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Definition of Air Pollution

Air pollution is the presence of foreign substances in the air. There are some specific
definitions available for air pollution:

“Air pollution is defined as the presence of contaminants or pollutant

substances in the air that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce
harmful environmental effects” (the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, 2007).

“Air pollution is the presence of substances in air in sufficient

concentration and for sufficient time, so as to be, or threaten to be injurious to
human, plant or animal life, or to property, or which reasonably interferes with
the comfortable enjoyment of life and property” (WHO,1972)

Classification of Air Pollutants

A substance in the air that can cause harm humans and the environment is known as
an air pollutant. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases.
Besides, they may be natural or human-made.

Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are

directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon
monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Instead, they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary contaminant
is ground-level ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that make up
photochemical smog. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are
both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include

• Sulphur oxides (SOx): SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial

processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their
combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4 and acid rain. This is one of the
causes for concern over the environmental impact of using these fuels as power
sources.

• Nitrogen oxides (NOx): especially nitrogen dioxide is emitted from high-

temperature combustion, and are also produced naturally during thunderstorms by

electrical discharge. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume
downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula
NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odour. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very

poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas,

coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a significant source of carbon monoxide.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2): is a colourless, odourless, non-toxic greenhouse gas also

associated with ocean acidification, emitted from sources such as combustion,

cement production, and respiration. It is otherwise recycled in the atmosphere in
the carbon cycle.
• Volatile organic compounds: VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. They

are often divided into separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane
(NMVOCs) in this field. Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas that
contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs is also
significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and prolonging
methane's life in the atmosphere. However, the effect varies depending on local air
quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene, and
xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukaemia through prolonged
exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound that is often associated
with industrial uses.
• Atmospheric particulate matter: Particulates, referred to as particulate matter

(PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In
 contrast, aerosol refers to particles and gas together. Sources of particulate matter
can be human-made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from
volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray.
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes, also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over
the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently
account for about 10 per cent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere.
Increased fine particles levels are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,
altered lung function, and lung cancer.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): harmful to the ozone layer emitted from
refrigerators, air conditioners used as a coolant and in plastic foam such as a
thermocouple.
• Ammonia (NH3): emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with

the formula NH3. It is usually encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent

odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to terrestrial organisms' nutritional needs
by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or
indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals.
Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
• Radioactive pollutants: produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war

explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include

• Smog: is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is synchrony of two words, smoke

and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area
caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern pollution does not usually
come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions acted on in the
atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also
combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground-level ozone (O3): formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a vital

constituent of the troposphere. It is also an essential constituent of some areas of

the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and
chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in
the atmosphere by day and night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about
 by human activities (mostly the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant and a
constituent of smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN): similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include many little hazardous air pollutants—a variety of
persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. Persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds resistant to environmental degradation
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have
been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have
potentially significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources of Air Pollution

Stationary and Area Sources

A stationary air pollution source refers to an emission source that does not move, also
known as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry
cleaners and degreasing operations. The term area source is used to describe many
small air pollution sources located together whose individual emissions may be below
thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential
wood burners are an excellent example of a small source, but they can contribute to
local and regional air pollution levels when combined with many other short sources.
Area sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as housing
developments, dry lakebeds, and landfills.

Mobile Sources

A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its
power. In general, mobile references imply "on-road" transportation, including vehicles
such as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. Besides, there is also a "non-road" or
"off-road" category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and
construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
Agricultural Sources

Agricultural operations, which raise animals and grow crops, can generate emissions
of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted
area (rather than field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits
various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be ejected from
the animal houses, manure storage areas, or the land after the manure is applied. In
crop production, the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can
potentially result in an aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused.

Natural Sources

Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most
significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of
"pollution". Wildland fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute gases and
particulates to our atmosphere.

Unlike the air mentioned above, people or their activities do not cause pollution
sources, natural “air pollution”. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and
gases; forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of "pollutants"; plants and trees
naturally emit VOCs that are oxidized, and form aerosols cause a natural blue haze,
and dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter. Wild animals in their
natural habitat are also considered natural sources of "pollution". The National Park
Service recognizes that each of these sources emits gases and particulate matter into
the atmosphere, but we regard these as constituents resulting from natural processes.

Effects of Air Pollution

A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health
and the environment. In most areas of Europe, these pollutants are principally the
combustion products from space heating, power generation, or motor vehicle traffic.
Pollutants from these sources may not only prove a problem near these sources but
can travel long distances.
Health Effects:

Exposure to air pollution is associated with numerous effects on human health,

including pulmonary, cardiac, vascular, and neurological impairments. The health
effects vary significantly from person to person. High-risk groups such as the elderly,
infants, pregnant women, and sufferers from chronic heart and lung diseases are more
susceptible to air pollution. Children are at greater risk because they are generally
more active outdoors, and their lungs are still developing. Exposure to air pollution can
cause both acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) health effects. Acute effects are
usually immediate and often reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some
acute health effects include eye irritation, Headache, and nausea. Chronic effects are
generally not direct and tend not to be reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends.
Some chronic health effects include decreased lung capacity and lung cancer resulting
from long-term exposure to toxic air pollutants. The scientific techniques for assessing
air pollution's health impacts include air pollutant monitoring, exposure assessment,
dosimetry, toxicology, and epidemiology.

Although in humans, pollutants can affect the skin, eyes and other body systems, they
involve the respiratory system primarily. Both gaseous and particulate air pollutants
can have adverse effects on the lungs. The lungs are the organs responsible for
absorbing oxygen from the air and removing carbon dioxide from the blood-stream.
Damage to the lungs from air pollution can inhibit this process and contribute to
respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, emphysema, and cancer. This can also put
an additional burden on the heart and circulatory system.

Table 1 summarizes the sources, health and welfare effects for the Criteria Pollutants.
Hