is available for the recent years. Also, economic trends do not
change in a few years. Rather worrying about the latest data, you may bring to
the notice the central idea of what the concept and data related to it convey to
us. Questions on the data aspects may be avoided.
We have used many reference material while preparing this book. Besides
these, many news clippings, reports from government and
non-government organisations were also used. Some of them are mentioned
in the Note for the teacher and some in Suggested Readings given at
the end of this book.
It is important that additional information and readings be brought
into classroom discussion. This could be in the form of short surveys, interviews
with people around, reference books, or newspaper clippings, etc. These should
then be used for reflection and creative expression by students themselves in
the form of making charts, wallpaper displays, skits, debates, etc.

(vii)

Reprint 2025-26
Evaluation
While addressing the need for reforms in education, the National Curriculum
Framework 2005 and the Position Paper of the National Focus Group on
Examination Reforms call for a change in the way questions are asked in
examinations. The questions asked in this book make a departure from an
evaluation pattern that encourages rote-memorisation to one that inculcates
creative thinking, imagination, reflection and hones the analytical ability of
learners. Based on the examples shown here, teachers can formulate additional
questions.

Questions that test the understanding of core concepts

(a) GDP is the total value of _________ produced during a particular year.
(i) all goods and services
(ii) all final goods and services
(iii) all intermediate goods and services
(iv) all intermediate and final goods and services

(b) Analyse the role of credit for development.

(c) In what ways will the production of cars by Ford Motors in India lead to interlinking
of production?
(d) How would flexibility in labour laws help companies?

Questions to assess analytical abilities, interpretation and coherent

presentation
(a) The following table gives the GDP in Rupees (crores) by the three secors:

Year primary secondary tertiary

2000 12,56,000 10,12,000 18,17,000
2013 17,87,000 24,59,000 46,30,000

(i) Calculate the share of the three sectors in GDP for 2000 and 2013.
(ii) Show the data as a bar diagram similar to Graph 2 in the chapter 2.
(iii) What conclusions can we draw from the bar graph?

(b) In India, about 80 per cent of farmers are small farmers, who need credit for
cultivation.
(i) Why might banks be unwilling to lend to small farmers?
(ii) What are the other sources from which small farmers can borrow?
(iii) Explain with an example how the terms of credit can be unfavourable for
the small farmer.
(iv) Suggest some ways by which small farmers can get cheap credit.

(viii)

Reprint 2025-26
Questions to test reflective thinking
(a) Look at the picture (high rise buildings with slums around). What should be the
developmental goals for such an area?
(b) “The Earth has enough resources to meet the needs of all but not enough to satisfy
the greed of even one person”. How is this statement relevant to the discussion of
development? Discuss.
(c) “Tertiary sector is not playing any significant role in the development of Indian
economy”. Do you agree? Give reasons in support of your answer.
(d) People make complaints about the lack of civic amenities such as bad roads or
poor water and health facilities but no one listens. Now the RTI Act gives you the
power to question. Do you agree? Discuss.

Questions that test the ability to apply concepts and ideas to real life
problems / situations
(a) What can be some of the developmental goals for your village, town or locality?
(b) Students in a school are often classified into primary and secondary or junior and
senior. What is the criterion used here? Do you think this is useful classification?
(c) In what ways can employment be increased in urban areas?
(d) What do you understand by disguised unemployment? Explain with an example
each from the urban and rural areas.
(e) Describe some of your duties as consumers if you visit a shopping complex in
your locality.

It is also necessary to develop questions that require students to draw from

one or more areas of the syllabus for making relevant connections between
materials from different chapters. For instance, in Chapter 4 one question links
to Chapter 1— In chapter 1, we saw what may be development for one may
be destructive for others. The setting of SEZs has been opposed by some
people in India. Find out who are these people and why are they opposing it.
We hope that you along with your students would look at this textbook
itself in a critical manner and send us your critique, questions, clarification,
etc. to the following address. AND we could continue this discussion further.

P ROGRAMME C OORDINATOR
Economics Textbook for Class X
Department of Education in Social Sciences
National Council of Educational Research and Training
Sri Aurobindo Marg
New Delhi – 110 016.
Email: [email protected]
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

(ix)

Reprint 2025-26
Reprint 2025-26
 TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS AT THE
SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Kolkata,
Kolkata.

CHIEF ADVISOR
Tapas Majumdar, Emeritus Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

ADVISOR
Sathish K. Jain, Professor, Centre for Economic Studies and Planning,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS
Arvind Sardana, Eklavya, Institute for Educational Research and Innovative
Action, Madhya Pradesh
Neeraja Rashmi, Reader, Curriculum Group, NCERT, New Delhi
Neeraja Nautiyal, TGT (Social Science), Kendriya Vidyalaya, BEG Centre, Deccan
College Road, Yeravada, Pune
Rajinder Choudhury, Reader, Department of Economics, Maharishi Dayanand
University, Rohtak, Haryana
Rama Gopal, Professor, Department of Economics, Annamalai University,
Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu
Sukanya Bose, Eklavya Fellow, New Delhi
Vijay Shankar, Samaj Pragati Sahyog, Bagli Block, Dewas District,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
M.V. Srinivasan, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

Reprint 2025-26
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book is an outcome of ideas, comments and suggestions from academics,
practising school teachers, students, educational activists and all those concerned
about education. The National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT) acknowledges Jean Dreze, visiting Professor, G.B.Pant Social Science
Institute, Allahabad; R. Nagaraj, Professor, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research, Mumbai; Rammanohar Reddy, Editor, Economic and Political Weekly,
and Sujana Krishnamurthy, Freelance Researcher, Mumbai; S. Krishnakumar,
Sri Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Delhi; Tara Nair, Institute of Rural
Management, Anand; Keshab Das, Gujarat Institute of Development Research,
Ahmedabad; George Cheriyan, Consumer Unity Trust International,
Jaipur; Nirmalya Basu, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and Manish Jain,
Doctoral Student, Central Institute of Education, Delhi for their suggestions in
enriching the book making it nearer to learners. We also thank our colleagues
K. Chandrasekar, Department of Educational Measurement and Evaluation,
R. Meganathan, Department of Languages; Ashita Raveendran and Jaya Singh,
Department of Education in Social Sciences and Humanities, NCERT for their
feedback and suggestions.
We would like to place on record the invaluable advise of (Late) Dipak Banerjee,
Professor (Retd), Presidency College, Kolkata. We could have benefitted much more
of his expertise had his health permitted.
Many teachers have contributed to this book in different ways. Contributions
of Kanta Bansal, Vice Principal, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Sector 47, Chandigarh;
A. Manoharan, PGT (Economics), Kendriya Vidyalaya No.2, Military Hospital Road,
Belgaum Cantonment, Belgaum, Karnataka; Renu Deshmana, TGT (Social
Science), Kendriya Vidyalaya No.2, Delhi Cantonment, Gurgaon Road, Delhi; Nalini
Padmanabhan, PGT (Economics), DTEA Senior Secondary School, Janakpuri, New
Delhi are duly acknowledged. The feedback and reflections of students and
teachers of Kendriya Vidyalaya, Sector 47, Chandigarh during the try out were of
much value in the improvement of this book.
The Council expresses its gratitude to the following individuals and
organisations for providing us with photograph(s) and allowing us to use them
from their archives and books – Jan Breman and Parthiv Shah from, Working in
the mill no more, Oxford University Press, Delhi; Centre for Education and
Communication, Delhi Forum and Nirantar, Delhi and Ananthi, Gujarat; Subha
Lakshmi, Delhi; Ambuj Soni, Dewas, Madhya Pradesh; Karen Haydock,
Chandigarh; and M.V. Srinivasan, DESSH; the Press Information Bureau, Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting; Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Agriculture;
Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, Delhi; Madras Port Trust,
Chennai and Sitaram Bhartia Institute of Science & Research, New Delhi.
We are indebted to The Hindu and Times of India for the news clippings used in
this book.
We thank Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department of Education in Social
Sciences and Humanities for her support.
Special thanks are due to Vandana R. Singh, Consultant Editor for going through
the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of DTP Operators
Gurinder Singh Rai, Ishwar Singh and Arvind Sharma; Dinesh Kumar Singh,
Incharge Computer Station; Administrative Staff, DESSH; Neena Chandra, Copy
Editor in bringing this book into shape. Finally, the efforts of the Publication
Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.

Reprint 2025-26
 CONTENTS
Foreword iii
A few introductory words for teachers v

Chapter 1
DEVELOPMENT 2

Chapter 2
SECTORS OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY 18

Chapter 3
MONEY AND CREDIT 38

Chapter 4
GLOBALISATION AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY 54

Chapter 5
CONSUMER RIGHTS 74

Appendix 90

Suggested Readings 92

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES
NOTESFOR
FORTHE TEACHER
TEACHERS
CHAPTER I : DEVELOPMENT

Development has many aspects. The enable better understanding of the themes
purpose of this chapter is to enable discussed by bringing the learners closer
students to understand this idea. They to their real life situations.
have to understand that people have There are certain terms used in this
different perspectives on development and chapter that would require clarification —
there are ways by which we can arrive at Per Capita Income, Literacy Rate, Infant
common indicators for development. To Mortality Rate, Attendance Ratio, Life
do this, we have used situations that they Expectancy, Gross Enrolment Ratio, and
can respond to in an intuitive manner; we Human Development Index. Though data
have also presented analysis that is more pertaining to these terms are provided,
complex and macro in nature. these would need further explanation. You
How can countries or states be may also need to clarify the concept of
compared using some selected Purchasing Power Parity that is used to
development indicators is another calculate Gross National Income per capita
question that students would read in Table 1.6. It is necessary to keep in mind
about in this chapter. Economic that these terms are used as an aid to the
development can be measured and discussion and not something to be
income is the most common method memorised.
for measuring development. However, Sources for Information
the income method, though useful,
The data for this chapter is taken from
has several weaknesses. Hence, we
reports published by the Government of
need newer ways of looking at
India (Economic Survey, Reports of the
development using indicators of
National Family Health Survey and
quality of life and environmental
Handbook of Statistics on the Indian
sustainability.
Economy), United Nations Development
It is necessary for you to expect the Programme (Human Development Report)
students to respond actively in the and World Bank (World Development
classroom and on a topic such as the Indicators). Many of these reports are
above, there would be wide variation in published every year. It may be interesting
opinion and possibility of debate. Allow to look up these reports if they are
students to argue their point of view. At available in your school library. If not, you
the end of each section there are a few may log on to the websites of these
questions and activities. These serve two institutions (www.budgetindia.nic.in,
purposes: first, they recap the ideas www.undp.org,www.worldbank.org,
discussed in the section and second, they www.rbi.org).

2 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 CHAPTER I

DEVELOPMENT
The idea of development or progress
has always been with us. We have
aspirations or desires about what we
would like to do and how we would
like to live. Similarly, we have ideas
about what a country should be like.
What are the essential things that we
require? Can life be better for all? How
should people live together? Can there
be more equality? Development
involves thinking about these
questions and about the ways in
which we can work towards achieving
these goals. This is a complex
task and in this chapter we shall
make a beginning at understanding
development. You will learn more
about these issues in greater depth
in higher classes. Also, you will find
answers to many of these questions
not just in economics but also in your
course in history and political science.
This is because the way we live today
is influenced by the past. We can’t
desire for change without being aware
of this. In the same way, it is only
through a democratic political
process that these hopes and “Without me they cannot develop...
possibilities can be achieved in in this system I cannot develop!”
real life.
DEVELOPMENT 3

Reprint 2025-26
 WHAT DEVELOPMENT PROMISES —
DIFFERENT PEOPLE, DIFFERENT GOALS
YOU WANT A CAR
CAR? THE WAY OUR COUNTRY IS
Let us try to imagine what SET UP ALL YOU CAN HOPE FOR IS MAY BE TO
ONE DAY OWN THE RICKSHAW YOU PULL!
development or progress is likely to
mean to different persons listed in
Table 1.1. What are their aspirations?
You will find that some columns are
partially filled. Try to complete the
table. You can also add any other
category of persons.

TABLE 1.1 DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS OF DIFFERENT

CATEGORIES OF PERSONS
Category of Person Developmental Goals / Aspirations

More days of work and better wages; local school is able to

Landless rural labourers provide quality education for their children; there is no social
discrimination and they too can become leaders in the village.

Assured a high family income through higher support prices for

Prosperous farmers from Punjab their crops and through hardworking and cheap labourers; they
should be able to settle their children abroad.
Farmers who depend only on
rain for growing crops

A rural woman from a land

owning family

Urban unemployed youth

A boy from a rich urban family

She gets as much freedom as her brother and is able to

A girl from a rich urban family decide what she wants to do in life. She is able to pursue her
studies abroad.

An adivasi from Narmada valley

Having filled Table 1.1, let us now They seek things that are most
examine it. Do all of these persons important for them, i.e., that which
have the same notion of development can fulfil their aspirations or desires.
or progress? Most likely not. Each In fact, at times, two persons or
one of them seeks different things. groups of persons may seek things
4 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
which are conflicting. A girl expects So, two things are quite clear: one,
as much freedom and opportunity as different persons can have
her brother, and that he also shares different developmental goals and
in the household work. Her brother two, what may be development for
may not like this. Similarly, to get one may not be development for
more electricity, industrialists may the other. It may even be
THOSE PEOPLE
want more dams. But this may destructive for the other. DON’T WANT TO
submerge the land and disrupt the DEVELOP!
lives of people who are displaced – such
as tribals. They might resent this and
may prefer small check dams or tanks
to irrigate their land.

INCOME AND OTHER GOALS

If you go over Table 1.1 again, you more income or more consumption
will notice one common thing: what because material goods are not all
people desire are regular work, better that you need to live.
wages, and decent price for their crops
Money, or material things that one
or other products that they produce.
can buy with it, is one factor on which
In other words, they want more
our life depends. But the quality of our
income.
life also depends on non-material
Besides seeking more income, one- things mentioned above. If it is not
way or the other, people also seek obvious to you, then just think of the
things like equal treatment, freedom, role of your friends in your life. You
A demonstration
security, and respect of others. They may desire their friendship. Similarly, meeting against
resent discrimination. All these are there are many things that are not raising the height
important goals. In fact, in some cases, easily measured but they mean a lot of Sardar
Sarovar Dam on
these may be more important than to our lives. These are often ignored.
Narmada River

Reprint 2025-26
 However, it will be wrong to conclude Similarly, for development,
that what cannot be measured is not people look at a mix of goals. It is
important. true that if women are engaged in paid
work, their dignity in the household
Consider another example. If you
and society increases. However, it is
get a job in a far off place, before
also the case that if there is respect
accepting it you would try to consider
for women there would be more
many factors, apart from income,
sharing of housework and a
such as facilities for your family,
greater acceptance of women
working atmosphere, or opportunity
working outside. A safe and secure
to learn. In another case, a job may
environment may allow more women
give you less pay but may offer regular
to take up a variety of jobs or run
employment that enhances your
a business.
sense of security. Another job,
however, may offer high pay but no Hence, the developmental goals
job security and also leave no time for that people have are not only about
your family. This will reduce your better income but also about other
sense of security and freedom. important things in life.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Why do different persons have different notions of development? Which of the following
explanations is more important and why?
(a) Because people are different.
(b) Because life situations of persons are different.
2. Do the following two statements mean the same? Justify your answer.
(a) People have different developmental goals.
(b) People have conflicting developmental goals.
3. Give some examples where factors other than income are important aspects of our lives.
4. Explain some of the important ideas of the above section in your own words.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
If, as we have seen above, individuals different persons could have
seek different goals, then their notion different as well as conflicting
of national development is also likely notions of a country’s development.
to be different. Discuss among
However, can all the ideas be
yourselves on what India should do
considered equally important? Or, if
for development.
there are conflicts how does one
Most likely, you would find that decide? What would be a fair and just
different students in the class have given path for all? We also have to think
different answers to the above question. whether there is a better way of doing
In fact, you might yourself think of things. Would the idea benefit a large
many different answers and not be too number of people or only a small
sure of any of these. It is very group? National development means
important to keep in mind that thinking about these questions.

6 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
Discuss the following situations:
1. Look at the picture on the right. What should
be the developmental goals for such an area?
2. Read this newspaper report and answer the
questions that follow:

0 tonnes
A vessel dumped 50
st es in to
of liq ui d to xic wa
in a cit y and
open-air dumps This
un din g se a.
in the surro lle d
y ca
ha pp en ed in a cit t, a
Co as
Ab id ja n in Iv or y me s
a. Th e fu
country in Afric ste
gh ly to xic wa
fro m th e hi
in rashes,
caused nausea, sk
etc . After a
fainting, diarrhoea
pe rs on s we re
mo nt h se ve n
ty in ho sp ita l and
dead, twen
treated
twenty six thousand g.
iso nin
for symptoms of po
mpany
A multinational co
m an d
de al in g in pe tro leu loc al
cte d a
metals had contra t to
e Ivo ry Co as
company of th fro m
e tox ic wa ste
dispose th
its ship.

(i) Who are the people who benefited

and who did not?
(ii) What should be the developmental
goal for this country?
3. What can be some of the developmental goals for your village, town or locality?

ACTIVITY 1
If even the idea of what constitutes
development can be varied and
conflicting, then certainly there can be
differences about ways of developing. If
you know of any such
controversy, try to find out
arguments advanced by different
people. You may do so by talking to
different persons or you may find it from
newspapers and television.

DEVELOPMENT 7

Reprint 2025-26
 HOW TO COMPARE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
OR STATES?

You might ask if development can more developed than others with less
mean different things, how come some income. This is based on the
countries are generally called understanding that more income
developed and others under- means more of all things that human
developed? Before we come to this, beings need. Whatever people like,
let us consider another question. and should have, they will be able to
get with greater income. So, greater
When we compare different things,
income itself is considered to be one
they could have similarities as well as
important goal.
differences. Which aspects do we use
to compare them? Let us look at Now, what is the income of a
students in the class itself. How do country? Intuitively, the income of the
we compare different students? They country is the income of all the
differ in their height, health, talents residents of the country. This gives
and interests. The healthiest student us the total income of the country.
may not be the most studious one. However, for comparison between
The most intelligent student may not countries, total income is not such an
be the friendliest one. So, how do we useful measure. Since, countries have
compare students? The criterion we different populations, comparing total
may use depends on the purpose of income will not tell us what an average
comparison. We use different criterion person is likely to earn. Are people in
to choose a sports team, a debate one country better off than others in a
team, a music team or a team to different country? Hence, we compare
organise a picnic. Still, if for some the average income which is the total
purpose, we have to choose the income of the country divided by its
criterion for the all-round progress of total population. The average income
children in the class, how shall we is also called per capita income.
do it? In World Development Reports,
Usually we take one or more brought out by the World Bank, this
important characteristics of criterion is used in classifying
persons and compare them based countries. Countries with per capita
on these characteristics. Of income of US$ 63,400 per annum
course, there can be differences about and above in 2023, are called high
what are important characteristics income or rich countries and those
that should form the basis of with per capita income of about
comparison: friendliness and spirit of US$ 2400 or less are called
cooperation, creativity or marks low-income countries. India comes
secured? in the category of low middle income
countries because its per capita
This is true of development too. income in 2023 was just about
For comparing countries, their US$ 10030 per annum. The rich
income is considered to be one of countries, excluding countries of
the most important attributes. Middle East and certain other small
Countries with higher income are countries, are generally called
developed countries.
8 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Average Income
While ‘averages’ are useful for comparison, they also hide disparities
For example, let us consider two countries, A and assured of being its fifth citizen
B. For the sake of simplicity, we have assumed but if it is a lottery that decides
that they have only five citizens each. Based on our citizenship number then
data given in Table 1.2, calculate the average perhaps most of us will prefer to
income for both the countries. live in country A. Even though
both the countries have identical
TABLE 1.2 COMPARISON OF TWO average income, country A is
COUNTRIES preferred because it has more
Monthly incomes of citizens equitable distribution. In this
Country (in Rupees) country people are neither very
I II III IV V Average rich nor extremely poor. On the
other hand most citizens in
Country A 9500 10500 9800 10000 10200 country B are poor and one
Country B 500 500 500 500 48000 person is extremely rich. Hence,
while average income is useful for
Will you be equally happy to live in both these comparison it does not tell us how
countries? Are both equally developed? Perhaps this income is distributed among
some of us may like to live in country B if we are people.

COUNTRY WITH NO RICH AND NO POOR COUNTRY WITH RICH AND POOR

WE
MADE THE
CHAIRS
AND WE
USE
THEM.

WE
LET’S WORK THESE OUT MADE THE
CHAIRS
1. Give three examples where an average is used for comparing situations. AND HE
TOOK
2. Why do you think average income is an important criterion for development? Explain. THEM.
3. Besides size of per capita income, what other property of income is important in
comparing two or more societies?
4. Suppose records show that the average income in a country has been increasing
over a period of time. From this, can we conclude that all sections of the economy
have become better? Illustrate your answer with an example.
5. From the text, find out the per capita income level of about 10-15 low-income
countries as per World Development Reports.
6. Write a paragraph on your notion of what should India do, or achieve, to become a
developed country.

DEVELOPMENT 9

Reprint 2025-26
 INCOME AND OTHER CRITERIA
When we looked at
individual aspirations and
goals, we found that people TABLE 1.3 PER CAPITA INCOME
not only think of better OF SELECT STATES
income but also have goals State Per Capita Income
such as security, respect for for 2021–22 (in Rs)
others, equal treatment,
Haryana 2,64,729
freedom, etc. in mind.
Kerala 2,34,405
Similarly, when we think of a Bihar 47,498
nation or a region, we may,
besides average income,
think of other equally Source : Economic Survey 2020–21, P.A 29.
important attributes.
What could these attributes be? Let income and Bihar is at the bottom.
us examine this through an example. This means that, on an average,
Table 1.3 gives the per capita income a person in Haryana earned
of Haryana, Kerala and Bihar. Rs 2,64,729 in one year whereas, on
Actually, these figures are of Per an average, a person in Bihar earned
Capita Net State Domestic Product at only around Rs 47,500. So, if per
capita income were to be used as the
Current Prices for 2021–22. Let us
measure of development, Haryana will
ignore what this complicated term be considered the most developed
exactly means. Roughly, we can take and Bihar the least developed state of
it to be the per capita income of the the three. Now, let us look at certain
state. We find that of the three, other data pertaining to these states
Haryana has the highest per capita given in Table 1.4.

TABLE 1.4 SOME COMPARATIVE DATA ON

HARYANA, KERALA AND BIHAR
State Infant Mortality Literacy Rate % Net Attendance Ratio (per
Rate per 1,000 100 persons) secondary stage
live births (2020) 2017–18 (aged 15–17 years) 2017–18
Haryana 28 82 73
Kerala 6 94 94
Bihar 27 62 69
Sources : Economic Survey 2023–24, National Sample Survey Organisation (Report No. 585),
National Statistical Office, Government of India; National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5)
2019-21 IIPS, Mumbai.

Explanation of some of the terms used in this table:

Infant Mortality Rate (or IMR) indicates the number of children that die before the age of one
year as a proportion of 1000 live children born in that particular year.
Literacy Rate measures the proportion of literate population in the 7-and-above age group.
Net Attendance Ratio is the total number of children of age group of 15-17 years attending
school as a percentage of total number of children in the same age group.

10 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 What does this table show? The The problem does not end with
first column of the table shows that Infant Mortality Rate. The last
in Kerala, out of 1000 children born, column of table 1.4 shows that
6 died before completing one year of about one-third of the children aged
age but in Haryana the proportion of 15–17 years in Bihar are not
children dying within one year of birth attending school in secondary
was 28, which is nearly three times classes. This means that if you went
more than that of Kerala. On the other to school in Bihar nearly one-third
hand, the per capita income of of your class friends would be
Haryana is more than that of Kerala missing. Those who could have been
as shown in Table 1.3. Just think of in school are not there! If this had
how dear you are to your parents, happened to you, you would not be
think of how every one is so happy able to read what you are reading now.
when a child is born. Now, try to think
of parents whose children die before
they even celebrate their first birthday.
How painful it must be to these
parents? Next, note the year to which
this data pertains. This was during
2018. So we are not talking of old
times; it is 70 years after independence
when our metro cities are full of high
rise buildings and shopping malls!
Most babies require basic healthcare

PUBLIC FACILITIES
How is it that the average person in Actually for many of the important
Haryana has more income than the things in life the best way, also the
average person in Kerala but lags cheapest way, is to provide these
behind in these crucial areas? The goods and services collectively. Just
reason is — money in your pocket think – will it be cheaper to have
cannot buy all the goods and services collective security for the whole
that you may need to live well. So, locality or for each house to have its
income by itself is not a completely own security staff? What if no one,
adequate indicator of material goods and other than you, in your village or locality
services that citizens are able to use. is interested in studying? Would you be
For example, normally, your money able to study? Not unless your parents
cannot buy you a pollution-free could afford to send you to some private
environment or ensure that you get school elsewhere. So you are actually
unadulterated medicines, unless you able to study because many other
can afford to shift to a community that children also want to study and because
already has all these things. Money may many people believe that the government
also not be able to protect you from should open schools and provide other
infectious diseases, unless the whole of facilities so that all children have a chance
your community takes preventive steps. to study. Even now, in many areas,
children, particularly girls, are not able
to go to high school because the
government/society has not provided
adequate facilities.
DEVELOPMENT 11

Reprint 2025-26
 Kerala has a low Infant Mortality System (PDS) functions well. Health
Rate because it has adequate and nutritional status of people of
provision of basic health and such states is certainly likely to be
educational facilities. Similarly, in better.
some states, the Public Distribution

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Look at data in Tables 1.3 and 1.4. Is Haryana ahead of Kerala
in literacy rate etc., as it is in terms of per capita income?
2. Think of other examples where collective provision of goods
and services is cheaper than individual provision.
3. Does availability of good health and educational facilities depend
only on amount of money spent by the government on these
facilities? What other factors could be relevant?
4. In a study, it was found that in Tamil Nadu, 90 per cent of the
people living in rural areas used a ration shop, whereas in West
Bengal only 35 per cent of rural people did so. Where would
people did better off and why?

ACTIVITY 2
Study Table 1.5 carefully and fill in the blanks in the following paragraphs. For this,
you may need to make calculations based on the table.

TABLE 1.5 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF RURAL

POPULATION OF UTTAR PRADESH
Category Male Female
Literacy rate for rural population 76% 54%
Literacy rate for rural children in age group 10-14 years 90% 87%
Percentage of rural children aged 10-14 attending school 85% 82%

(a) The literacy rate for all age groups, including young and old, is _____ for rural
males and _____ for rural females. However, it is not just that these many
adults could not attend school but that there are _____ who are currently not in
school.
(b) It is clear from the table that _____ % of rural girls and _____% of rural boys are
not attending school. Therefore, illiteracy among children in the age group 10-
14 is as high as _____% for rural females and _____% for rural males.
(c) This high level of illiteracy among __________ age group, even after more than
75 years of our independence, is most disturbing. In many other states also we
are nowhere near realisation of the constitutional goal of free and compulsory
education for all children up to the age of 14, which was expected to be achieved
by 1960.

12 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
ACTIVITY 3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
One way to find out if we are properly nourished is to REPOR
REPORTT
calculate what nutrition scientists call Body Mass Index Once it is realised that even though
(BMI). This is easy to calculate. Let each student in
the class find out his or her weight and height. Take the the level of income is important, yet it
weight of each student in kilograms (kg). Then, take is an inadequate measure of the level
the height by drawing up a scale on the wall and of development, we begin to think of
measuring accurately with the head straight. Convert other criterion. There could be a long
the height recorded in centimeters into meters. Divide list of such criterion but then it would
the weight in kg by the square of the height. The number not be so useful. What we need is a
you get is called BMI. Then, look at the BMI-for-Age
small number of the most important
tables given on pages
90–91. A student’s BMI things. Health and education
could be within the normal indicators, such as the ones we used
range or less than that in comparison of Kerala and Haryana,
(underweight) or more are among them. Over the past decade
(obesity). For example, if or so, health and education indicators
a girl student is 14 years
have come to be widely used along
and 8 month old and the
BMI is 15.2, then she is with income as a measure of
undernourished. Similarly, development. For instance, Human
if the BMI of a boy aged Development Report published by
15 years and 6 months is UNDP compares countries based on
28, then he is overweight. the educational levels of the people,
Discuss the life situation, their health status and per capita
food and exercise habits
income. It would be interesting to look
of students, in general,
without body shaming at certain relevant data regarding
anyone. India and its neighbours from Human
Development Report 2023-24.

TABLE 1.6 SOME DATA REGARDING INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS

FOR 2022
Country Gross National Life Mean Years of HDI Rank in
Income (GNI) Expectancy Schooling of the world
per capita at birth People aged 25 (2021-22)
(2017 PPP $) and above
Sri Lanka 11,899 76.6 11.2 78
India 6,951 67.7 6.5 134
Myanmar 4,038 67.3 6.5 144
Pakistan 5,374 66.4 4.4 164
Nepal 4,026 70.5 4.5 146
Bangladesh 6,511 73.7 7.4 129
Source : Human Development Report, 2023–24, United Nations Development Programme, New York.
NOTES
1. HDI stands for Human Development Index. HDI ranks in above table are out of 193 countries in all.
2. Life Expectancy at birth denotes, as the name suggests, average expected length of life of a person
at the time of birth.
3. Per Capita Income is calculated in dollars for all countries so that it can be compared. It is also
done in a way so that every dollar would buy the same amount of goods and services in any
country.

DEVELOPMENT 13

Reprint 2025-26
 Isn’t it surprising that a small many new components have been
country in our neighbourhood, Sri added to the Human Development
Lanka, is much ahead of India in every Report but, by pre-fixing Human to
respect and a big country like ours has Development, it has made it very clear
such a low rank in the world? Table that what is important in development
is what is happening to citizens of a
1.6 also shows that though Nepal and
country. It is people, their health, their
Bangladesh have low per capita well being, that is most important.
income than that of India, yet they are
better than India in life expectancy. Do you think there are certain
other aspects that should be
Many improvements have been considered in measuring human
suggested in calculating HDI and development?

SUSTAINABILITY OF DEVELOPMENT
Suppose for the present that a
particular country is quite developed. “We have not inherited
We would certainly like this level of the world from our
development to go up further or at forefathers — we have
least be maintained for future borrowed it from our
generations. This is obviously children.”
desirable. However, since the second
half of the twentieth century, a number
of scientists have been warning that
the present type, and levels, of
development are not sustainable.

ND WHY
LET’S UNDERSTA
IS IS SO TH RO UGH THE
TH
PLE:
FOLLOWING EXAM

Example 1: Groundwater in India

“Recent evidence suggests that the groundwater is under serious
threat of overuse in many parts of the country. About 300 districts
have reported a water level decline of over 4 metres during the
past 20 years. Nearly one-third of the country is overusing their
groundwater reserves. In another 25 years,
60 per cent of the country would be doing the same if the present
way of using this resource continues. Groundwater overuse is
particularly found in the agriculturally prosperous regions of
Punjab and Western U.P., hard rock plateau areas of central and
south India, some coastal areas and the rapidly growing urban
settlements.”
(a) Why groundwater is overused?
(b) Can there be development without overuse?

14 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Groundwater is an example of Non-renewable resources are those
renewable resources. These resources which will get exhausted after a few
are replenished by nature as in the years of use. We have a fixed stock on
case of crops and plants. However, earth which cannot be replenished. We
even these resources may be do discover new resources that we did
overused. For example, in the case of not know of earlier. New sources in
groundwater, if we use more than this way add to the stock. However,
what is being replenished by rain then over time, even this will get exhausted.
we would be overusing this resource.
UDE OIL THAT WE
FOR EXAMPLE, CR
E EARTH IS A NON-
EXTRACT FROM TH
URCE. HOWEVER WE
RENEWABLE RESO DID
CE OF OIL THAT WE
MAY FIND A SOUR ION S
RLIER. EXPLORAT
NOT KNOW OF EA E TIM E.
RTAKEN ALL TH
ARE BEING UNDE

Example 2: Exhaustion of
Natural Resources
Look at the following data for crude oil.

TABLE 1.7 CRUDE OIL RESERVES

Region/Country Reserves (2017) Number of Years
(Thousand Million Barrels) Reserves will last
Middle East 836 70
United States of America 69 10.5
World 1732 47
Source : Energy Institute’s Statistical Review of World Energy, 2024.
The table gives an estimate of reserves of crude oil (column1). More
important, it also tells us for how many years the stock of crude oil will
last if people continue to extract it at the present rate. The reserves
would last only 50 years more. This is for the world as a whole. However,
different countries face different situations. Countries like India depend
on importing oil from abroad because they do not have enough stocks
of their own. If prices of oil increase this becomes a burden for everyone.
There are countries like USA which have low reserves and hence want to
secure oil through military or economic power.
The question of sustainability of development raises many fundamentally
new issues about the nature and process of development.
(a) Is crude oil essential for the development process in a country?
Discuss.
(b) India has to import crude oil. What problems do you anticipate
for the country looking at the above situation?

DEVELOPMENT 15

Reprint 2025-26
 Consequences of environmental social scientists are working
degradation do not respect national together.
or state boundaries; this issue is In general, the question of
no longer region or nation specific. development or progress is perennial.
Our future is linked together. At all times as a member of society
Sustainability of development is and as individuals we need to ask
comparatively a new area of where we want to go, what we wish to
knowledge in which scientists, become and what our goals are. So
economists, philosophers and other the debate on development continues.

EXERCISES
1. Development of a country can generally be determined by
(i) its per capita income
(ii) its average literacy level
(iii) health status of its people
(iv) all the above
2. Which of the following neighbouring countries has better performance in terms of
human development than India?
(i) Bangladesh
(ii) Sri Lanka
(iii) Nepal
(iv) Pakistan
3. Assume there are four families in a country. The average per capita income of
these families is Rs 5000. If the income of three families is Rs 4000, Rs 7000
and Rs 3000 respectively, what is the income of the fourth family?
(i) Rs 7500
(ii) Rs 3000
(iii) Rs 2000
(iv) Rs 6000
4. What is the main criterion used by the World Bank in classifying different
countries? What are the limitations of this criterion, if any?
5. In what respects is the criterion used by the UNDP for measuring development
different from the one used by the World Bank?
6. Why do we use averages? Are there any limitations to their use? Illustrate with
your own examples related to development.
7. Kerala, with lower per capita income has a better human development ranking
than Haryana. Hence, per capita income is not a useful criterion at all and should
not be used to compare states. Do you agree? Discuss.
8. Find out the present sources of energy that are used by the people in India. What
could be the other possibilities fifty years from now?
9. Why is the issue of sustainability important for development?

16 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
10. “The Earth has enough resources to meet the needs of all but not enough to
satisfy the greed of even one person”. How is this statement relevant to the
disscusion of development? Discuss.
11. List a few examples of environmental degradation that you may have observed
around you.
12. For each of the items given in Table 1.6, find out which country is at the top and
which is at the bottom.
13. The following table shows the proportion of adults (aged 15-49 years) whose BMI
is below normal (BMI <18.5 kg/m2) in India. It is based on a survey of various
states for the year 2019-21. Look at the table and answer the following questions.

State Male Female

(%) (%)
Kerala 8.5 10
Karnataka 17 21
Madhya Pradesh 28 28
All States 20 23
Source: National Family Health Survey-5,
2019-21, http://rchiips.org

(i) Compare the nutritional level of people in Kerala and Madhya Pradesh.
(ii) Can you guess why around one-fifth of people in the country are
undernourished even though it is argued that there is enough food in the
country? Describe in your own words.

ADDITIONAL PROJECT / ACTIVITY

Invite three different speakers to talk to you about the development of your region. Ask
them all the questions that come to your mind. Discuss these ideas in groups. Each
group should prepare a wall chart, giving reasons about ideas that you agree or do
not agree with.

DEVELOPMENT 17

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES FOR THE TEACHER
CHAPTER 2: SECTORS OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY
An economy is best understood when we industry and services should be related
study its components or sectors. Sectoral to the experience of the children by taking
classification can be done on the basis of more examples that they may observe in
several criteria. In this chapter, three their day-to-day life. Information derived
types of classifications are discussed: from the media could be used for this
primary/secondary/tertiary; organised/ purpose. You may encourage the students
unorganised; and public/private. You can to bring important cuttings and stories
create a discussion about these types by from newspapers, which could be
taking examples familiar to the students prominently displayed in storyboards, and
and relate them to their daily life. It is encourage the class to discuss these
important to emphasise the changing issues. While discussing the unorganised
roles of sectors. This can be highlighted sector, the key issue of protecting the
further by drawing attention of the workers engaged in the sector should be
students to the rapid growth of service highlighted. You may also encourage the
sector. While elaborating the ideas students to visit persons and enterprises
provided in the chapter, the students may in the unorganised sector and get a first
need to be familiarised with a few hand experience from real life situation.
fundamental concepts such as Gross
Domestic Product, Employment etc. Since Sources for Information
the students may find this difficult to The GVA data used in this chapter
understand, it is necessary to explain to pertaining to Real Gross Value Added at
them through examples. Several activities Basic Prices by Industry of Origin at
and exercises are suggested in the chapter 2011–12 prices is taken from Economic
to help the students understand how a Survey. It is a valuable source of GVA and
person’s activity could be placed — other information relating to the Indian
whether in the primary, secondary or economy. For evaluation purposes,
tertiary, organised or unorganised, and particularly to develop the analytical
public or private sector. You may ability of learners, teachers can refer to
encourage the students to talk to various this report through the Internet to get data
working people around them (such as for different years. Due to change in
shop owners, casual workers, vegetable methodology, latest data is not used in the
vendors, workshop mechanics, domestic chapter.
workers etc.) to know more about how they
The employment figures are based
live and work. Based on such information,
on data taken from the five-yearly surveys
the students can be encouraged to
on employment and unemployment
develop their own classification of
conducted by the National Sample Survey
economic activities.
Organisation (NSSO) now known as
Another important issue to be National Statistical Office (NSO). NSO is
highlighted is about the problems caused an organisation under the Ministry of
by the changes in the roles of sectors. Statistics and Programme Implementation,
The chapter has taken the example of Government of India. The website you can
unemployment and what the government log onto is: http:/mospi.gov.in. Employment
can do to solve it. The declining importance data is also available from other sources
of agriculture and growing importance of such as Census of India.

18 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 CHAPTER 2

SECTORS
OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY

SECTORS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

Let us look at these pictures. You will find that people are
engaged in various economic activities. Some of these are
activities producing goods. Some others are producing
services. These activities are happening around us every
minute even as we speak. How do we understand these
activities? One way of doing this is to group them (classify
them) using some important criterion. These groups are also
called sectors.

Reprint 2025-26
 spin yarn and weave cloth. Using
at different
We begin by looking sugarcane as a raw material, we make
ities.
kind of economic activ sugar or gur. We convert earth into
bricks and use bricks to make houses
There are many activities that are and buildings. Since this sector
undertaken by directly using gradually became associated with the
natural resources. Take, for different kinds of industries that came
Primary example, the cultivation of cotton. It
(Agriculture) up, it is also called as industrial sector.
takes place within a crop season. For
Sector the growth of the cotton plant, we After primary and secondary, there
depend mainly, but not entirely, is a third category of activities that falls
on natural factors like rainfall, under tertiary sector and is different
sunshine and climate. The product from the above two. These are
of this activity, cotton, is a natural activities that help in the development
product. Similarly, in the case of an of the primary and secondary sectors.
activity like dairy, we are dependent These activities, by themselves, do not
on the biological process of produce a good but they are an aid
the animals and availability or a support for the production
Tertiary
(Service) of fodder etc. The product process. For example, goods that are
Sector here, milk, also is a natural produced in the primary or secondary
product. Similarly, minerals sector would need to be transported
and ores are also natural by trucks or trains and then sold in
products. When we produce wholesale and retail shops. At times,
a good by exploiting natural it may be necessary to store these in
produces resources, it is an activity of godowns. We also may need to talk to
natural others over telephone or send letters
the primary sector. Why
goods (communication) or borrow money
primary? This is because it
forms the base for all from banks (banking) to help
other products that we production and trade. Transport,
subsequently make. Since storage, communication, banking,
most of the natural trade are some examples of tertiary
helps to develop products we get are from activities. Since these activities
Secondary other sectors generate services rather than goods,
agriculture, dairy, fishing,
(Industrial) the tertiary sector is also called the
forestry, this sector is also
Sector
called agriculture and related service sector.
sector. Service sector also includes some
The secondary sector covers essential services that may not directly
activities in which natural products help in the production of goods. For
are changed into other forms through example, we require teachers, doctors,
ways of manufacturing that we and those who provide personal
associate with industrial activity. It is services such as washermen, barbers,
the next step after primary. The cobblers, lawyers, and people to do
product is not produced by nature administrative and accounting works.
but has to be made and therefore In recent times, certain new services
some process of manufacturing is based on information technology such
produces essential. This could be in a factory, a as internet cafe, ATM booths, call
manufactured centres, software companies etc have
goods workshop or at home. For example,
using cotton fibre from the plant, we become important.

20 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 t categories,
, th ou gh , ar e grouped into three differen
Economic activities ples.
terdepen de nt . Le t us look at some exam
are highly in

TABLE 2.1 EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

EXAMPLE WHAT DOES THIS SHOW?
Imagine what would happen if farmers This is an example of the secondary or
refuse to sell sugarcane to a particular industrial sector being dependent on
sugar mill. The mill will have to shut the primary.
down.
Imagine what would happen to cotton
cultivation if companies decide not to
buy from the Indian market and import
all cotton they need from other
countries. Indian cotton cultivation will
become less profitable and the farmers
may even go bankrupt, if they cannot
quickly switch to other crops. Cotton
prices will fall.
Farmers buy many goods such as
tractors, pumpsets, electricity,
pesticides and fertilisers. Imagine what
would happen if the price of fertilisers
or pumpsets go up. Cost of cultivation
of the farmers will rise and their profits
will be reduced.
People working in industrial and service
sectors need food. Imagine what would
happen if there is a strike by
transporters and lorries refuse to take
vegetables, milk, etc. from rural areas.
Food will become scarce in urban areas
whereas farmers will be unable to sell
their products.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Complete the above table to show how sectors are dependent on each other.
2. Explain the difference between primary, secondary and tertiary sectors using
examples other than those mentioned in the text.
3. Classify the following list of occupations under primary, secondary and tertiary sectors:
• Tailor • Workers in match factory
• Basket weaver • Moneylender
• Flower cultivator • Gardener
• Milk vendor • Potter
• Fishermen • Bee-keeper
• Priest • Astronaut
• Courier • Call centre employee
4. Students in a school are often classified into primary and secondary or junior and
senior. What is the criterion that is used? Do you think this is a useful classification?
Discuss.

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 21

Reprint 2025-26
 COMPARING THE THREE SECTORS
The various production activities in the primary, secondary and
tertiary sectors produce a very large number of goods and
services. Also, the three sectors have a large number of people
working in them to produce these goods and services. The next
step, therefore, is to see how much goods and services are
produced and how many people work in each sector. In an
economy there could be one or more sectors which are dominant
in terms of total production and employment, while other sectors
are relatively small in size.

How do we count the various goods and services

and know the total production in each sector?
With so many thousands of goods and services produced, you
might think this is an impossible task! Not only would the task
be enormous, you might also wonder how we can add up cars
and computers and nails and furniture. It won’t make sense!!!
You are right in thinking so. To get around this problem,
economists suggest that the values of goods and services should
be used rather than adding up the actual numbers. For example,
if 10,000 kgs of wheat is sold at Rs 20 per kg, the value of
wheat will be Rs 2,00,000. The value of 5000 coconuts at Rs
15 per coconut will be Rs 75,000. Similarly, the value of goods
and services in the three sectors are calculated, and then added
up.
Remember, there is one precaution one has to take. Not every
good (or service) that is produced and sold needs to be counted. It
makes sense only to include the final goods and services. Take,
for instance, a farmer who sells wheat to a flour mill for Rs 20 per
kg. The mill grinds the wheat and sells the flour to a biscuit
company for Rs 25 per kg. The biscuit company uses the flour
and things such as sugar and oil to make four packets of biscuits.
It sells biscuits in the market to the consumers for Rs 80 (Rs 20
per packet). Biscuits are the final goods, i.e., goods that reach the
consumers.
Why are only ‘final goods and services’ counted? In contrast
to final goods, goods such as wheat and the wheat flour in this
example are intermediate goods. Intermediate goods are used
up in producing final goods and services. The value of final
goods already includes the value of all the intermediate goods
that are used in making the final good. Hence, the value of Rs
80 for the biscuits (final good) already includes the value of
flour (Rs 25). Similarly, the value of all other intermediate goods
...BUT I SHOULD BE PAID THE would have been included. To count the value of the flour and
FULL VALUE OF THE WHEAT wheat separately is therefore not correct because then we would
THAT I PRODUCE !
be counting the value of the same things a number of times.
First as wheat, then as flour and finally as biscuits.
22 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 The value of final goods and services Besides, there were also transporters,
produced in each sector during a administrators, army etc. However, at this
particular year provides the total stage, most of the goods produced were
production of the sector for that year. natural products from the primary sector
And the sum of production in the different and most people were also employed in
sectors gives what is called the Gross this sector.
Domestic Pr oduct (GDP) of a country. It
Product
Over a long time (more than hundred
is the value of all final goods and services
years), and especially because new methods
produced within a country during a
of manufacturing were introduced,
particular year. GDP shows how big the
factories came up and started expanding.
economy is.
Those people who had earlier worked on
In India, the mammoth task of farms now began to work in factories in
measuring GDP is undertaken by a central large numbers. They were forced to do so
government ministry. This Ministry, with as you read in history chapters. People
the help of various government began to use many more goods that were
departments of all the Indian states and produced in factories at cheap rates.
union territories, collects information Secondary sector gradually became the
relating to total volume of goods and most important in total production and
services and their prices and then estimates employment. Hence, over time, a shift had
the GDP. taken place. This means that the importance
of the sectors had changed.
Recently Indian Government began to
bring out the contribution of three sectors In the past 100 years, there has been a
towards Gross Value Added (GVA) in place further shift from secondary to tertiary
of the contribution of three sectors towards sector in developed countries. The service
Gross Domestic Product to be at par with sector has become the most important in
global practices. The GVA measures the terms of total production. Most of the
contribution of three sectors of an working people are also employed in the
economy after adjusting for taxes and service sector. This is the general pattern
subsidies. You will learn more about the observed in developed countries.
GVA and the difference between GDP
What is the total production and
and GVA in higher classes. Here we will
employment in the three sectors in India?
only understand how goods and services
Over the years have there been changes
produced in these three sectors—primary,
similar to the pattern observed for the
secondary and tertiary sectors
developed countries? We shall see in the
have changed.
next section.
Historical Change in Sectors
Generally, it has been noted from the
LET’S WORK THESE OUT
histories of many, now developed, 1. What does the history of developed countries indicate
countries that at initial stages of about the shifts that have taken place between sectors?
development, primary sector was the most 2. Correct and arrange the important aspects for calculating
important sector of economic activity. GDP from this Jumble.
As the methods of farming changed To count goods and services we add the numbers that
and agriculture sector began to prosper, are produced. We count all those that were produced in
it produced much more food than before. the last five years. Since we shouldn’t leave out anything
Many people could now take up other we add up all these goods and services.
activities. There were increasing number 3. Discuss with your teacher how you could calculate the
of craft-persons and traders. Buying and total value of a good or service by using the method of
selling activities increased many times. value added at each stage.

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 23

Reprint 2025-26
 PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY
SECTORS IN INDIA
Graph 1 shows the
production of goods and Graph 1: GVA by Primary, Secondary and
services in the three sectors. Tertiary Sectors
This is shown for two years,
1977–78 and 2017–18. We
have used the data for these 14000000
two years because the data
are comparable and 12000000
authentic. You can see how
the total production has 10000000
grown over the forty years.

Rs. in crores
8000000
LET’S WORK THESE
OUT 6000000

Answer the following questions by 4000000

looking at the graph:
1. Which was the largest producing
sector in 1977–78?
2000000

2. Which is the largest producing 0

sector in 2017–18?
1977-78 2017-18
3 . Can you say which sector has
grown the most over forty years?
4. What was the GDP of India in
2017–18?

Why is the tertiary sector becoming

so important in India? There could be
rison between
What does the compa several reasons.
8 show?
1977–78 and 2017–1
n we draw
What conclusions ca First, in any country several
?
from the comparison services such as hospitals,
Let’s find ou t. educational institutions, post and
telegraph services, police stations,
courts, village administrative offices,
Rising Importance of the municipal corporations, defence,
Tertiary Sector in Production transport, banks, insurance
companies, etc. are required. These
Over the forty years between 1977–78
can be considered as basic services.
and 2017–18, while production in all
In a developing country the
the three sectors has increased, it has
government has to take responsibility
increased the most in the tertiary sector.
for the provision of these services.
As a result, in the year 2017–18, the
tertiary sector has emerged as the Second, the development of
largest producing sector in India agriculture and industry leads to the
replacing the primary sector. development of services such as
24 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
transport, trade, storage and the
like, as we have already seen. Greater Graph 2: Share of Sectors in GVA
the development of the primary and
secondary sectors, more would be the
demand for such services.
Third, as income levels rise, certain
sections of people start demanding
many more services like eating out,
tourism, shopping, private hospitals,
private schools, professional training
etc. You can see this change quite
sharply in cities, especially in big cities.
1977-78 2017-18

Fourth, over the past decade or so,

certain new services such as
those based on information and
communication technology have A remarkable fact about India is
become important and essential. The that while there has been a change
production of these services has been in the share of the three sectors in
rising rapidly. In Chapter 4, we shall GVA, a similar shift has not taken
see examples of these new services place in employment. Graph 3
and the reasons for their expansion. shows the share of employment in
the three sectors in 1977-78 and
However, you must remember that
2017-18. T h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r
not all of the service sector is growing
continues to be the largest
equally well. Service sector in India
employer even now.
employs many different kinds of
people. At one end there are a limited
number of services that employ highly
Graph 3 : Share of Sectors in Employment (%)
skilled and educated workers. At the
other end, there are a very large
number of workers engaged in
services such as small shopkeepers,
repair persons, transport persons,
etc. These people barely manage to
earn a living and yet they perform
these services because no alternative
opportunities for work are available
to them. Hence, only a part of this
sector is growing in importance. You
shall read more about this in the next
section.

Where are most of the people

employed? Why didn’t a similar shift out
Graph 2 presents percentage share of of primary sector happen in case
the three sectors in GVA. Now you can of employment? It is because not
directly see the changing importance enough jobs were created in the
of the sectors over the forty years. secondary and tertiary sectors. Even

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 25

Reprint 2025-26
 though industrial output or the underemployment is hidden in
production of goods went up by contrast to someone who does not
more than nine times during the have a job and is clearly visible as
period, employment in the industry unemployed. Hence, it is also
went up by around three times. The called disguised unemployment.
same applies to the tertiary sector
as well. While production in the Now, supposing a landlord,
service sector rose by 14 times, Sukhram, comes and hires one or
employment in the service sector two members of the family to work
rose around five times. on his land. Laxmi’s family is now
able to earn some extra income
As a result, more than half of the through wages. Since you do not
workers in the country are working need five people to look after that
in the primary sector, mainly in small plot, two people moving out
agriculture, producing only about does not affect production on their
one sixth of the GVA. In contrast to farm. In the above example, two
this, the secondary and tertiary people may move to work in a
sectors produce the rest of the factory. Once again the earnings of
produce whereas they employ less the family would increase and they
about half the people. Does this mean
would also continue to produce as
that the workers in agriculture
much from their land.
are not producing as much as
they could? There are lakhs of farmers like
Laxmi in India. This means that even
What it means is that there
if we remove a lot of people from
are more people in agriculture than
agricultural sector and provide them
is necessary. So, even if you move
with proper work elsewhere,
a few people out, production will
agricultural production will not
not be affected. In other words,
suffer. The incomes of the people who
workers in the agricultural sector are
underemployed. take up other work would increase
the total family income.
For instance, take the case of a
small farmer, Laxmi, owning about This underemployment can also
two hectares of unirrigated land happen in other sectors. For
dependent only on rain and example there are thousands of
growing crops, like jowar and arhar. casual workers in the service
All five members of her family work sector in urban areas who search
in the plot throughout the year. for daily employment. They are
Why? They have nowhere else to go employed as painters, plumbers,
for work. You will see that everyone repair persons and others doing
is working, none remains idle, but odd jobs. Many of them don’t find
in actual fact, their labour effort work everyday. Similarly, we see
gets divided. Each one is doing other people of the service sector
some work but no one is fully on the street pushing a cart or
employed. This is the situation of selling something where they may
underemployment, where people spend the whole day but earn
are apparently working but all very little. They are doing this
of them are made to work less work because they do not have
than their potential. This kind of better opportunities.

26 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
1. Complete the table using the data given in Graphs 2 and 3 and answer the question
that follows. Ignore if data are not available for some years.

TABLE 2.2 SHARE OF PRIMARY SECTOR IN

GDP AND EMPLOYMENT
1977-78 2017-18
Share in Gross Value Added (GVA)

Share in employment

What are the changes that you observe in the primary sector over a span of forty
years?
2. Choose the correct answer:
Underemployment occurs when people
(i) do not want to work
(ii) are working in a lazy manner
(iii) are working less than what they are capable of doing
(iv) are not paid for their work
3. Compare and contrast the changes in India with the pattern that was observed for
developed countries. What kind of changes between sectors were desired but did
not happen in India?
4. Why should we be worried about underemployment?

How to Create More

Employment?
From the above discussion, we can see
that there continues to be considerable
underemployment in agriculture.
There are also people who are not
employed at all. In what ways can one
increase employment for people? Let
us look at some of them.
Take the case of Laxmi with her
two-hectare plot of unirrigated land.
The government can spend some
money or banks can provide a loan,
to construct a well for her family to
irrigate the land. Laxmi will then be
able to irrigate her land and take a
second crop, wheat, during the rabi
season. Let us suppose that one
hectare of wheat can provide
employment to two people for 50 days
(including sowing, watering, fertiliser

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 27

Reprint 2025-26
 application and harvesting). So, two interest. If the local bank gives her
more members of the family can be credit at a reasonable rate of interest,
employed in her own field. Now she will be able to buy all these in time
suppose a new dam is constructed and cultivate her land. This means that
and canals are dug to irrigate many along with water, we also need to
such farms. This could lead to a lot of provide cheap agricultural credit to the
employment generation within the farmers for farming to improve. We will
agricultural sector itself reducing the look at some of these needs in Chapter
problem of underemployment. 3, Money and Credit.
Now, suppose Laxmi and other Another way by which we can
farmers produce much more than tackle this problem is to identify,
before. They would also need to sell some promote and locate industries and
of this. For this they may be required to services in semi-rural areas where a
transport their products to a nearby large number of people may be
town. If the government invests some employed. For instance, suppose
money in transportation and storage of many farmers decide to grow arhar
crops, or makes better rural roads so and chickpea (pulse crops). Setting
that mini-trucks reach everywhere up a dal mill to procure and process
several farmers like Laxmi, who now these and sell in the cities is one such
have access to water, can continue to example. Opening a cold storage could
grow and sell these crops. This activity give an opportunity for farmers to
can provide productive employment to store their products like potatoes and
not just farmers but also others such as onions and sell them when the price
those in services like transport or trade. is good. In villages near forest areas,
we can start honey collection centres
Laxmi’s need is not confined to
where farmers can come and sell wild
water alone. To cultivate the land, she
honey. It is also possible to set up
also needs seeds, fertilisers,
industries that process vegetables and
agricultural equipment and pumpsets
agricultural produce like potato,
to draw water. Being a poor farmer,
sweet potato, rice, wheat, tomato,
she cannot afford many of these. So,
fruits, which can be sold in outside
she will have to borrow money from
Gur Making in markets. This will provide
Haryana moneylenders and pay a high rate of
employment in industries located in
semi-rural areas and not necessarily
in large urban centres.

What groups of peop

le do
you think are unemplo
yed
or underemployed in
your
ar ea ? Ca n yo u th in
k of
some measures that
could
be taken up for them
?

Do you know that in India about

60 per cent of the population belongs
to the age group 5-29 years? Out of
this, only about 51 per cent are
attending educational institutions.
The rest and particularly those aged
less than 18 years may be at home or

Reprint 2025-26
many of them may be working as
child labourers. If these children are
to attend schools, we will require more
buildings, more teachers and other
staff. A study conducted by the
erstwhile Planning Commission (now
known as NITI Aayog) estimates that
nearly 20 lakh jobs can be created in
the education sector alone. Similarly,
if we are to improve the health
situation, we need many more doctors,
nurses, health workers etc. to work
in rural areas. These are some ways
by which jobs would be created and
we would also be able to address the
important aspects of development
talked about in Chapter 1.
Every state or region has potential
for increasing the income and
employment for people in that area.
It could be tourism, or regional craft
industry, or new services like IT. Some in about 625 districts of India. It is
of these would require proper called Mahatma Gandhi National
planning and support from the Rural Employment Guarantee Act
government. For example, the same 2005 (MGNREGA 2005). Under
study by the Planning Commission MGNREGA 2005, all those who are
says that if tourism as a sector is
able to, and are in need of, work in
improved, every year we can give
rural areas are guaranteed 100 days
additional employment to more than
35 lakh people. of employment in a year by the
government. If the government fails in
We must realise that some of the its duty to provide employment, it will
suggestions discussed above would
give unemployment allowances to the
take a long time to implement. For the
people. The types of work that would
short-term, we need some quick
measures. Recognising this, the in future help to increase the
central government in India made a production from land will be given
law implementing the Right to Work preference under the Act.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Why do you think MGNREGA 2005 is referred to as ‘ Right to work’ ?
2. Imagine that you are the village head. In that capacity suggest some activities that
you think should be taken up under this Act that would also increase the income of
people? Discuss.
3. How would income and employment increase if farmers were provided with irrigation
and marketing facilities?
4. In what ways can employment be increased in urban areas?

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 29

Reprint 2025-26
 DIVISION OF SECTORS AS ORGANISED AND
UNORGANISED
Let us examine another way of classifying activities in the economy. This looks
at the way people are employed. What are their conditions of work? Are there
any rules and regulations that are followed as regards their employment?

Ka n ta
nds her office from
Kanta works in an office. She atte
s her salary regularly
9.30 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. She get
ition to the salary,
at the end of every month. In add
as per the rules laid
she also gets provident fund
also gets medical and
down by the government. She
s not go to office on
other allowances. Kanta doe
y. When she joined
Sundays. This is a paid holida
tment letter stating
work, she was given an appoin
work.
all the terms and conditions of
Kamal
Kamal is Kanta’s neighbour.
He is a
da ily wa ge lab our er in a
nea rby
grocery shop. He goes to the
shop at
7:30 in the morning and works
till 8:00
p.m. in the evening. He gets
no other
allowances apart from his wa
ges. He
is not paid for the days he doe
s not
work. He has therefore no leave
or paid
holidays. Nor was he given any
formal
let ter say ing tha t he ha
s bee n
employed in the shop. He can be
asked
to leave anytime by his emplo
yer.
differences in
Do you see the
s of w or k
th e co n d it io n organised because it has some formal
and Kamal?
between Kanta processes and procedures. Some of
these people may not be employed by
Kanta works in the organised anyone but may work on their own
sector. Organised sector covers those
but they too have to register
enterprises or places of work where
themselves with the government and
the terms of employment are regular
follow the rules and regulations.
and therefore, people have assured
work. They are registered by the Workers in the organised sector
government and have to follow its enjoy security of employment. They
rules and regulations which are are expected to work only a fixed
given in various laws such as the number of hours. If they work more,
Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, they have to be paid overtime by the
Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops and employer. They also get several other
Establishments Act etc. It is called benefits from the employers. What are
30 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
these benefits? They get paid leave, low-paid and often not regular. There
payment during holidays, provident is no provision for overtime, paid
fund, gratuity etc. They are supposed leave, holidays, leave due to sickness
to get medical benefits and, under the etc. Employment is not secure. People
laws, the factory manager has to can be asked to leave without any
ensure facilities like drinking water reason. When there is less work, such
and a safe working environment. as during some seasons, some people
When they retire, these workers get may be asked to leave. A lot also
pensions as well. depends on the whims of the
In contrast, Kamal works in the employer. This sector includes a large
unorganised sector. The unorganised number of people who are employed
sector is characterised by small and on their own doing small jobs such
scattered units which are largely as selling on the street or doing repair
outside the control of the government. work. Similarly, farmers work on
There are rules and regulations but their own and hire labourers as and
these are not followed. Jobs here are when they require.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Look at the following examples. Which of these are unorganised sector activities?
(i) A teacher taking classes in a school
(ii) A headload worker carrying a bag of cement on his back in a market
(iii) A farmer irrigating her field
(iv) A doctor in a hospital treating a patient
(v) A daily wage labourer working under a contractor
(vi) A factory worker going to work in a big factory
(vii) A handloom weaver working in her house
2. Talk to someone who has a regular job in the organised sector and another who works in the unorganised
sector. Compare and contrast their working conditions in all aspects.
3. How would you distinguish between organised and unorganised sectors? Explain in your own words.
4. The table below shows the estimated number of workers in India in the organised and unorganised sectors
in the late 1990s. Read the table carefully. Fill in the missing data and answer the questions that follow.

TABLE 2.3 WORKERS IN DIFFERENT SECTORS (IN MILLIONS)

Sector Organised Unorganised Total
Primary 1 232
Secondary 41 74 115
Tertiary 40 88 128
Total 82
Total in Percentage 100%

· What is the percentage of people in the unorganised sector in agriculture?

· Do you agree that agriculture is an unorganised sector activity? Why?
· If we look at the country as a whole, we find that ———% of the workers in India are in the
unorganised sector. Organised sector employment is available to only about ———% of the
workers in India.

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 31

Reprint 2025-26
 How to Protect Workers in Who are these vulnerable people
the Unorganised Sector? who need protection? In the rural
areas, the unorganised sector mostly
The organised sector offers jobs that
comprises of landless agricultural
are the most sought-after. But the
labourers, small and marginal
employment opportunities in the
farmers, sharecroppers and artisans
organised sector have been expanding
(such as weavers, blacksmiths,
very slowly. It is also common to find
carpenters and goldsmiths). Nearly
many organised sector enterprises in
80 per cent of rural households in
the unorganised sector. They adopt
India are in small and marginal
such strategies to evade taxes and
farmer category. These farmers need
refuse to follow laws that protect
to be supported through adequate
labourers. As a result, a large number
facility for timely delivery of seeds,
of workers are forced to enter the
agricultural inputs, credit, storage
unorganised sector jobs, which pay a
facilities and marketing outlets.
very low salary. They are often
exploited and not paid a fair wage. In the urban areas, unorganised
Their earnings are low and not sector comprises mainly of workers in
regular. These jobs are not secure and small-scale industry, casual workers
have no other benefits. in construction, trade and transport
etc., and those who work as street
Since the 1990s, it is also common
vendors, head load workers, garment
to see a large number of workers
makers, rag pickers etc. Small-scale
losing their jobs in the organised
industry also needs government’s
sector. These workers are forced to
support for procuring raw material
take up jobs in the unorganised
and marketing of output. The casual
sector with low earnings. Hence,
workers in both rural and urban
besides the need for more work, there
areas need to be protected.
is also a need for protection and
support of the workers in the We also find that majority of
unorganised sector. workers from scheduled castes, tribes
and backward communities
find themselves in the
unorganised sector. Besides
getting the irregular and low
paid work, these workers also
face social discrimination.
Protection and support to
the unorganised sector
workers is thus necessary
for both economic and
social development.

When factories close down, many

once regular workers are found
selling goods or pushing a cart or
doing some other odd job

32 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S RECALL
With so many activities taking place around us, one needs to use the
process of classification to think in a useful manner. The criterion for
classification could be many depending on what we desire to find out.
The process of classification helps to analyse a situation.
In dividing the economic activities into three sectors — primary,
secondary, tertiary — the criterion used was the ‘nature of activity’. On
the basis of this classification, we were able to analyse the pattern of total
production and employment in India. Similarly, we divided the economic
activities into organised and unorganised and used the classification to
look at employment in the two sectors.
What was the most important conclusion that was derived from the
classification exercises? What were the problems and solutions that were
indicated? Can you summarise the information in the following table?
TABLE 2.4 CLASSIFYING ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Sector Criteria used Most important Problems indicated and
conclusion how they can be tackled
Primary, Nature
Secondary, of activity
Tertiary
Organised,
Unorganised

SECTORS IN TERMS OF OWNERSHIP: PUBLIC

AND PRIVATE SECTORS
Another way of classifying economic To get such services we have to pay
activities into sectors could be on the money to these individuals and
basis of who owns assets and is companies. The purpose of the public
responsible for the delivery of services. sector is not just to earn profits.
In the public sector, the government Governments raise money through
owns most of the assets and provides taxes and other ways to meet expenses
all the services. In the private sector, on the services rendered by it. Modern
ownership of assets and delivery of day governments spend on a whole
services is in the hands of private range of activities. What are these
individuals or companies. Railways or activities? Why do governments spend
post office is an example of the public on such activities? Let’s find out.
sector whereas companies like Tata
There are several things needed by
Iron and Steel Company Limited
the society as a whole but which the
(TISCO) or Reliance Industries
private sector will not provide at
Limited (RIL) are privately owned.
a reasonable cost. Why? Some of
Activities in the private sector are these need spending large sums of
guided by the motive to earn profits. money, which is beyond the capacity

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 33

Reprint 2025-26
 of the private sector. Also, collecting government has to bear some of the
money from thousands of people who cost. In this way, the government
use these facilities is not easy. Even supports both farmers and
if they do provide these things they consumers.
would charge a high rate for their
use. Examples are construction of There are a large number of
roads, bridges, railways, harbours, activities which are the primary
generating electricity, providing responsibility of the government. The
irrigation through dams etc. Thus, government must spend on these.
governments have to undertake such Providing health and education
heavy spending and ensure that facilities for all is one example. We have
these facilities are available for discussed some of these issues in the
everyone. first chapter. Running proper schools
and providing quality education,
There are some activities, which particularly elementary education, is
the government has to support. The the duty of the government. India’s size
private sector may not continue their of illiterate population is one of the
production or business unless
largest in the world.
government encourages it. For
example, selling electricity at the cost Similarly, we know that nearly half
of generation may push up the costs of India’s children are malnourished
of production of goods in many and a quarter of them are critically
industries. Many units, especially ill. We have read about I nfant
small-scale units, might have to shut Mortality Rates. The infant mortality
down. Government here steps in by rate of Odisha (36) or Madhya
producing and supplying electricity Pradesh (43) is higher than some of
at rates which these industries can the poorest regions of the world.
afford. Government has to bear part Government also needs to pay
of the cost. attention to aspects of human
Similarly, the Government in India development such as availability of
buys wheat and rice from farmers at safe drinking water, housing facilities
a ‘fair price’. This it stores in its for the poor and food and nutrition.
godowns and sells at a lower price to It is also the duty of the government
consumers through ration shops. You to take care of the poorest and most
have read about this in the chapter ignored regions of the country through
on Food Security in Class IX. The increased spending in such areas.

SUMMING UP
In this chapter we have looked at ways of what all can be done for increasing
classifying economic activities into some employment opportunities in the country.
meaningful groups. One way of doing this Another classification is to consider whether
is to examine whether the activity relates to people are working in organised or
the primary, secondary or tertiary sectors. unorganised sectors. Most people are
The data for India, for the last thirty years, working in the unorganised sectors and
shows that while goods and services protection is necessary for them. We also
produced in the tertiary sector contribute looked at the difference between private and
the most to GDP, the employment remains public activities, and why it is important
in the primary sector. We have also seen for public activities to focus on certain areas.

34 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
EXERCISES
1. Fill in the blanks using the correct option given in the bracket:

(i) Employment in the service sector _________ increased to the same extent
as production. (has / has not)
(ii) Workers in the _________ sector do not produce goods.
(tertiary / agricultural)
(iii) Most of the workers in the _________ sector enjoy job security.
(organised / unorganised)
(iv) A _________ proportion of labourers in India are working in the unorganised
sector. (large / small)
(v) Cotton is a _________ product and cloth is a _________ product.
[natural /manufactured]
(vi) The activities in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors are_________
[independent / interdependent]

2. Choose the most appropriate answer.

(a) The sectors are classified into public and private sector on the basis of:
(i) employment conditions
(ii) the nature of economic activity
(iii) ownership of enterprises
(iv) number of workers employed in the enterprise

(b) Production of a commodity, mostly through the natural process, is an

activity in _________ sector.
(i) primary
(ii) secondary
(iii) tertiary
(iv) information technology

(c) GDP is the total value of _________ produced during a particular year.
(i) all goods and services
(ii) all final goods and services
(iii) all intermediate goods and services
(iv) all intermediate and final goods and services

(d) In terms of GVA the share of tertiary sector in 2017–18 is between

_________ per cent.

(i) 20 to 30

(ii) 30 to 40
(iii) 50 to 60
(iv) 60 to 70

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 35

Reprint 2025-26
 3. Match the following:
Problems faced by farming sector Some possible measures
1. Unirrigated land (a) Setting up agro-based mills
2. Low prices for crops (b) Cooperative marketing societies
3. Debt burden (c) Procurement of food grains by government
4. No job in the off season (d) Construction of canals by the government
5. Compelled to sell their grains to (e) Banks to provide credit with low interest
the local traders soon after harvest

4. Find the odd one out and say why.

(i) Tourist guide, dhobi, tailor, potter
(ii) Teacher, doctor, vegetable vendor, lawyer
(iii) Postman, cobbler, soldier, police constable
(iv) MTNL, Indian Railways, Air India, Jet Airways, All India Radio
5. A research scholar looked at the working people in the city of Surat and found
the following.

Place of work Nature of employment Percentage of working people

In offices and factories registered Organised 15
with the government
Own shops, office, clinics in
15
marketplaces with formal license
People working on the street,
construction workers, domestic 20
workers
Working in small workshops
usually not registered with the
government

Complete the table. What is the percentage of workers in the unorganised

sector in this city?
6. Do you think the classification of economic activities into primary, secondary
and tertiary is useful? Explain how.
7. For each of the sectors that we came across in this chapter why should one
focus on employment and GVA? Could there be other issues which should be
examined? Discuss.
8. Make a long list of all kinds of work that you find adults around you doing for a
living. In what way can you classify them? Explain your choice.
9. How is the tertiary sector different from other sectors? Illustrate with a few
examples.
10. What do you understand by disguised unemployment? Explain with an example
each from the urban and rural areas.
11. Distinguish between open unemployment and disguised unemployment.
12. “Tertiary sector is not playing any significant role in the development of Indian
economy.” Do you agree? Give reasons in support of your answer.

36 U
UNDERST ANDING E
ANDING
NDERSTANDING
NDERSTANDING
NDERST CONOMIC D
ECONOMIC DEVEL OPMENT
EVELOPMENT
EVEL OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
13. Service sector in India employs two different kinds of people. Who are these?
14. Workers are exploited in the unorganised sector. Do you agree with this view?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
15. How are the activities in the economy classified on the basis of employment
conditions?
16. Compare the employment conditions prevailing in the organised and unorganised
sectors.
17. Explain the objective of implementing the MG NREGA 2005.
18. Using examples from your area compare and contrast that activities and functions
of private and public sectors.
19. Discuss and fill the following table giving one example each from your area.

Well managed organisation Badly managed organisation

Public sector
Private Sector

20. Give a few examples of public sector activities and explain why the government
has taken them up.
21. Explain how public sector contributes to the economic development of a nation.
22. The workers in the unorganised sector need protection on the following issues :
wages, safety and health. Explain with examples.
23. A study in Ahmedabad found that out of 15,00,000 workers in the city, 11,00,000
worked in the unorganised sector. The total income of the city in this year
(1997-1998) was Rs 60,000 million. Out of this Rs 32,000 million was generated
in the organised sector. Present this data as a table. What kind of ways should
be thought of for generating more employment in the city?

24. The following table gives the GVA in Rupees (Crores) by the three sectors:

Year Primary Secondary Tertiary

2000 12,56,000 10,12,000 18,17,000
2013 17,87,000 24,59,000 46,30,000

(i) Calculate the share of the three sectors in GDP for 2000 and 2013.
(ii) Show the data as a bar diagram similar to Graph 2 in the chapter.
(iii) What conclusions can we draw from the bar graph?

S ECTORS OF THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 37

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES FOR THE TEACHER
CHAPTER 3 : MONEY AND CREDIT
Money is a fascinating subject and full of a collage of the major areas where people use
curiosities. It is important to capture this digital and cash transactions which are
element for the students. The history of legitimate and legal. They can also discuss the
money and how various forms were used at transactions which are legal and why. It is also
different times is an interesting story. At this important to intimate students that different
stage the purpose is to allow students to types of plastic cards are used in place of cash
realise the social situation in which these transactions but not all of them money per se.
forms were used. Modern forms of money are
Credit is a crucial element in economic
linked to the banking system. This is the
life and it is, therefore, important to first
central idea of the first part of the chapter.
understand this in a conceptual manner.
The present situation in India, where What are the aspects that one looks at in
newer forms of money are slowly spreading any credit arrangement and how this affects
with computerisation of the banking system, people is the main focus of the second part
offers many opportunities to students to of the chapter. The world around us offers a
explore on their own. We need not get into a tremendous variety of such arrangements
formal discussion of the ‘functions of money’ and it would be ideal to explain these
but let it come up as questions. There are aspects of credit from situations that are
certain areas that are not covered, such as familiar to your students. The other crucial
‘creation of money’ (money multiplier) or the issue of credit is its availability to all,
backing of the modern system that may be especially the poor, and on reasonable
discussed if you desire. terms. We need to emphasise that this is a
As you would see in the chapter, the stock right of the people and without which a large
of money consists of currency held by the section of them would be kept out of the
public and the demand deposits that they hold development process. There are many
with the banks. This is the money that people innovative interventions, such as that of
can use as they wish and the government has Grameen Bank, of which students may be
to ensure that the system works smoothy. made familiar with but it is important to
What would happen when the government realise that we don’t have answers to all
declares that some of the currency notes used questions. We need to find new ways and
by people would be made invalid and would be this is one of the social challenges that
replaced by new currency? In India, during developing countries face.
November 2016, currency notes in the Sources for Information
denomination of Rs. 500 and Rs. 1,000 were
declared invalid. People were asked to The data on formal and informal sector credit
surrender these notes to the bank by a specific used in this chapter is drawn from the
period and receive new Rs. 500, Rs. 2,000 or survey on rural debt by the National Sample
Survey Organisation (All India Debt and
other currency notes. This is known as
Investment Survey, 77 th Round 2019,
‘demonetisation’. Since then, people were also
conducted by NSSO) now known as National
encouraged to use their bank deposits rather
Statistical Office (NSO). The information and
than cash for transactions. Hence, digital
data on Grameen Bank is taken from
transactions started by using bank-to-bank newspaper reports and websites. In order
transfer through the internet or mobile to get the details of bank-related statistics
phones, cheques, ATM cards, credit cards, or a particular detail of a bank, you can log
and Point of Sale (POS) swipe machines at on to the websites of the Reserve Bank of
shops. This is promoted to reduce the India (www.rbi.org) and the concerned
requirement of cash for transactions and also banks. Data on self-help groups is provided
control corruption. Students could be asked on the website of the National Bank for
to debate on the process and the impact of Agriculture and Rural Development
demonetisation. They can be guided to make (NABARD) (www.nabard.org).

38 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 CHAPTER 3

MONEY AND

CREDIT
MONEY AS A MEDIUM OF EXCHANGE
The use of money spans a very large difficult it would be if the shoe
part of our everyday life. Look around manufacturer had to directly
you and you would easily be able to exchange shoes for wheat without the
identify several transactions involving use of money. He would have to look
money in any single day. Can you for a wheat growing farmer who not I DON’T NEED
make a list of these? In many of these only wants to sell wheat SHOES. I NEED
I’LL GIVE
transactions, goods are being bought YOU SHOES but also wants to buy the CLOTHES.
and sold with the use of money. In FOR YOUR shoes in exchange.
some of these transactions, services WHEAT. That is, both parties
are being exchanged with money. For have to agree to
some, there might not be any actual sell and buy each
transfer of money taking place now others commodities.
but a promise to pay money later. This is known as
double coincidence
Have you ever wondered why
of wants. What a person
transactions are made in I WANT SHOES.
desires to sell is exactly what the
money? The reason is simple. BUT I DON’T HAVE
other wishes to buy. In a barter WHEAT.
A person holding money can easily
system where goods are directly
exchange it for any commodity or
exchanged without the use of money,
service that he or she might want.
double coincidence of wants is an
Thus everyone prefers to receive
essential feature.
payments in money and then
exchange the money for things that In contrast, in an economy where
they want. Take the case of a shoe money is in use, money by providing
manufacturer. He wants to sell shoes the crucial intermediate step
in the market and buy wheat. The eliminates the need for double
shoe manufacturer will first exchange coincidence of wants. It is no longer
shoes that he has produced for necessary for the shoe manufacturer
money, and then exchange the money to look for a farmer who will buy his
for wheat. Imagine how much more shoes and at the same time sell him
M ONEY AND C REDIT 39

Reprint 2025-26
 wheat. All he has to do is find a buyer
for his shoes. Once he has exchanged
his shoes for money, he can purchase
wheat or any other commodity in the
market. Since money acts as an
intermediate in the exchange process,
it is called a medium of exchange.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. How does the use of money make it easier to exchange things?
2. Can you think of some examples of goods / services being exchanged or wages being
paid through barter?

MODERN FORMS OF MONEY

We have seen that money is organisation is allowed to issue
something that can act as a medium currency. Moreover, the law legalises
of exchange in transactions. Before the use of rupee as a medium of
Early punch- the introduction of coins, a variety of payment that cannot be refused in
marked coins objects was used as money. For settling transactions in India. No
(may be 2500 example, since the very early ages, individual in India can legally refuse
years old)
Indians used grains and cattle as a payment made in rupees. Hence,
money. Thereafter came the use of the rupee is widely accepted as a
metallic coins — gold, silver, copper medium of exchange.
coins — a phase which continued well
into the last century. Deposits with Banks
Gupta
coins
The other form in which people hold
Currency money is as deposits with banks. At
Modern forms of money include a point of time, people need only some
currency — paper notes and coins. currency for their day-to-day needs.
Unlike the things that were used as For instance, workers who receive
money earlier, modern currency is not their salaries at the end of each month
made of precious metal such as gold, have extra cash at the beginning of
Tughlaq silver and copper. And unlike grain the month. What do people do with
coin
and cattle, they are neither of this extra cash? They deposit it with
everyday use. The modern currency the banks by opening a bank
Gold
is without any use of its own. account in their name. Banks accept
Mohar the deposits and also pay an amount
from
Then, why is it accepted as a
as interest on the deposits. In this way
Akbar’s medium of exchange? It is accepted
reign people’s money is safe with the
as a medium of exchange because the
banks and it earns an amount as
currency is authorised by the
interest. People also have the
government of the country.
provision to withdraw the money as
In India, the Reserve Bank of India and when they require. Since the
issues currency notes on behalf of the deposits in the bank accounts can be
central government. As per Indian withdrawn on demand, these
law, no other individual or deposits are called demand deposits.
Modern coin

40 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Demand deposits offer another made by cheques instead of cash.
interesting facility. It is this facility For payment through cheque, the
which lends it the essential payer who has an account with the
characteristics of money (that of a bank, makes out a cheque for a
medium of exchange). You would specific amount. A cheque is a
have heard of payments being paper instructing the bank to pay
a specific amount from the
person’s account to the person in
UNDERSTAND whose name the cheque has been
LET US TRY AND
YM ENTS ARE
HOW CHEQUE PA issued.
RE ALISED WITH
MADE AND
AN EXAMPLE.

Cheque Payments
A shoe manufacturer, M. Salim has to make a payment to the leather supplier and writes
a cheque for a specific amount. This means that the shoe manufacturer instructs his
bank to pay this amount to the leather supplier. The leather supplier takes this cheque,
and deposits it in his own account in the bank. The money is transferred from one bank
account to another bank account in a couple of days. The transaction is complete without
any payment of cash.

Account number

Bank branch
code

Cheque number Coding used by banks

Thus we see that demand deposits You must remember the role that
share the essential features of money. the banks play here. But for the
The facility of cheques against demand banks, there would be no demand
deposits makes it possible to directly deposits and no payments by
settle payments without the use of cash. cheques against these deposits. The
Since demand deposits are accepted modern forms of money — currency
widely as a means of payment, along and deposits — are closely linked to
with currency, they constitute money the working of the modern banking
in the modern economy. system.

M ONEY AND C REDIT 41

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
1. M. Salim wants to withdraw Rs 20,000 in cash for making payments. How would he
write a cheque to withdraw money?
2. Tick the correct answer.
After the transaction between Salim and Prem,
(i) Salim’s balance in his bank account increases, and Prem’s balance increases.
(ii) Salim’s balance in his bank account decreases and Prem’s balance increases.
(iii) Salim’s balance in his bank account increases and Prem’s balance decreases.
3. Why are demand deposits considered as money?

LOAN ACTIVITIES OF BANKS

L et us take the story of banks huge demand for loans for various
further. What do the banks do with economic activities. We shall read more
the deposits which they accept from about this in the following sections.
the public? There is an interesting Banks make use of the deposits to
mechanism at work here. Banks keep meet the loan requirements of the
only a small proportion of their people. In this way, banks mediate
deposits as cash with themselves. For between those who have surplus
example, banks in India these days funds (the depositors) and those who
hold about 5 per cent of their are in need of these funds (the
deposits as cash. This is kept as borrowers). Banks charge a higher
provision to pay the depositors who interest rate on loans than what they
might come to withdraw money from offer on deposits. The difference
the bank on any given day. Since, on between what is charged from
any particular day, only some of its borrowers and what is paid to
many depositors come to withdraw depositors is their main source of
cash, the bank is able to manage with income.
this cash.
What do you think wo
uld happen
Banks use the major portion of the if all the depositors
went to ask
deposits to extend loans. There is a for their money at th
e same time?

DEPOSITORS BORROWERS
People make People take
deposits loans

People make People repay

withdrawals and loans with
get interest interest

42 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
TWO DIFFERENT CREDIT SITUATIONS
A large number of transactions in our day-to-day activities
involve credit in some form or the other. Credit (loan) refers to
an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with
money, goods or services in return for the promise of future
payment. Let us see how credit works through the following
two examples.

(1) Festival Season

It is festival season two months from now now and promises to pay him later.
and the shoe manufacturer, Salim, has Second, he obtains loan in cash from the
received an order from a large trader in large trader as advance payment for
town for 3,000 pairs of shoes to be 1000 pairs of shoes with a promise to
delivered in a month time. To complete deliver the whole order by the end of the
production on time, Salim has to hire a few month.
more workers for stitching and pasting
At the end of the month, Salim is able to
work. He has to purchase the raw
deliver the order, make a good profit, and
materials. To meet these expenses, Salim
repay the money that he had borrowed.
obtains loans from two sources. First, he
asks the leather supplier to supply leather

In this case, Salim obtains credit to meet the working

capital needs of production. The credit helps him to meet the
ongoing expenses of production, complete production on time,
and thereby increase his earnings. Credit therefore plays a
vital and positive role in this situation.

(2) Swapna’s Problem

Swapna, a small farmer, grows groundnut on her three
acres of land. She takes a loan from the moneylender
to meet the expenses of cultivation, hoping that her
harvest would help repay the loan. Midway through
the season the crop is hit by pests and the crop
fails. Though Swapna sprays her crops with
expensive pesticides, it makes little difference. She
is unable to repay the moneylender and the debt
grows over the year into a large amount. Next
year, Swapna takes a fresh loan for cultivation.
It is a normal crop this year. But the earnings
are not enough to cover the old loan.
She is caught in debt. She has to sell
a part of the land to pay off the debt.

M ONEY AND C REDIT 43

Reprint 2025-26
 In rural areas, the main demand In Swapna’s case, the failure of the
for credit is for crop production. Crop crop made loan repayment
production involves considerable impossible. She had to sell part of the
costs on seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, land to repay the loan. Credit, instead
water, electricity, repair of equipment, of helping Swapna improve her
etc. There is a minimum stretch of earnings, left her worse off. This is an
three to four months between the time example of what is commonly called
when the farmers buy these inputs debt-trap. Credit in this case pushes
and when they sell the crop. Farmers the borrower into a situation from
usually take crop loans at the which recovery is very painful.
beginning of the season and repay the
In one situation credit helps to
loan after harvest. Repayment of the
increase earnings and therefore the
loan is crucially dependent on the
person is better off than before. In
income from farming.
another situation, because of the
crop failure, credit
pushes the person into
LET’S WORK THESE OUT a debt trap. To repay
1. Fill the following table. her loan she has to sell
Salim Swapna
a portion of her land.
She is clearly much
Why did they need credit?
worse off than before.
What was the risk? Whether credit would
What was the outcome? be useful or not,
therefore, depends
2. Supposing Salim continues to get orders from traders. What would be on the risks in the
his position after 6 years? situation and whether
3. What are the reasons that make Swapna’s situation so risky? Discuss there is some support,
factors – pesticides; role of moneylenders; climate. in case of loss.

TERMS OF CREDIT
Every loan agreement specifies an repayment of the principal. In
interest rate which the borrower must addition, lenders may demand
pay to the lender along with the collateral (security) against loans.
Collateral is an asset that the
borrower owns (such as land,
building, vehicle, livestocks,
deposits with banks) and uses this
as a guarantee to a lender until
the loan is repaid. If the borrower
fails to repay the loan, the lender has
the right to sell the asset or collateral
to obtain payment. Property such as
land titles, deposits with banks,
livestock are some common examples
of collateral used for borrowing.

Reprint 2025-26
 A House Loan
Megha has taken a loan of Rs 5 lakhs from the
bank to purchase a house. The annual interest
rate on the loan is 12 per cent and the loan is to
be repaid in 10 years in monthly instalments.
Megha had to submit to the bank, documents
showing her employment records and salary
before the bank agreed to give her the loan. The
bank retained as collateral the papers of the new
house, which will be returned to Megha only
when she repays the entire loan with interest.

Fill the following details of Megha’s housing loan.

Loan amount (in Rupees)
Duration of loan
Documents required
Interest rate
Mode of repayment
Collateral

Interest rate, collateral and

documentation requirement, and the
mode of repayment together comprise
what is called the terms of credit. The
terms of credit vary substantially from
one credit arrangement to another.
They may vary depending on the
nature of the lender and the borrower.
The next section will provide examples
of the varying terms of credit in
different credit arrangements.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. Why do lenders ask for collateral while lending?
2. Given that a large number of people in our country are poor, does it in any way
affect their capacity to borrow?
3. Fill in the blanks choosing the correct option from the brackets.
While taking a loan, borrowers look for easy terms of credit. This
means __________ (low/high) interest rate, ______________(easy/
tough) conditions for repayment, ___________(less/more) collateral
and documentation requirements.

M ONEY AND C REDIT 45

Reprint 2025-26
 Variety of Credit Arrangements
Example of a Village
Rohit and Ranjan had finished reading about the terms of credit in class.
They were eager to know the various credit arrangements that existed in
their area: who were the people who provided credit? Who were the
borrowers? What were the terms of credit? They decided to talk to some
people in their village. Read what they record...

15th Nov, 2019

. rm er s a n d
r th e fi el d s w h er e m o s t fa The fields
tl y fo e day.
W e h ea d d ir ec be working at this time of th hyamal, a small
ou ld ee t S
labourers w We first m
e plan ted w it h potato crops. d village.
ar te
er in S on pu r, a small irriga
farm We next meet Arun who is supervising the
work of one farm labourer. Arun has seven
Shyamal tells us that every season he needs acres of land. He is one of the few persons
loans for cultivation on his 1.5 acres of land. Till in Sonpur to receive bank loan for
a few years back, he would borrow money from cultivation. The interest rate on the loan
the village moneylender at an interest rate of is 8.5 per cent per annum, and can be repaid
five per cent per month (60% per annum). anytime in the next three years. Arun plans
For the last few years, Shyamal has been to repay the loan after harvest by selling a
borrowing from an agricultural trader in the part of the crop. He then intends to store
village at an interest rate of three per cent the rest of the potatoes in a cold storage
per month. At the beginning of the cropping and apply for a fresh loan from the bank
season, the trader supplies the farm inputs on against the cold storage receipt. The bank
credit, which is to be repaid when the crops offers this facility to farmers who have
are ready for harvest. taken crop loan from them.
Besides the interest charge on the loan, the
trader also makes the farmers promise to Rama is working in a neigh
bouri
sell the crop to him. This way the trader wo rks as an agricultural lab ng field. She
can ensure that the money is repaid several months in the ye ourer. There are
ar when Rama has
promptly. Also, since the crop prices are low no work, and needs credit
to meet the daily
after the harvest, the trader is able to expenses. Expenses on
sudden illnesses or
make a profit from buying the crop at a low functions in the family ar
e also met through
price from the farmers and then selling it loa ns. Rama has to depend
on her employer,
later when the price has risen. a medium landowner in
Sonpur, for credit.
The landowner charges
an interest rate of
5 per cent per month.
Rama repays the
money by working for th
e landowner. Most
of the time, Rama has to
take a fresh loan,
before the previous loa
n has been repaid.
At pr es en t, sh e ow es
th e lan do wn er
Rs 5,000. Though the
landowner doesn’t
treat her well, she continu
es to work for him
since she can get loans
from him when in
need. Rama tells us that
th
credit for the landless pe e only source of
ople in Sonpur are
the landowner-employers.

Reprint 2025-26
Loans from Cooperatives
Besides banks, the other major source of cheap credit
in rural areas are the cooperative societies (or
cooperatives). Members of a cooperative pool their
resources for cooperation in certain areas. There are
several types of cooperatives possible such as
far mers cooperatives, weavers cooperatives,
industrial workers cooperatives, etc. Krishak
Cooperative functions in a village not very far away
from Sonpur. It has 2300 farmers as members. It
accepts deposits from its members. With these
deposits as collateral, the Cooperative has obtained
a large loan from the bank. These funds are used to
provide loans to members. Once these loans are
repaid, another round of lending can take place.
Krishak Cooperative provides loans for the purchase
of agricultural implements, loans for cultivation
and agricultural trade, fishery loans, loans for
construction of houses and for a variety of other
expenses.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. List the various sources of credit in Sonpur.
2. Underline the various uses of credit in Sonpur in the above passages.
3. Compare the terms of credit for the small farmer, the medium farmer and the landless
agricultural worker in Sonpur.
4. Why will Arun have a higher income from cultivation compared to Shyamal?
5. Can everyone in Sonpur get credit at a cheap rate? Who are the people who can?
6. Tick the correct answer.
(i) Over the years, Rama’s debt
· will rise.
· will remain constant.
· will decline.
(ii) Arun is one of the few people in Sonpur to take a bank loan because
· other people in the village prefer to borrow from the moneylenders.
· banks demand collateral which everyone cannot provide.
· interest rate on bank loans is same as the interest rate charged by
the traders.
7. Talk to some people to find out the credit arrangements that exist in your area. Record
your conversation. Note the differences in the terms of credit across people.

M ONEY AND C REDIT 47

Reprint 2025-26
FORMAL SECTOR CREDIT IN INDIA
We have seen in the
above examples that Graph 1 : Sources of Credit in Rural India, 2019
people obtain loans from
various sources. The
Other Informal
various types of loans Agencies, 3%
Relatives and
can be conveniently Friends, 7%
grouped as formal
sector loans and
informal sector loans.
Among the former Moneylenders, Commercial
are loans from banks 23% Banks, 51%
and cooperatives. The
informal lenders include Landlords, 1%
moneylenders, traders,
employers, relatives and Other Formal
Agencies, 5%
friends, etc. In Graph 1
Cooperative Banks
you can see the various and Society, 10%
sources of credit to rural
households in India. Is more credit the RBI sees that the banks give loans
coming from the formal sector or the not just to profit-making businesses
informal sector? and traders but also to small
cultivators, small scale industries, to
The Reserve Bank of India
small borrowers etc. Periodically,
supervises the functioning of formal
banks have to submit information to
sources of loans. For instance, we
the RBI on how much they are
have seen that the banks maintain a
lending, to whom, at what interest
minimum cash balance out of the
rate, etc.
deposits they receive. The RBI
monitors the banks in actually There is no organisation which
maintaining cash balance. Similarly, supervises the credit activities of
lenders in the informal sector. They
BUT WHY SHOULD can lend at whatever interest rate they
A BANK WANT US TO
HAVE A HIGHER INCOME?

Reprint 2025-26
choose. There is no one to stop them do business, set up small-scale indus-
from using unfair means to get their tries etc. They could set up new indus-
money back. tries or trade in goods. Cheap and
affordable credit is crucial for the
Compared to the formal lenders,
country’s development.
most of the informal lenders charge a
much higher interest on loans. Thus, Formal and Informal Credit:
the cost to the borrower of informal Who gets what?
loans is much higher.
Graph 2 shows the importance of
Higher cost of borrowing means a formal and informal sources of credit
larger part of the earnings of the for people in urban areas. The people
borrowers is used to repay the loan. are divided into four groups, from poor
Hence, borrowers have less income to rich, as shown in the figure. You can
left for themselves (as we saw for see that 54 per cent of the loans taken
Shyamal in Sonpur). In certain by poor households in the urban areas
cases, the high interest rate for are from informal sources. Compare
borrowing can mean that the amount this with the rich urban households.
to be repaid is greater than the What do you find? Only 17 per cent of
income of the borrower. This could their loans are from informal sources,
lead to increasing debt (as we saw for while 83 per cent are from formal
Rama in Sonpur) and debt trap. Also, sources. A similar pattern is also found
people who might wish to start an in rural areas. The rich households are
enterprise by borrowing may not do availing cheap credit from formal
so because of the high cost of lenders whereas the poor households
borrowing. have to pay a large amount for
borrowing.
For these reasons, banks and
cooperative societies need to lend What does all this suggest? First,
more. This would lead to higher in- the formal sector still meets only about
comes and many people could then half of the total credit needs of the
borrow cheaply for a variety rural people. The remaining credit
of needs. They could grow crops, needs are met from informal sources.

Graph 2 : Of all the loans taken by urban households, what

percentage was formal and what percentage was informal?

Poor Households Well-off Rich

Households with a few assets Households Households

BLUE : Per cent of loans from the FORMAL sector

ORANGE: Per cent of loans from the INFORMAL sector

M ONEY AND C REDIT 49

Reprint 2025-26
 Most loans from informal lenders Secondly, while formal sector
carry a very high interest rate and do loans need to expand, it is also
little to increase the income of the necessary that everyone receives
borrowers. Thus, it is necessary these loans. At present, it is the richer
that banks and cooperatives households who receive formal credit
increase their lending particularly whereas the poor have to depend on
in the rural areas, so that the the informal sources. It is important
dependence on informal sources that the formal credit is distributed
of credit reduces. more equally so that the poor can
benefit from the cheaper loans.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What are the differences between formal and informal sources of credit?
2. Why should credit at reasonable rates be available for all?
3. Should there be a supervisor, such as the Reserve Bank of India, that looks into the
loan activities of informal lenders? Why would its task be quite difficult?
4. Why do you think that the share of formal sector credit is higher for the richer households
compared to the poorer households?
A worker
stitching a quilt

DO YOU THINK A BANK

WILL GIVE ME A
LOAN?

SELF-HELP GROUPS FOR THE POOR

In the previous section we have seen documents and collateral. Absence of
that poor households are still collateral is one of the major reasons
dependent on informal sources of which prevents the poor from getting
credit. Why is it so? Banks are not bank loans. Informal lenders such as
present everywhere in rural India. moneylenders, on the other hand,
Even when they are present, getting a know the borrowers personally and
loan from a bank is much more hence are often willing to give a
difficult than taking a loan from loan without collateral. The borrowers
informal sources. As we saw for can, if necessary, approach the
Megha, bank loans require proper moneylenders even without repaying

50 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
their earlier loans. However, the to be granted — the purpose, amount,
moneylenders charge very high rates interest to be charged, repayment
of interest, keep no records of the schedule etc. Also, it is the group
transactions and harass the poor which is responsible for the repayment
borrowers. of the loan. Any case of non-
repayment of loan by any one
In recent years, people have tried
member is followed up seriously by
out some newer ways of providing
other members in the group. Because
loans to the poor. The idea is to
of this feature, banks are willing to
organise rural poor, in particular
lend to the poor women when
women, into small Self Help Groups
organised in SHGs, even though they
(SHGs) and pool (collect) their
have no collateral as such.
savings. A typical SHG has 15-20
members, usually belonging to one Thus, the SHGs help borrowers
neighbourhood, who meet and save overcome the problem of lack of
regularly. Saving per member varies collateral. They can get timely loans
from Rs 25 to Rs 100 or more, for a variety of purposes and at a
depending on the ability of the people reasonable interest rate. Moreover,
to save. Members can take small loans SHGs are the building blocks of
from the group itself to meet their organisation of the rural poor. Not
needs. The group charges interest on only does it help women to become
these loans but this is still less than financially self-reliant, the regular
what the moneylender charges. After meetings of the group provide a
a year or two, if the group is regular platform to discuss and act on a
in savings, it becomes eligible for variety of social issues such as health,
availing loan from the bank. nutrition, domestic violence, etc.
Loan is sanctioned in the
name of the group and is A women’s self-help group
meeting in Gujarat
meant to create self-
employment opportunities
for the members. For
instance, small loans are
provided to the members for
releasing mortgaged land,
for meeting working capital
needs (e.g. buying seeds,
fertilisers, raw materials
like bamboo and cloth), for
housing materials, for
acquiring assets like sewing
machine, handlooms, cattle,
etc.
Most of the important
decisions regarding the
savings and loan activities
are taken by the group
members. The group
decides as regards the loans

M ONEY AND C REDIT 51

Reprint 2025-26
 Grameen Bank of Bangladesh
Grameen Bank of Bangladesh is one of the
biggest success stories in reaching the poor to “If credit can be made available to
meet their credit needs at reasonable rates. the poor people on terms and
Started in the 1970s as a small project, conditions that are appropriate and
Grameen Bank in 2018 had over 9 million reasonable these millions of small
members in about 81,600 villages spread people with their millions of small
across Bangladesh. Almost all of the borrowers pursuits can add up to create the
are women and belong to poorest sections of biggest development wonder.”
the society. These borrowers have proved that Professor Muhammad Yunus,
not only are poor women reliable borrowers, but the founder of Grameen Bank,
that they can start and run a variety of small and recipient of 2006 Nobel Prize for Peace
income-generating activities successfully.

SUMMING UP
In this chapter we have looked at the credit vary substantially between
modern forms of money and how they formal and informal lenders. At
are linked with the banking system. present, it is the richer households
On one side are the depositors who who receive credit from formal sources
keep their money in the banks and on whereas the poor have to depend on
the other side are the borrowers who the informal sources. It is essential
take loans from these banks. Economic that the total formal sector credit
activities require loans or credit. Credit, increases so that the dependence on
as we saw can have a positive impact, the more expensive informal credit
or in certain situations make the becomes less. Also, the poor should
borrower worse off. get a much greater share of formal
Credit is available from a variety of loans from banks, cooperative
sources. These can be either formal societies etc. Both these steps are
sources or informal sources. Terms of important for development.

EXERCISES
1. In situations with high risks, credit might create further problems for the borrower.
Explain.
2. How does money solve the problem of double coincidence of wants? Explain with
an example of your own.
3. How do banks mediate between those who have surplus money and those who
need money?
4. Look at a 10 rupee note. What is written on top? Can you explain this statement?
5. Why do we need to expand formal sources of credit in India?
6. What is the basic idea behind the SHGs for the poor? Explain in your own words.
7. What are the reasons why the banks might not be willing to lend to certain borrowers?

52 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 8. In what ways does the Reserve Bank of India supervise the functioning of banks?
Why is this necessary?
9. Analyse the role of credit for development.
10. Manav needs a loan to set up a small business. On what basis will Manav decide
whether to borrow from the bank or the moneylender? Discuss.
11. In India, about 80 per cent of farmers are small farmers, who need credit for cultivation.
(a) Why might banks be unwilling to lend to small farmers?
(b) What are the other sources from which the small farmers can borrow?
(c) Explain with an example how the terms of credit can be unfavourable for the
small farmer.
(d) Suggest some ways by which small farmers can get cheap credit.
12. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Majority of the credit needs of the _________________households are met
from informal sources.
(ii) ___________________costs of borrowing increase the debt-burden.
(iii) __________________ issues currency notes on behalf of the Central
Government.
(iv) Banks charge a higher interest rate on loans than what they offer on
__________.
(v) _______________ is an asset that the borrower owns and uses as a guarantee
until the loan is repaid to the lender.
13. Choose the most appropriate answer.
(i) In a SHG most of the decisions regarding savings and loan activities are taken by
(a) Bank.
(b) Members.
(c) Non-government organisation.
(ii) Formal sources of credit does not include
(a) Banks.
(b) Cooperatives.
(c) Employers.

ADDITIONAL PROJECT / ACTIVITY

The following table shows people in a variety of occupations in urban areas. What
are the purposes for which the following people might need loans? Fill in the column.
Occupations Reason for needing a Loan
Construction worker
Graduate student who is computer literate
A person employed in government service
Migrant labourer in Delhi
Household maid
Small trader
Autorickshaw driver
A worker whose factory has closed down
Next, classify the people into two groups based on whom you think might get a bank
loan and those who might not. What is the criterion that you have used for classification?

M ONEY AND C REDIT 53

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES FOR THE TEACHER
CHAPTER 4 : GLOBALISATION AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY
Most regions of the world are getting increasingly of trade and investment policies and, pressures
interconnected. While this interconnectedness from international organisations such as the
across countries has many dimensions — WTO. Improvement in technology is a fascinating
cultural, political, social and economic — this area for students and you may, with a few
chapter looks at globalisation in a more limited directions, encourage them to do their own
sense. It defines globalisation as the integration explorations. While discussing liberalisation, you
between countries through foreign trade and have to keep in mind that the students are
foreign investments by multinational unaware of what India was like in the
corporations (MNCs). As you will notice, the more pre-liberalisation era. A role-play could be
complex issues of portfolio investment have been conceived to compare and contrast the pre and
left out. post-liberalisation era. Similarly, international
negotiations under WTO and the uneven
If we look at the past thirty years or so, we
balances in power are interesting subjects that
find that MNCs have been a major force in the
can be covered in a discussion mode rather than
globalisation process connecting distant regions
as lectures.
of the world. Why are the MNCs spreading their
production to other countries and what are the The final section covers the impact of
ways in which they are doing so? The first part globalisation. To what extent has globalisation
of the chapter discusses this. Rather than contributed to the development process? This
relying on quantitative estimates, the rapid rise section draws on the topics covered in Chapters
and influence of the MNCs has been shown 1 and 2 (for example, what is a fair development
through a variety of examples, mainly drawn goal), which you can refer to. Also, examples and
from the Indian context. Note that the examples activities drawn from the local environment are
are an aid to explain a more general point. While a must while discussing this section. This might
teaching, the emphasis should be on the ideas include contexts that have not been covered in
and examples are to be used as illustrations. the chapter, such as the impact of imports on
You can also creatively use comprehension local farmers, etc. Collective brainstorming
passages like the one given after Section II to sessions can be conducted to analyse such
test and reinforce new concepts. situations.
Integration of production and integration of Sources for Information
markets is a key idea behind understanding the
process of globalisation and its impact. This has The call for a fairer globalisation has been given,
been dealt with at length in this chapter, among others, by the International Labour
highlighting the role of MNCs in the process. You Organisation — www.ilo.org. Another interesting
have to ensure that the students grasp this idea resource is the WTO website http://www.wto.org.
with sufficient clarity, before moving on to the It gives access to the variety of agreements that
next topic. are being negotiated at the WTO. For company
related information, most MNCs have their own
Globalisation has been facilitated by several websites. If you want to critically look at
factors. Three of these have been highlighted: the MNCs, one recommended website is
rapid improvements in technology, liberalisation www.corporatewatch.org.uk.

54 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 CHAPTER 4

GLOBALISATION
AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY
As consumers in today’s world, some
of us have a wide choice of goods and
services before us. The latest models
of digital cameras, mobile phones and
televisions made by the leading
manufacturers of the world are within
our reach. Every season, new models
of automobiles can be seen on Indian
roads. Gone are the days when
Ambassador and Fiat were the only
cars on Indian roads. Today, Indians
are buying cars produced by nearly
all the top companies in the world. A
similar explosion of brands can be
seen for many other goods: from shirts
to televisions to processed fruit juices.
Such wide-ranging choice of goods
in our markets is a relatively recent
phenomenon. You wouldn’t have
found such a wide variety of goods in
Indian markets even two decades
back. In a matter of years, our
markets have been transformed!
How do we understand these
rapid transformations? What are the
factors that are bringing about these
changes? And, how are these changes
affecting the lives of the people?
We shall dwell on these questions in
this chapter.
G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 55

Reprint 2025-26
 PRODUCTION ACROSS COUNTRIES
Until the middle of the twentieth multinational corporations (MNCs)
century, production was largely emerged on the scene. A MNC is a
organised within countries. What company that owns or controls
crossed the boundaries of these production in more than one nation.
countries were raw material, food stuff MNCs set up offices and factories for
and finished products. Colonies such production in regions where they can
as India exported raw materials and get cheap labour and other resources.
food stuff and imported finished This is done so that the cost of
goods. Trade was the main channel production is low and the MNCs can
connecting distant countries. This was earn greater profits. Consider the
before large companies called following example.

Spreading of Production
by an MNC
A large MNC, producing industrial equipment, designs its
products in research centres in the United States, and then
has the components manufactured in China. These are then
shipped to Mexico and Eastern Europe where the products
are assembled and the finished products are sold all over the
world. Meanwhile, the company’s customer care is carried out
through call centres located in India.

This is a call centre in Bengaluru, equipped with telecom facilities and access to
the Internet to provide information and support to customers abroad.

56 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 In this example the MNC is not only for their closeness to the markets
selling its finished products globally, in the US and Europe. India has
but more important, the goods and highly skilled engineers who can
services are produced globally. As understand the technical aspects of
a result, production is organised in production. It also has educated
increasingly complex ways. The English speaking youth who can
production process is divided into provide customer care services. And
small parts and spread out across the all this probably can mean 50-60 per
globe. In the above example, China cent cost-savings for the MNC!
provides the advantage of being a The advantage of spreading out
cheap manufacturing location. production across the borders to the
Mexico and Eastern Europe are useful multinationals can be truly immense.

LET’S WORK THIS OUT

Complete the following statement to show how the production process in the garment
industry is spread across countries.
The brand tag says ‘Made in Thailand’ but they are not Thai products. We dissect
the manufacturing process and look for the best solution at each step. We are
doing it globally. In making garments, the company may, for example, get cotton
fibre from Korea, ........

INTERLINKING PRODUCTION ACROSS

COUNTRIES

In general, MNCs set up production At times, MNCs set up production

where it is close to the markets; where jointly with some of the local
there is skilled and unskilled labour companies of these countries. The
available at low costs; and where the benefit to the local company of such
availability of other factors of joint production is two-fold. First,
production is assured. In addition, MNCs can provide money for
MNCs might look for government additional investments, like buying
policies that look after their interests. new machines for faster production.
You will read more about the policies Second, MNCs might bring with them WE WILL SHIFT
later in the chapter. the latest technology for production. THIS FACTORY TO
ANOTHER COUNTRY.
Having assured themselves of these IT HAS BECOME
conditions, MNCs set up factories and EXPENSIVE HERE!
offices for production. The money that
is spent to buy assets such as land,
building, machines and other
equipment is called investment.
Investment made by MNCs is called
foreign investment. Any investment
is made with the hope that these
assets will earn profits.

G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 57

Reprint 2025-26
 But the most common route for
MNC investments is to buy up local
companies and then to expand
production. MNCs with huge wealth
can quite easily do so. To take an
example, Cargill Foods, a very large
American MNC, has bought over
smaller Indian companies such as
Parakh Foods. Parakh Foods had
built a large marketing network in
various parts of India, where its brand
was well-reputed. Also, Parakh Foods
had four oil refineries, whose control
has now shifted to Cargill. Cargill is
now the largest producer of edible oil
in India, with a capacity to make 5
million pouches daily!
In fact, many of the top MNCs
have wealth exceeding the entire
budgets of the developing country Jeans produced in developing countries being
sold in USA for Rs 6500 ($145)
governments. With such enormous
wealth, imagine the power and
influence of these MNCs!
There’s another way in which The products are supplied to the
MNCs control production. Large MNCs, which then sell these under
MNCs in developed countries place their own brand names to the
orders for production with small customers. These large MNCs have
producers. Garments, footwear, tremendous power to determine price,
sports items are examples of quality, delivery, and labour
industries where production is conditions for these distant
carried out by a large number of producers.
small producers around the world. Thus, we see that there are a
variety of ways in which the MNCs are
Women at home in Ludhiana making footballs for large MNCs
spreading their production and
interacting with local producers in
various countries across the globe. By
setting up partnerships with local
companies, by using the local
companies for supplies, by closely
competing with the local companies
or buying them up, MNCs are exerting
a strong influence on production
at these distant locations. As a
result, production in these widely
dispersed locations is getting
interlinked.

58 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
Ford Motors, an American Read the passage on the left and answer the questions.
company, is one of the 1. Would you say Ford Motors is a MNC? Why?
world’s largest automobile
2. What is foreign investment? How much did Ford Motors invest in India?
manufacturers with
production spread over 26 3. By setting up their production plants in India, MNCs such as Ford
Motors tap the advantage not only of the large markets that countries
countries of the world. such as India provide, but also the lower costs of production. Explain
Ford Motors came to India the statement.
in 1995 and spent Rs.
4. Why do you think the company wants to develop India as a base for
1700 crore to set up a manufacturing car components for its global operations? Discuss the
large plant near Chennai. following factors:
This was done in (a) cost of labour and other resources in India
collaboration with (b) the presence of several local manufacturers who supply auto-
Mahindra and Mahindra, parts to Ford Motors
a major Indian (c) closeness to a large number of buyers in India and China
manufacturer of jeeps and 5. In what ways will the production of cars by Ford Motors in India lead to
trucks. By the year 2017, interlinking of production?
Ford Motors was selling 6. In what ways is a MNC different from other companies?
88,000 cars in the Indian
7. Nearly all major multinationals are American, Japanese or European,
markets, such as Nike, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Honda, Nokia. Can you guess why?
while another 1,81,000
cars were exported from
India to South Africa,
Mexico, Brazil and United
States of America. In recent
years, Ford Company
stopped producing cars for
selling in India but export
cars and car engines on a
small scale to other Cars made by Indian workers being
countries. transported to be sold abroad by MNCs.

FOREIGN TRADE AND

INTEGRATION OF MARKETS
For a long time foreign trade has been To put it simply, foreign trade
the main channel connecting creates an opportunity for the
countries. In history you would have producers to reach beyond the
read about the trade routes domestic markets, i.e., markets of their
connecting India and South Asia to own countries. Producers can sell their
markets both in the East and West produce not only in markets located
and the extensive trade that took within the country but can also compete
place along these routes. Also, you in markets located in other countries
would remember that it was trading of the world. Similarly, for the buyers,
interests which attracted various import of goods produced in another
trading companies such as the East country is one way of expanding the
India Company to India. What then choice of goods beyond what is
is the basic function of foreign trade? domestically produced.
G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 59

Reprint 2025-26
 ade
fect of foreign tr
Let us see the ef nese toys
ple of Chi
through the exam
arkets.
in the Indian m

Chinese Toys in India

Chinese manufacturers learn What is happening here? As a
of an opportunity to export toys result of trade, Chinese toys
to India, where toys are sold at come into the Indian markets.
a high price. They start In the competition between
exporting plastic toys to India. Indian and Chinese toys,
Buyers in India now have the Chinese toys prove better.
option of choosing between Indian buyers have a greater
Indian and the Chinese toys. choice of toys and at lower
Because of the cheaper prices prices. For the Chinese toy
and new designs, Chinese toys makers, this provides an
become more popular in the opportunity to expand business.
Indian markets. Within a year, The opposite is true for Indian
70 to 80 per cent of the toy toy makers. They face losses,
shops have replaced Indian as their toys are selling
toys with Chinese toys. Toys much less.
are now cheaper in the Indian
markets than earlier.

60 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 In general, with the opening of
trade, goods travel from one market
to another. Choice of goods in the
markets rises. Prices of similar goods
in the two markets tend to become
equal. And, producers in the two
countries now closely compete against
each other even though they are
separated by thousands of miles!
Foreign trade thus results in
connecting the markets or
integration of markets in different
countries.
Small traders of readymade garments facing stiff
competition from both the MNC brands and imports.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What was the main channel connecting countries in the past? How is it different
now?
2. Distinguish between foreign trade and foreign investment.
3. In recent years China has been importing steel from India. Explain how the import
of steel by China will affect.
(a) steel companies in China.
(b) steel companies in India.
(c) industries buying steel for production of other industrial goods in China.
4. How will the import of steel from India into the Chinese markets lead to integration
of markets for steel in the two countries? Explain.

WHAT IS GLOBALISATION?
In the past two to three decades, more
and more MNCs have been looking for
locations around the world which
would be cheap for their production.
Foreign investment by MNCs in these BE CAREFUL! THAT’S
countries has been rising. At the same OUR WORLD YOU’RE
time, foreign trade between countries PLAYING WITH!
SOMEDAY YOU’LL
has been rising rapidly. A large part HAVE TO PAY THE
of the foreign trade is also controlled PRICE!
by MNCs. For instance, the car
manufacturing plant of Ford Motors GLOBALISATION
IS FUN!
in India not only produces cars for the
Indian markets, it also exports cars
to other developing countries and
exports car components for its many
factories around the world. Likewise,
activities of most MNCs involve
substantial trade in goods and also
services.
G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 61

Reprint 2025-26
 The result of greater foreign contact with each other than a few
investment and greater foreign trade decades back.
has been greater integration of
Besides the movements of goods,
production and markets across
services, investments and technology,
countries. Globalisation is this
there is one more way in which the
process of rapid integration or
countries can be connected. This is
interconnection between countries.
through the movement of people
MNCs are playing a major role in
between countries. People usually
the globalisation process. More
move from one country to another in
and more goods and services,
search of better income, better jobs or
investments and technology are
better education. In the past few
moving between countries. Most
decades, however, there has not been
regions of the world are in closer
much increase in the movement of
people between countries due to
LET’S WORK THESE OUT various restrictions.

1. What is the role of MNCs in the globalisation process?

2. What are the various ways in which countries can be
linked?
3. Choose the correct option.
Globalisation, by connecting countries, shall result in
(a) lesser competition among producers.
(b) greater competition among producers.
(c) no change in competition among producers. ...WE’VE SEEN GREAT IMPROVEMENTS
IN TRANSPORTATION...

FACTORS THAT HAVE ENABLED GLOBALISATION

Technology
Rapid improvement in technology has been one major factor that has
stimulated the globalisation process. For instance, the past fifty years have
seen several improvements in transportation technology. This has made much
faster delivery of goods across long distances possible at lower costs.

Containers for
transport of goods
Goods are placed in containers
that can be loaded intact onto
ships, railways, planes and trucks.
Containers have led to huge
reduction in port handling costs
and increased the speed with
which exports can reach markets.
Similarly, the cost of air transport
has fallen. This has enabled much
greater volumes of goods being
transported by airlines.

62 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Even more remarkable have been amazing world of internet, where you
the developments in information and can obtain and share information on
communication technology. In almost anything you want to know.
recent times, technology in the areas Internet also allows us to send instant
of telecommunications, computers, electronic mail (e-mail) and talk
Internet has been changing rapidly. (voice-mail) across the world at
Telecommunication facilities (tele- negligible costs.
graph, telephone including mobile
phones, fax) are used to contact one
another around the world, to access
information instantly, and to ...BUT WHERE
communicate from remote areas. This IS THE
ELECTRICITY?...
has been facilitated by satellite
communication devices. As you
would be aware, computers have now
entered almost every field of activity.
You might have also ventured into the

n technology
d communicatio
Information an
ort) has played a major
role in Using IT in
(or IT in sh rvices
spreading out pr
oduction of se
e how.
Globalisation
s. Let us se
across countrie
A news magazine published for London
readers is to be designed and printed in
Delhi. The text of the magazine is sent
through Internet to the Delhi office. The
designers in the Delhi office get
orders on how to design the magazine
from the office in London using
telecommunication facilities. The
designing is done on a computer. After
printing, the magazines are sent by air
to London. Even the payment of money
for designing and printing from a bank
in London to a bank in Delhi is done
instantly through the Internet
(e-banking)!

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. In the above example, underline the
words describing the use of
technology in production.
IT LOOKS LIKE A VERY NICE
MAGAZINE. BUT WHY ISN’T MY 2. How is information technology
TEXTBOOK PRINTED LIKE NO, MY CHILD! THIS connected with globalisation? Would
THIS? I CAN HARDLY READ PRINTING PRESS IS NOT globalisation have been possible
THE WORDS IN MY BOOK! FOR ORDINARY INDIANS! without expansion of IT?

G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 63

Reprint 2025-26
 Liberalisation of foreign trade machinery, fertilisers, petroleum
and foreign investment etc. Note that all developed
policy countries, during the early stages of
development, have given protection to
Let us return to the example of imports
domestic producers through a variety
of Chinese toys in India. Suppose the
of means.
Indian government puts a tax on
import of toys. What would happen? Starting around 1991, some far-
Those who wish to import these toys reaching changes in policy were made
would have to pay tax on this. Because in India. The government decided that
of the tax, buyers will have to pay a the time had come for Indian
higher price on imported toys. Chinese producers to compete with producers
toys will no longer be as cheap in the around the globe. It felt that
Indian markets and imports from competition would improve the
China will automatically reduce. performance of producers within the
Indian toy-makers will prosper. country since they would have to
improve their quality. This decision
Tax on imports is an example of
was supported by powerful
trade barrier. It is called a barrier
international organisations.
because some restriction has been set
up. Governments can use trade Thus, barriers on foreign trade and
barriers to increase or decrease foreign investment were removed to a
(regulate) foreign trade and to decide large extent. This meant that goods
what kinds of goods and how much could be imported and exported
of each, should come into the country. easily and also foreign companies
could set up factories and offices
The Indian government, after
here.
Independence, had put barriers to
foreign trade and foreign investment. Removing barriers or restrictions
This was considered necessary to set by the government is what is
protect the producers within the known as liberalisation. With
country from foreign competition. liberalisation of trade, businesses are
Industries were just coming up in the allowed to make decisions freely
1950s and 1960s, and competition about what they wish to import or
from imports at that stage would not export. The government imposes
have allowed these industries to come much less restrictions than before
up. Thus, India allowed imports and is therefore said to be more
of only essential items such as liberal.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What do you understand by liberalisation of foreign trade?
2. Tax on imports is one type of trade barrier. The government could also place a limit on
the number of goods that can be imported. This is known as quotas. Can you explain,
using the example of Chinese toys, how quotas can be used as trade barriers?
Do you think this should be used? Discuss.

64 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION
We have seen that the liberalisation developed countries, WTO establishes
of foreign trade and investment in rules regarding international trade,
India was supported by some very and sees that these rules are obeyed.
powerful international organisations. About 160 countries of the world are
These organisations say that all currently members of the WTO.
barriers to foreign trade and
investment are harmful. There Though WTO is supposed to allow
should be no barriers. T rade free trade for all, in practice, it is seen
between countries should be ‘free’. that the developed countries have
All countries in the world should unfairly retained trade barriers. On
liberalise their policies. the other hand, WTO rules have forced
World Trade Organisation (WTO) is the developing countries to remove
one such organisation whose aim is trade barriers. An example of this is
to liberalise international trade. the current debate on trade in
Started at the initiative of the agricultural products.

Debate on Trade Practices

You have seen in Chapter 2, that the Developing countries are, therefore, asking the
agriculture sector provides the bulk developed country gover nments, “We have
of employment and a significant reduced trade barriers as per WTO rules. But you
portion of the GDP in India. have ignored the rules of WTO and have
Compare this to a developed continued to pay your farmers vast sums of
country such as the US with the money. You have asked our governments to stop
share of agriculture in GDP at 1% supporting our farmers, but you are doing so
and its share in total employment yourselves. Is this free and fair trade? trade?”
a tiny 0.5%! And yet this very
small percentage of people
who are engaged in A typical cotton farm in USA consists of thousands of acres owned by
a huge corporation that will sell cotton abroad at lowered prices.
agriculture in the US receive
massive sums of money from
the US gover n m e n t f o r
production and for exports to
other countries. Due to this
massive money that they
receive, US farmers can sell
the far m p r oducts at
abnormally low prices. The
surplus farm products are
sold in other country markets
at low prices, adversely
affecting farmers in these
countries.

G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 65

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
1. Fill in the blanks.
WTO was started at the initiative of __________countries. The aim of the WTO is to
____________________. WTO establishes rules regarding ________________ for
all countries, and sees that ___________________ In practice, trade between countries
is not ______________________________. Developing countries like India have
___________________, whereas developed countries, in many cases, have continued
to provide protection to their producers.

2. What do you think can be done so that trade between countries is more fair?
3. In the above example, we saw that the US government gives massive sums of money
to farmers for production. At times, governments also give support to promote production
of certain types of goods, such as those which are environmentally friendly. Discuss
whether these are fair or not.

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION IN INDIA

In the last twenty years, globalisation Among producers and workers,
of the Indian economy has come a the impact of globalisation has not
long way. What has been its effect on been uniform.
the lives of people? Let us look at
some of the evidence. Firstly, MNCs have increased their
investments in India over the past 20
Globalisation and greater years, which means investing in India
competition among producers - both has been beneficial for them. MNCs
local and foreign producers - has been have been interested in industries
of advantage to consumers, such as cell phones, automobiles,
particularly the well-off sections in the electronics, soft drinks, fast food or
urban areas. There is greater choice services such as banking in urban
before these consumers who now areas. These products have a large
enjoy improved quality and lower number of well-off buyers. In these
prices for several products. As a result, industries and services, new jobs have
these people today, enjoy much been created. Also, local companies
higher standards of living than was supplying raw materials, etc. to these
possible earlier. industries have prospered.

Reprint 2025-26
 Steps to Attract Foreign Investment
In recent years, the central and state rights. In the recent years, the government
governments in India are taking special has allowed companies to ignore many of
steps to attract foreign companies to these. Instead of hiring workers on a
invest in India. Industrial zones, called regular basis, companies hire workers
Special Economic Zones (SEZs), are ‘flexibly’ for short periods when there is
being set up. SEZs are to have world class intense pressure of work. This is done to
facilities: electricity, water, roads, reduce the cost of labour for the company.
transport, storage, recreational and However, still not satisfied, foreign
educational facilities. Companies who set companies are demanding more flexibility
up production units in the SEZs do not in labour laws.
have to pay taxes for an initial period of NOW, WE
five years. ARE READY
TO INVEST!
Government has also allowed
flexibility in the labour laws to attract
foreign investment. You have seen in
Chapter 2 that the companies in the
organised sector have to obey certain
rules that aim to protect the workers’

Secondly, several of the top Indian are some Indian companies which
companies have been able to benefit are spreading their operations
from the increased competition. They worldwide.
have invested in newer technology and
Globalisation has also created
production methods and raised their
new opportunities for companies
production standards. Some have
providing services, particularly those
gained from successful collaborations
involving IT. The Indian company
with foreign companies.
producing a magazine for the London
Moreover, globalisation has based company and call centres are
enabled some large Indian companies some examples. Besides, a host of
to emerge as multinationals services such as data entry, account-
themselves! Tata Motors (auto- ing, administrative tasks, engineering
mobiles), Infosys (IT), Ranbaxy are now being done cheaply in
(medicines), Asian Paints (paints), countries such as India and are
Sundaram Fasteners (nuts and bolts) exported to the developed countries.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. How has competition benefited people in India?
2. Should more Indian companies emerge as MNCs? How would it benefit the people in
the country?
3. Why do governments try to attract more foreign investment?
4. In Chapter 1, we saw what may be development for one may be destructive for others.
The setting of SEZs has been opposed by some people in India. Find out who are
these people and why are they opposing it.

G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 67

Reprint 2025-26
 Small producers: Compete or perish
For a large number of small producers and
workers globalisation has posed major
challenges.

R is in g Co m pe ti ti on
Ravi did not expect that he wo
uld have use d to buy dif fer ent com
to face a crisis in such a sho pon ent s
rt period inc lud ing cap aci tor s in bul k
of his life as industrialist. Rav for the
i took a ma nu fac tur e of tel evi sio
loan from the bank to start n set s.
his own Ho we ver, com pet itio n from the
company producing capacitors MN C
in 1992 bra nds for ced the Ind ian tele
in Hosur, an industrial town vis ion
in Tamil com pan ies to mo ve into ass
Nadu. Capacitors are used em blin g
in many activities for MNCs. Even wh
electronic home appliances inc en some
luding of them bought capacitors, the
tube lights, television etc. Wit y would
hin three pre fer to imp ort as the pri ce
yea rs, he wa s ab le to of the
exp an d imp ort ed ite m wa s ha lf the
pro du ctio n an d ha d 20 pri ce
wo rke rs charged by people like Ravi.
working under him.
His struggle to run his compan Ravi now produces less than
y started half the
wh en the gov er nm ent rem capacitors that he produced in
ove d the year
restrictions on imports of capaci 200 0 and has onl y sev en
tors as wo rke rs
per its agreement at WTO in 200 working for him. Many of Ravi’s
1. His friends
main clients, the television com in the same business in Hy
panies, derabad
and Chennai have closed the
ir units.

Batteries, capacitors, plastics, toys, tyres, dairy products, and

vegetable oil are some examples of industries where the small
manufacturers have been hit hard due to competition. Several of
the units have shut down rendering many workers jobless. The
small and medium industries in India employ the largest number
of workers (11 crores) in the country, next only to agriculture.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What are the ways in which Ravi’s small production unit was affected by rising competition?
2. Should producers such as Ravi stop production because their cost of production is higher compared to
producers in other countries? What do you think?
3. Recent studies point out that small producers in India need three things to compete better in the market
(a) better roads, power, water, raw materials, marketing and information network (b) improvements and
modernisation of technology (c) timely availability of credit at reasonable interest rates.
l Can you explain how these three things would help Indian producers?
l Do you think MNCs will be interested in investing in these? Why?
l Do you think the government has a role in making these facilities available? Why?
l Can you think of any other step that the government could take? Discuss.

68 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Competition and Uncertain Employment
Globalisation and the pressure of competition have substantially changed the lives
of workers. Faced with growing competition, most employers these days prefer to
employ workers ‘flexibly’. This means that workers’ jobs are no longer secure.

Let us see how the workers in the garment export industry

in India are having to bear this pressure of competition.

Factory workers folding garments for export. Though globalisation has created opportunities for paid work for
women, the condition of employment shows that women are denied their fair share of benefits.

Large MNCs in the garment industry in

Europe and America order their products
A Garment Worker
many
from Indian exporters. These large MNCs 35 year old Sushila has spent
export
with worldwide network look for the cheapest years as a worker in gar ment
wa s em plo yed
goods in order to maximise their profits. To industry of Delhi. She
ent itle d to
get these large orders, Indian garment as a ‘permanent worker’
fun d,
exporters try hard to cut their own costs. As health insurance, provident
dou ble rat e, wh en
cost of raw materials cannot be reduced, ove rtim e at a
ed in the late
exporters try to cut labour costs. Where Sushila’s factory clos
for
earlier a factory used to employ workers on 1990s. After searching for a job
30
a permanent basis, now they employ workers six months, she finally got a job
Even
only on a temporary basis so that they do km. away from where she lives.
s fac tor y for
not have to pay workers for the whole year. aft er wo rki ng in thi
tem por ary
Workers also have to put in very long several years, she is a
f of
working hours and work night shifts on a worker and ear ns less than hal
lier.
regular basis during the peak season. Wages wh at she wa s ear nin g ear
hou se eve ry
are low and workers are forced to work Su shi la lea ves her
ek at 7:3 0
overtime to make both ends meet. morning, seven days a we
A day
a.m. and returns at 10 p.m.
While this competition among the garment me ans no wa ge. She
off from work
efit s she use d
exporters has allowed the MNCs to make large has none of the ben
er to her
profits, workers are denied their fair share of to get earlier. Factories clos
ers
benefits brought about by globalisation. home have widely fluctuating ord
and therefore pay even less.

G L OBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 69

Reprint 2025-26
 The conditions of work and the hardships of the workers described above
have become common to many industrial units and services in India. Most
workers, today, are employed in the unorganised sector. Moreover, increasingly
conditions of work in the organised sector have come to resemble the
unorganised sector. Workers in the organised sector such as Sushila no longer
get the protection and benefits that they enjoyed earlier.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. In what ways has competition affected workers, Indian exporters and foreign MNCs
in the garment industry?
2. What can be done by each of the following so that the workers can get a fair share
of benefits brought by globalisation?
(a) government
(b) employers at the exporting factories
(c) MNCs
(d) workers.
3. One of the present debates in India is whether companies should have flexible
policies for employment. Based on what you have read in the chapter, summarise
the point of view of the employers and workers.

THE STRUGGLE FOR A FAIR GLOBALISATION

The above evidence indicates that that labour laws are properly
not everyone has benefited from implemented and the workers get
globalisation. People with education, their rights. It can support small
skill and wealth have made the best producers to improve their
use of the new opportunities. On the performance till the time they become
other hand, there are many people strong enough to compete. If
who have not shared the benefits. necessary, the government can use
Since globalisation is now a trade and investment barriers. It can
reality, the question is how to negotiate at the WTO for ‘fairer rules’.
make globalisation more ‘fair’? It can also align with other developing
Fair globalisation would create countries with similar interests to
opportunities for all, and also ensure fight against the domination of
that the benefits of globalisation are developed countries in the WTO.
shared better. In the past few years, massive
The government can play a major campaigns and representation by
role in making this possible. Its people’s organisations have
policies must protect the interests, not influenced important decisions
only of the rich and the powerful, but relating to trade and investments at
all the people in the country. You have the WTO. This has demonstrated
read about some of the possible steps that people also can play an
that the government can take. For important role in the struggle for fair
instance, the government can ensure globalisation.
70 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL
NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
A demonstration against WTO in Hong Kong, 2005

SUMMING UP

In this chapter, we looked at the investment has facilitated

present phase of globalisation. globalisation by removing
Globalisation is the process of barriers to trade and
rapid integration of countries. investment. At the inter -
This is happening through national level, WTO has put
greater foreign trade and foreign pressure on developing coun-
investment. MNCs are playing a tries to liberalise trade and
major role in the globalisation investment.
process. More and more MNCs
While globalisation has
are looking for locations around
benefited well-off consumers
the world that are cheap for their
and also producers with skill,
production. As a result,
education and wealth, many
production is being organised
small producers and workers
in complex ways.
have suffered as a result of the
Technology, particularly IT, rising competition. Fair
has played a big role in globalisation would create
organising production across opportunities for all, and also
countries. In addition, ensure that the benefits of
liberalisation of trade and globalisation are shared better.

G LOBALISA
OBALISATION
TION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 71

Reprint 2025-26
 EXERCISES
1 What do you understand by globalisation? Explain in your own words.

2. What were the reasons for putting barriers to foreign trade and foreign investment by
the Indian government? Why did it wish to remove these barriers?

3. How would flexibility in labour laws help companies?

4. What are the various ways in which MNCs set up, control or produce in other countries?

5. Why do developed countries want developing countries to liberalise their trade and
investment? What do you think should the developing countries demand in return?

6. “The impact of globalisation has not been uniform.” Explain this statement.

7. How has liberalisation of trade and investment policies helped the globalisation
process?

8. How does foreign trade lead to integration of markets across countries? Explain
with an example other than those given here.

9. Globalisation will continue in the future. Can you imagine what the world would be
like twenty years from now? Give reasons for your answer.

10.Supposing you find two people arguing: One is saying globalisation has hurt our
country’s development. The other is telling, globalisation is helping India develop.
How would you respond to these arguments?

11. Fill in the blanks.

Indian buyers have a greater choice of goods than they did two decades back. This
is closely associated with the process of ______________. Markets in India are selling
goods produced in many other countries. This means there is increasing
______________ with other countries. Moreover, the rising number of brands that we
see in the markets might be produced by MNCs in India. MNCs are investing in India
because _____________ ___________________________________________ . While
consumers have more choices in the market, the effect of rising _______________
and ______________has meant greater _________________among the producers.

12.Match the following.

(i) MNCs buy at cheap rates from small (a) Automobiles
producers
(ii) Quotas and taxes on imports are used to (b) Garments, footwear, sports
regulate trade items
(iii) Indian companies who have invested abroad (c) Call centres
(iv) IT has helped in spreading of (d) Tata Motors, Infosys, Ranbaxy
production of services
(v) Several MNCs have invested in setting (e) Trade barriers
up factories in India for production

72 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 13.Choose the most appropriate option.
(i) The past two decades of globalisation has seen rapid movements in
(a) goods, services and people between countries.
(b) goods, services and investments between countries.
(c) goods, investments and people between countries.
(ii) The most common route for investments by MNCs in countries around the
world is to
(a) set up new factories.
(b) buy existing local companies.
(c) form partnerships with local companies.
(iii) Globalisation has led to improvement in living conditions
(a) of all the people
(b) of people in the developed countries
(c) of workers in the developing countries
(d) none of the above

ADDITIONAL ACTIVITY / PROJECT

I. Take some branded products that we use everyday (soaps, toothpaste,
garments, electronic goods, etc.). Check which of these are produced by MNCs.
II. Take any Indian industry or service of your choice. Collect information and
photographs from newspapers, magazine clippings, books, television, internet,
interviews with people on the following aspects of the industry.
(i) Various producers/companies in the industry
(ii) Is the product exported to other countries?
(iii) Are there MNCs among the producers?
(iv) Competition in the industry
(v) Conditions of work in the industry
(vi) Has there been any major change in the industry in the past 15 years?
(vii) Problems that people in the industry face.

G L OBALISA TION
OBALISATION AND THE I NDIAN E CONOMY 73

Reprint 2025-26
 NOTES FOR THE TEACHER
CHAPTER 5 : CONSUMER RIGHTS

This chapter proposes to discuss the issue of posters collectively is another way to think about
consumer rights within the context of the ways these issues. This lesson contains activities,
markets operate in our country. There are many which require visits — visit to consumer
aspects of unequal situations in a market and protection councils, consumer organisations,
poor enforcement of rules and regulations. District/State/National level Consumer
Hence, there is a need to sensitise learners and Disputes Redressal Commissions, retail shops,
encourage them to participate in the consumer marketplaces, etc. Organise the visits to
movement. This chapter provides case histories maximise learners’ experience. Have a
— how some consumers were exploited in real discussion with them about the purpose of the
life situation and how legal institutions helped visit, things they need to do beforehand and
consumers in getting compensated and in things that need to be collected and the task
upholding their rights. The case histories would (report/ project / article, etc.) they would carry
enable the students to link these narratives to out after the visit. As part of this chapter, the
their life experiences. We have to enable learners may do letter-writing and speaking
students to understand that the awareness of activities. We may have to be sensitive to the
being a well-informed consumer arose out of language aspect of exercises.
consumer movement and active participation of
people through their struggles over a long This chapter contains material collected
period. This chapter also provides details of a from authenticated websites, books, newspapers
few organisations helping consumers in different and magazines. For example, https://consumer
ways. Finally, it ends with some critical issues affairs.nic.in is a website of Central Government
of the consumer movement in India. Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public
Distribution. Another website www.cuts-
Aspects of Teaching / Sources of international.org is the website of a consumer
Information organisation working in India for 40 years. It
publishes a variety of material to create
This chapter has questions, case studies and
consumer awareness in India. They need to be
activities. It would be preferred that students
shared among learners so that they can also
discuss these in groups orally. Some of these
collect material as part of their activities. For
could be answered in writing individually.
example, case histories were taken from
While carrying out each activity you could newspaper clippings and consumers who fought
start with a brainstorming session about the in Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions.
activity. Similarly, there are many opportunities Let learners collect and read such material from
for roleplay in this chapter and this could be a different sources: consumer protection councils,
useful way to share their experiences and Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions
understand the issues at a deeper level. Making and internet.

74 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 CHAPTER 5

CONSUMER RIGHTS
The collage you see below contains what are the ways in which they can
some news clippings of Consumer exercise their rights as consumers to
Disputes Redressal Commission get a fair deal from the sellers when
verdicts. Why did the people go to they felt they had been denied a just
these organisations in these cases? treatment?
These verdicts came about because
some people persisted and struggled
to get justice. In what ways were they
denied justice? More importantly,

Reprint 2025-26
THE CONSUMER IN THE MARKETPLACE
We participate in the market both as Likewise, rules and regulations are
producers and consumers. As required for the protection of the
producers of goods and services we consumers in the marketplace.
could be working in any of the sectors Individual consumers often find
discussed earlier such as agriculture, themselves in a weak position.
industry, or services. Consumers Whenever there is a complaint
participate in the market when they regarding a good or service that had
purchase goods and services that they been bought, the seller tries to shift
need. These are the final goods that all the responsibility on to the buyer.
people as consumers use. Their position usually is – “If you
didn’t like what you bought, please
In the preceding chapters we
go elsewhere”. As if the seller has no
discussed the need for rules and
responsibility once a sale is
regulations or steps that would
completed! The consumer movement,
promote development. These could be
as we shall discuss later, is an effort
for the protection of workers in the
to change this situation.
unorganised sector or to protect
people from high interest rates Exploitation in the marketplace
charged by moneylenders in the happens in various ways. For
informal sector. Similarly, rules and example, sometimes traders indulge
regulations are also required for in unfair trade practices such as when
protecting the environment. shopkeepers weigh less than what
they should or when traders add
For example, moneylenders in the
charges that were not mentioned
informal sector that you read about
before, or when adulterated/defective
in Chapter 3 adopt various tricks to
goods are sold.
bind the borrower: they could make
the producer sell the produce to them Markets do not work in a fair
at a low rate in return for a timely loan; manner when producers are few and
they could force a small farmer like powerful whereas consumers
Swapna to sell her land to pay back purchase in small amounts and are
the loan. Similarly, many people who scattered. This happens especially
work in the unorganised sector have when large companies are producing
to work at a low wage and accept these goods. These companies with
conditions that are not fair and are huge wealth, power and reach can
also often harmful to their health. To manipulate the market in various
prevent such exploitation, we ways. At times false information is
have talked of rules and regulations passed on through the media, and
for their protection. There are other sources to attract consumers.
organisations that have struggled For example, a company for years
for long to ensure that these rules are sold powder milk for babies all over
followed.

THEY PURPOSELY MADE IT

SO IT WOULD FALL APART
AFTER A FEW MONTHS SO
THAT I WILL BUY A NEW ONE!

Reprint 2025-26
the world as the most scientific EVERYONE KNOWS
product claiming this to be better TOBACCO KILLS PEOPLE,
than mother’s milk. It took years of BUT WHO CAN SAY THAT
TOBACCO COMPANIES
struggle before the company was SHOULD NOT BE FREE
forced to accept that it had been TO SELL TOBACCO?
making false claims. Similarly, a
long battle had to be fought with
court cases to make cigarette-
manufacturing companies accept that
their product could cause cancer.
Hence, there is a need for rules and
regulations to ensure protection for
consumers.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What are the various ways by which people may be exploited in the market?
2. Think of one example from your experience where you thought that there was some
‘cheating’ in the market. Discuss in the classroom.
3. What do you think should be the role of government to protect consumers?

CONSUMER MOVEMENT
The consumer movement arose out quality of goods and services on the
of dissatisfaction of the consumers sellers.
as many unfair practices were being In India, the consumer movement
indulged in by the sellers. There was as a ‘social force’ originated with the
no legal system available to necessity of protecting and promoting
consumers to protect them from the interests of consumers against
exploitation in the marketplace. For unethical and unfair trade practices.
a long time, when a consumer was Rampant food shortages, hoarding,
not happy with a particular brand black marketing, adulteration of food
product or shop, he or she generally and edible oil gave birth to the
avoided buying that brand product, consumer movement in an organised
or would stop purchasing from that form in the 1960s. Till the 1970s,
shop. It was presumed that it was consumer organisations were largely
engaged in writing articles and
the responsibility of consumers to be
holding exhibitions. They formed
careful while buying a commodity
consumer groups to look into the
or service. It took many years for malpractices in ration shops and
organisations in India, and around overcrowding in the road passenger
the world, to create awareness transport. More recently, India
amongst people. This has also witnessed an upsurge in the number
shifted the responsibility of ensuring of consumer groups.

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 77

Reprint 2025-26
 Consumers International
In 1985 United Nations adopted
the UN Guidelines for Consumer
Protection. This was a tool for
nations to adopt measures to
protect consumers and for
consumer advocacy groups to
press their governments to do
so. At the international level, this
has become the foundation for
consumer movement. Today,
Consumers International has
become an umbrella body to
over 200 member organisations
from over 100 countries.

Because of all these efforts, the movement succeeded in

bringing pressure on business firms as well as government
to correct business conduct which may be unfair and against
the interests of consumers at large. A major step taken in
1986 by the Indian government was the enactment of the
Consumer Protection Act 1986, popularly known as COPRA.
You will learn more about COPRA later.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. What could have been the steps taken by consumer groups?
2. There may be rules and regulations but they are often not followed. Why? Discuss.

Reprint 2025-26
 CONSUMER RIGHTS

SAFETY IS EVERYONE’S RIGHT

Reji’s Suffering
Reji’s suffering shows how a
hospital, due to negligence by the
Reji Mathew, a healthy boy studying in doctors and staff in giving
Class IX, was admitted in a private clinic in anaesthesia, crippled a student for
Kerala for removal of tonsils. An ENT
life. While using many goods and
surgeon perfor med the tonsillectomy
services, we as consumers, have the
operation under general anaesthesia. As a
right to be protected against the
result of improper anaesthesia Reji showed
marketing of goods and delivery of
symptoms of some brain abnormalities services that are hazardous to life and
because of which he was crippled for life. property. Producers need to strictly
His father filed a complaint in the State follow the required safety rules and
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission regulations. There are many goods
claiming compensation of Rs 5,00,000 for and services that we purchase that
medical negligence and deficiency, in require special attention to safety. For
service. The State Commission, saying that example, pressure cookers have a
the evidence was not sufficient, dismissed safety valve which, if it is defective, can
it. Reji’s father appealed again in the cause a serious accident. The
National Consumer Disputes Redressal manufacturers of the safety valve have
Commission located to ensure high quality. You also need
in New Delhi. The public or government action to see
National Commission that this quality is maintained.
after looking into the However, we do find bad quality
complaint, held the products in the market because the
hospital responsible supervision of these rules is weak and
for medical negligence the consumer movement is also not
and directed it to pay strong enough.
the compensation.

LET’S WORK THESE OUT

1. For the following (you can add to the list) products/ services discuss what safety
rules should be observed by the producer?
(a) LPG cylinder (b) cinema theatre (c) circus (d) medicines (e) edible oil
(f) marriage pandal (g) a high-rise building.
2. Find out any case of accident or negligence from people around you, where you think
that the responsibility lay with the producer. Discuss.

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 79

Reprint 2025-26
 Information about goods and product and find it defective well
services within the expiry period, we can ask
for a replacement. If the expiry period
When you buy any commodity, you
was not printed, the manufacturer
will find certain details given on the
would blame the shopkeeper and will
packing. These details are about
not accept the responsibility. If people
ingredients used, price, batch
sell medicines that have expired
number, date of manufacture, expiry
severe action can be taken against
date and the address of the
manufacturer. When we buy them. Similarly, one can protest and
medicines, on the packets, you might complain if someone sells a good at
find ‘directions for proper use’ and more than the printed price on the
information relating to side effects and packet. This is indicated by ‘MRP’ —
risks associated with usage of that maximum retail price. In fact
medicine. When you buy garments, consumers can bargain with the seller
you will find information on to sell at less than the MRP.
‘instructions for washing’. In recent times, the right to
Why is it that rules have been made information has been expanded to
so that the manufacturer displays this cover various services provided by the
information? It is because consumers Government. In October 2005, the
have the right to be informed about Government of India enacted a law,
the particulars of goods and services popularly known as RTI (Right to
that they purchase. Consumers Information) Act, which ensures its
can then complain and ask for citizens all the information about the
compensation or replacement if the functions of government departments.
product proves to be defective in any The effect of the R TI Act can be
manner. For example, if we buy a understood from the following case.

Waiting...
Amritha, an engineering graduate
after submitting all the certificates
and attending the interview for a
job in a government department, did
not receive any news of the result.
The officials also refused to comply
with her queries. She therefore filed
an application using the RTI Act
saying that it was her right to know
the result in a reasonable time so
that she could plan her future. She
was not only informed about the
reasons for delay in the declaration
of results but also got her call letter
for appointment as she performed
well in the interview.

80 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
1. When we buy commodities we find that the price charged is sometimes higher or
lower than the Maximum Retail Price printed on the pack. Discuss the possible
reasons. Should consumer groups do something about this?
2. Pick up a few packaged goods that you want to buy and examine the information
given. In what ways are they useful? Is there some information that you think
should be given on those packaged goods but is not? Discuss.
3. People make complaints about the lack of civic amenities such as bad roads or
poor water and health facilities but no one listens. Now the RTI Act gives you the
power to question. Do you agree? Discuss.

When choice is denied

A Refund
Abirami, a student of Ansari Institute again appealed
Nagar, joined a two-year in the State Consumer
course at a local coaching Com-mission. The State
institute for professional Commission upheld the
courses in New Delhi. At the District Commission’s
time of joining the course, direction and further
she paid the fees Rs 61,020 fined the institute
as lumpsum for the entire Rs 25,000 for a frivolous
course of two years. appeal. It also directed
However, she decided to opt the institute to pay
out of the course at the end of one year Rs 7000 as compensation and
as she found that the quality of litigation cost.
teaching was not up to the mark. When
The State Commission also restrained
she asked for a refund of the fee for one
all the educational and professional
year, it was denied to her.
institutions in the state from charging
When she filed the case in the District fees from students for the entire
Consumer Disputes Redressal duration of the course in advance and
Commission, the Commission directed that too at one go. Any violation of this
the Institute to refund Rs 28,000 saying order may invite penalties and
that she had the right to choose. The imprisonment, the commission said.

What do we understand from this if you buy a toothbrush. If you are not
incident? Any consumer who receives a interested in buying the brush, your
service in whatever capacity, regardless right to choice is denied. Similarly,
of age, gender and nature of service, has sometimes gas supply dealers insist
the right to choose whether to that you have to buy the stove from
continue to receive the service. them when you take a new connection.
Suppose you want to buy In this way many a times you are
toothpaste, and the shop owner says forced to buy things that you may not
that she can sell the toothpaste only wish to and you are left with no choice.

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 81

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THIS OUT
The following are some of the catchy advertisements of products that we purchase
from the market. Which of the following offers would really benefit consumers? Discuss.
l 15 gm more in every 500 gm pack.
l Subscribe for a newspaper with a gift at the end of a year.
l Scratch and win gifts worth Rs 10 lakhs.
l A milk chocolate inside a 500 gram glucose box.
l Win a gold coin inside a pack.
l Buy shoes worth Rs 2000 and get one pair of shoes worth Rs 500 free.

Where should consumers go The consumer can file a complaint

to get justice? before the appropriate consumer
forum on his/her own with or without
Read again the cases of Reji Mathew
the services of lawyers. You might be
and Abirami given earlier in the
interested in knowing how an
chapter. aggrieved person gets his or her
These are some examples in which compensation. Let us take the
consumers are denied their rights. case of Prakash. He had sent a
Such instances occur quite often in money-order to his village for his
our country. Where should these daughter’s marriage. The money did
consumers go to get justice? not reach his daughter at the time
when she needed it nor did it reach
Consumers have the right to seek months later. Prakash filed a case in
redressal against unfair trade a district level Consumer Disputes
practices and exploitation. If any Redressal Commission in New Delhi.
damage is done to a consumer, she All the steps he undertook are
has the right to get compensation illustrated here. These days consumer
depending on the degree of damage. as an individual or as a group (called
There is a need to provide an easy and class action suit) file a complaint both
effective public system by which this Physically or through internet and
can be done. conduct the case through video
conferencing.

1. PRAKASH GOES TO THE POST OFFICE TO PRAKASH COMES TO KNOW THAT THE
SEND MONEY ORDER TO HIS DAUGHTER 2. MONEY HAS NOT REACHED HIS DAUGHTER

82 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 3. PRAKASH ENQUIRES ABOUT THE
MONEY ORDER IN THE POST OFFICE THE POST OFFICE DOES NOT RESPOND
4. TO THE QUERY SATISFACTORILY

6. PRAKASH GOES TO A CONSUMER DISPUTES

REDRESSAL COMMISSION TO FILE A CASE. HE
FILLS A REGISTRATION FORM. THE COMMISSION
5. PRAKASH GOES TO THE LOCAL CONSUMER SENDS NOTICE TO THE OTHER PARTY
PROTECTION COUNCIL FOR ADVICE

7. HE HIMSELF PLEADS
THE CASE IN THE COMMISSION OFFICE JUDGE VERIFIES THE
THE COMMISSION 8.
DOCUMENTS AND HEARS THE ARGUMENTS OF BOTH
OFFICE
THE AGGRIEVED PARTY AND THE OTHER PARTY 9. THE JUDGE ANNOUNCES
THE DISPUTES REDRESSAL
COMMISSION VERDICT.

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 83

Reprint 2025-26
 The consumer movement in India and national levels was set up for
has led to the formation of various redressal of consumer disputes. The
organisations, locally known as district-level authority called District
consumer forums or consumer Consumer Disputes Redressal
protection councils. They guide Commission deals with the cases
consumers on how to file cases in the involving claims up to Rs 1 crore, the
Consumer Disputes Redressal state-level Consumer Disputes
Commissions. On many occasions, Redressal Commissions called State
they also represent individual Commission between Rs 1 crore and
consumers in these commissions. Rs 10 crore and the national-level
These voluntary organisations also
commission — National Commission
receive financial support from the
— deals with cases involving claims
government for creating awareness
exceeding Rs 10 crore. If a case is
among people.
dismissed in district-level
If you are living in a residential commission, a consumer can also
colony, you might have noticed appeal in the state and then in
boards of Residents’ Welfare national-level commissions.
Associations. If there is any unfair
trade practice meted out to their Thus, the Act has enabled us as
members, they take up the case on consumers to have the right to
their behalf. represent in the Consumer Disputes
Redressal Commissions.
Under COPRA, a three-tier quasi-
judicial machinery at the district, state

LET’S WORK THIS OUT

Arrange the following in the correct order.
(a) Arita files a case in the District Consumer Disputes
Redressal Commission.
(b) She engages a professional person.
(c) She realises that the dealer has given her defective
material.
(d) She starts attending the commission proceedings.
(e) She goes and complains to the dealer and the Branch
office, to no effect.
(f) She is asked to produce the bill and warranty before
the commission.
(g) She purchases a wall clock from a retail outlet.
(h) Within a few months, the dealer was ordered by the
commission to replace her old wall clock with a brand
new one at no extra cost.

LEARNING TO BECOME WELL-INFORMED

CONSUMERS
When we as consumers become conscious of our rights,
while purchasing various goods and services, we will
be able to distinguish and make informed choices. This

84 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
calls for acquiring the knowledge and
skill to become a well-informed
consumer. How do we become
conscious of our rights? Look at the
posters on the right and in the
previous page. What do you think?
The enactment of COPRA has led
to the setting up of separate
Departments of Consumer Affairs in
central and state governments. The
posters that you have seen are one
example through which government
spread information about legal
process which people can use.
You might also be seeing such
advertisements on television channels.

ISI and Agmark

While buying many commodities, on the

cover, you might have seen a logo with the
letters ISI, Agmark, Hallmark or +F. These
logos and certification help consumers get
assured of quality while purchasing the
goods and services. The organisations that
monitor and issue these certificates allow
producers to use their logos provided they
follow certain quality standards.
Though these organisations develop quality
standards for many products, it is not
compulsory for all the producers to follow
standards. However, for some products that
affect the health and safety of consumers or
of products of mass consumption like LPG
cylinders, food colours and additives,
cement, packaged drinking water, it is
mandatory on the part of the producers to
get certified by these organisations.

Reprint 2025-26
 LET’S WORK THESE OUT
1. Look at the posters and cartoons in this chapter. Think of any particular commodity
and the aspects that need to be looked at as a consumer. Design a poster for this.
2. Find out the nearest Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission for your area.
3. What is the difference between consumer protection council and Consumer Disputes
Redressal Commission?
4. The Consumer Protection Act 1986 ensures the following as rights which every
consumer in India should possess
(i) Right to choice. (iv) Right to representation.
(ii) Right to information. (v) Right to safety.
(iii) Right to redressal. (vi) Right to consumer education.
Categorise the following cases under different heads and mark against each in
brackets.
(a) Lata got an electric shock from a newly purchased iron. She complained to the
shopkeeper immediately. ( )
(b) John is dissatisfied with the services provided by MTNL/BSNL/TATA INDICOM
for the past few months. He files a case in the District Level Consumer
Commission. ( )
(c) Your friend has been sold a medicine that has crossed the expiry date and you
are advising her to lodge a complaint ( ).
(d) Iqbal makes it a point to scan through all the particulars given on the pack of any
item that he buys. ( )
(e) You are not satisfied with the services of the cable operator catering to your
locality but you are unable to switch over to anybody else. ( )
(f) You realise that you have received a defective camera from a dealer. You are
complaining to the head office persistently ( ).
5. If the standardisation ensures the quality of a commodity, why are many goods
available in the market without ISI or Agmark certification?
6. Find out the details of who provides Hallmark and ISO certification.

TAKING THE CONSUMER MOVEMENT FORWARD

India has been observing 24 their activities. There are today more
December as the National Consumers’ than 2000 consumer groups in the
Day. It was on this day that the Indian country of which only about 50-60
Parliament enacted the Consumer are well organised and recognised for
Protection Act in 1986. India is one their work.
of the countries that have exclusive
However, the consumer redressal
authority for consumer redressal.
process is becoming cumbersome,
The consumer movement in India expensive and time consuming. Many
has made some progress in terms of a time, consumers are required to
numbers of organised groups and engage lawyers. These cases require

Reprint 2025-26
time for filing and attending the encouraged at all the three tiers
commission proceedings etc. In most Consumer Commissions. After more
purchases cash memos are not issued than 30 years of the enactment of
hence evidence is not easy to gather. COPRA, consumer awareness in India
Moreover most purchases in the is spreading but slowly. Besides this
market are small retail sales. The the enforcement of laws that protect
workers, especially in the
COPRA was amended in the year
unorganised sectors is weak.
2019 to further strengthen
Similarly, rules and regulations for
consumers in India. Buying through
working of markets are often not
internet is now included. If there is any followed.
service deficiency or defective product,
Nevertheless, there is scope for
service provider or manufacturer is
consumers to realise their role and
also held responsible and would be importance. It is often said that
penalized or even imprisoned. consumer movements can be effective
Settlement of disputes with the help only with the consumers’ active
of a neutral intermediary outside the involvement. It requires a voluntary
Consumer Disputes Redressal effort and struggle involving the
Commission, called mediator, is now participation of one and all.

EXERCISES
1. Why are rules and regulations required in the marketplace? Illustrate with a few examples.
2. What factors gave birth to the consumer movement in India? Trace its evolution.
3. Explain the need for consumer consciousness by giving two examples.
4. Mention a few factors which cause exploitation of consumers.
5. What is the rationale behind the enactment of Consumer Protection Act 1986?
6. Describe some of your duties as consumers if you visit a shopping complex in your locality.
7. Suppose you buy a bottle of honey and a biscuit packet. Which logo or mark you will have
to look for and why?
8. What legal measures were taken by the government to empower the consumers in India?
9. Mention some of the rights of consumers and write a few sentences on each.
10. By what means can the consumers express their solidarity?
11. Critically examine the progress of consumer movement in India.
12. Match the following.
(i) Availing details of ingredients of a product (a) Right to safety
(ii) Agmark (b) Dealing with consumer cases
(iii) Accident due to faulty engine in a scooter (c) Certification of edible oil and cereals
(iv) District Consumer Commission (d) Agency that develop standards for
goods and services
(v) Food fortification (e) Right to information
(vi) Consumers International (f) Global level institution of
consumer welfare organisations
(vii) Bureau of Indian Standards (g) Addition of key nutrients to staple
foods

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 87

Reprint 2025-26
 13. Say True or False.
(i) COPRA applies only to goods.
(ii) India is one of the many countries in the world which has exclusive
authorities established for consumer disputes redressal.
(iii) When a consumer feels that he has been exploited, he must file a case in
the District Consumer Commission.
(iv) It is worthwhile to move to consumer commissions only if the damages
incurred are of high value.
(v) Hallmark is the certification maintained for standardisation of jewellry.
(vi) The consumer redressal process is very simple and quick.
(vii) A consumer has the right to get compensation depending on the degree of
the damage.

ADDITIONAL PROJECTS / ACTIVITIES

1. Your school organises a consumer awareness week. As the Secretary of the
Consumer Awareness Forum, draft a poster covering all the consumer rights.
You may use the clues and ideas given in the poster on page 84 and 85. This
activity can be done with the help of your English teacher.

2. Mrs. Krishna bought a colour television (CTV) against six months warranty. The
CTV stopped working after three months. When she complained to the dealer /
shop where it was purchased, they sent an engineer to set it right. The CTV
continues to give trouble and Mrs Krishna no longer gets any reply to the complaint
she made to the dealer / shop. She decides to write to the Consumer Commission
in her area. Write a letter on her behalf. You may discuss with your partner /
group members before you write it.

3. Establish a consumer club in your school. Organise mock consumer awareness

workshops like monitoring bookshops, canteen, and shops in your school area.

4. Prepare posters with catchy slogans like:

– An alert consumer is a safe consumer

– Buyers, Beware

– Consumers be cautious

– Be aware of your rights

– As consumers, assert your right

– Arise, awake and stop not till ______________________ (Complete it)

5. Interview 4-5 persons in your neighbourhood and collect varied experiences

regarding how they have been victims of such exploitation and their responses.
6. Conduct a survey in your locality by supplying the following questionnaire to get
an idea as to how alert they are as consumers.

88 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 For each question, tick one. Always Sometimes Never
A B C

1. When you buy some item, do you insist on a bill? ” ” ”

2. Do you keep the bill carefully? ” ” ”
3. If you realise that you have been tricked by the shop- ” ” ”
keeper, have you bothered to complain to him or her?
4. Have you been able to convince him or her that you’ve ” ” ”
been cheated?
5. Do you simply grumble to yourself reconciling that it is ” ” ”
your fate that you are often being victimised so and it is
nothing new?
6. Do you look for ISI mark, expiry date etc.? ” ” ”
7. If the expiry date mentioned is just a month or so away, ” ” ”
do you insist on a fresh packet?
8. Do you weigh the new gas cylinder/old newspapers ” ” ”
yourself before buying/selling?
9. Do you raise an objection if a vegetable seller uses stones ” ” ”
in place of the exact weight?
10. Do excessively bright coloured vegetables arouse your ” ” ”
suspicion?
11. Are you brand-conscious? ” ” ”
12. Do you associate high price with good quality (to reassure ” ” ”
yourself that after all you have not paid a higher price just
like that)?
13. Do you unhesitatingly respond to catchy offers? ” ” ”
14. Do you compare the price paid by you with those of ” ” ”
others?
15. Do you strongly believe that your shopkeeper never cheats ” ” ”
a regular customer like you?
16. Do you favour ‘home delivery’ provision of items without ” ” ”
any doubt regarding weight etc.?
17. Do you insist on ‘paying by meter’ when you travel by ” ” ”
auto?

Note
(i) You are extremely aware as a consumer if your answers for
Qns. 5, 12, 13, 15 and 16 are (C) and for the rest (A).
(ii) If your answers are (A) for Qns. 5, 12, 13, 15 and 16 and the
rest (C), then you have to wake up as consumer.
(iii) If your answer is (B) for all the questions – you are somewhat
aware.

C ONSUMER R IGHTS 89

Reprint 2025-26
 Appendix 1: Body Mass Index for Adolescent Girls (Age 14-18)

Malnourished Malnourished
Years Month Normal
(underweight) (obesity)
14 0 Less than 15.4 15.4 to 27.3 More than 27.3
14 1 Less than 15.5 15.5 to 27.4 More than 27.4
14 2 Less than 15.5 15.5 to 27.5 More than 27.5
14 3 Less than 15.6 15.6 to 27.6 More than 27.6
14 4 Less than 15.6 15.6 to 27.7 More than 26.3
14 5 Less than 15.6 15.6 to 27.7 More than 27.7
14 6 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 27.8 More than 27.8
14 7 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 27.9 More than 27.9
14 8 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 28.0 More than 28.0
14 9 Less than 15.8 15.8 to 28.0 More than 28.0
14 10 Less than 15.8 15.8 to 28.1 More than 28.1
14 11 Less than 15.8 15.8 to 28.2 More than 28.2
15 0 Less than 15.9 15.9 to 28.2 More than 28.2
15 1 Less than 15.9 15.9 to 28.3 More than 28.3
15 2 Less than 15.9 15.9 to 28.4 More than 28.4
15 3 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 28.4 More than 28.4
15 4 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 28.5 More than 28.5
15 5 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 28.6 More than 28.5
15 6 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 28.6 More than 28.6
15 7 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 28.7 More than 28.6
15 8 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 28.7 More than 28.7
15 9 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 28.7 More than 28.7
15 10 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 28.8 More than 28.8
15 11 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 28.8 More than 28.8
16 0 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 28.9 More than 28.9
16 1 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 28.9 More than 28.9
16 2 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 29.0 More than 29.0
16 3 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 29.0 More than 29.0
16 4 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 29.0 More than 29.0
16 5 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.1 More than 29.1
16 6 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.1 More than 29.1
16 7 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.1 More than 29.1
16 8 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.2 More than 29.2
16 9 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.2 More than 29.2
16 10 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.2 More than 29.2
16 11 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 29.3 More than 29.3
17 0 Less than 16.4 16.3 to 29.3 More than 29.3
17 1 Less than 16.4 16.3 to 29.3 More than 29.3
17 2 Less than 16.4 16.3 to 29.3 More than 29.3
17 3 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.4
17 4 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.4
17 5 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.4
17 6 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.4
17 7 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.4
17 8 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.5
17 9 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.5
17 10 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.5
17 11 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.5
18 0 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 29.4 More than 29.5

90 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26
 Appendix 2: Body Mass Index for Adolescent Boys (Age 14-18)

Malnourished Malnourished
Years Month Normal
(underweight) (obesity)
14 0 Less than 15.5 15.5 to 25.9 More than 25.9
14 1 Less than 15.5 15.5 to 26.0 More than 26.0
14 2 Less than 15.6 15.6 to 26.1 More than 26.1
14 3 Less than 15.6 15.6 to 26.2 More than 26.2
14 4 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 26.3 More than 26.3
14 5 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 26.4 More than 26.4
14 6 Less than 15.7 15.7 to 26.5 More than 26.5
14 7 Less than 15.8 15.8 to 26.5 More than 26.5
14 8 Less than 15.8 15.8 to 26.6 More than 26.6
14 9 Less than 15.9 15.9 to 26.7 More than 26.7
14 10 Less than 15.9 15.9 to 26.8 More than 26.8
14 11 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 26.9 More than 26.9
15 0 Less than 16.0 16.0 to 27.0 More than 27.0
15 1 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 27.1 More than 27.1
15 2 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 27.1 More than 27.1
15 3 Less than 16.1 16.1 to 27.2 More than 27.2
15 4 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 27.3 More than 27.3
15 5 Less than 16.2 16.2 to 27.4 More than 27.4
15 6 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 27.4 More than 27.4
15 7 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 27.5 More than 27.5
15 8 Less than 16.3 16.3 to 27.6 More than 27.6
15 9 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 27.7 More than 27.7
15 10 Less than 16.4 16.4 to 27.7 More than 27.7
15 11 Less than 16.5 16.5 to 27.8 More than 27.8
16 0 Less than 16.5 16.5 to 27.9 More than 27.9
16 1 Less than 16.5 16.5 to 27.9 More than 27.9
16 2 Less than 16.6 16.6 to 28.0 More than 28.0
16 3 Less than 16.6 16.6 to 28.1 More than 28.1
16 4 Less than 16.7 16.7 to 28.1 More than 28.1
16 5 Less than 16.7 16.7 to 28.2 More than 28.2
16 6 Less than 16.7 16.7 to 28.3 More than 28.3
16 7 Less than 16.8 16.8 to 28.3 More than 28.3
16 8 Less than 16.8 16.8 to 28.4 More than 28.4
16 9 Less than 16.8 16.8 to 28.5 More than 28.5
16 10 Less than 16.9 16.9 to 28.5 More than 28.5
16 11 Less than 16.9 16.9 to 28.6 More than 28.6
17 0 Less than 16.9 16.9 to 28.6 More than 28.6
17 1 Less than 17.0 17.0 to 28.7 More than 28.7
17 2 Less than 17.0 17.0 to 28.7 More than 28.7
17 3 Less than 17.0 17.1 to 28.8 More than 28.8
17 4 Less than 17.1 17.1 to 28.9 More than 28.9
17 5 Less than 17.1 17.1 to 28.9 More than 28.9
17 6 Less than 17.1 17.1 to 29.0 More than 29.0
17 7 Less than 17.1 17.1 to 29.0 More than 29.0
17 8 Less than 17.2 17.2 to 29.1 More than 29.1
17 9 Less than 17.2 17.2 to 29.1 More than 29.1
17 10 Less than 17.2 17.2 to 29.2 More than 29.2
17 11 Less than 17.3 17.3 to 29.2 More than 29.2
18 0 Less than 17.3 17.3 to 29.2 More than 29.2

Source: Based on chart published by the World Health Organization

APPENDIX 91

Reprint 2025-26
 SUGGESTED READINGS
Books
Abijit Vinayak Banerjee, Roland Benabou and Dilip Mookherjee (eds.),
Understanding Poverty, Oxford University Press, New York, 2006.
Amit Bhaduri and Deepak Nayyar, Intelligent Person’s Guide to Liberalisation,
Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1996.
Amit Bhaduri, Development with Dignity: The Case for Full Employment, National
Book Trust, New Delhi, 2005.
Amit Bhaduri, Macroeconomics: The Dynamics of Commodity Production,
Macmillan, London, 1986.
Bimal Jalan (ed.), Indian Economy, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2002.
CUTS, Is it Really Safe, Consumer Unity Trust Society, Jaipur, 2004.
CUTS, State of the Indian Consumer: Analyses of the Implementation of the United
Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection, 1985 in India, Consumer Unity
Trust Society, Jaipur, 2001.
Indrani Mazumdar, Women and Globalisation: The Impact on Women Workers in
the Formal and Informal Sectors in India, Stree, Delhi, 2007.
Jagdish Bhagwati In Defence of Globalisation, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2004.
Jan Breman and Parthiv Shah, Working in the mill no more, Oxford University
Press, Delhi, 2005.
Jan Breman, Footloose Labour: Working in India’s Informal Economy, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1996.
Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India: Development and Participation, Oxford
University Press, Delhi, Third Impression, 2007.
John K.Galbraith, Money: Whence it Came, Whence it Went, Indian Book Company,
New Delhi, 1975.
Joseph Stiglitz, Globalisation and its Discontents, Penguin Books India,
New Delhi, 2003.
National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission, Landmark Judgments on
Consumer Protection, Universal Law Publishing Co., Delhi, 2005.
Tirthankar Roy, The Economic History of India, 1857-1947, Oxford University
Press, Delhi, Second Edition, 2006.
Government Publications
Economic Survey, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
Key Results of Employment-Unemployment Rounds, National Sample Survey
Organisation, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govt
of India, New Delhi.
National Human Development Report , Planning Commission, Government of India,
New Delhi.
National Family Health Survey, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi
and International Institute of Population Studies, Mumbai.
Other Reports
Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, Reserve Bank of India, Mumbai.
Human Development Report, United Nations Development Programme, New York.
World Development Indicators, The World Bank, Washington.

92 U NDERST ANDING E CONOMIC D EVEL

NDERSTANDING OPMENT
EVELOPMENT

Reprint 2025-26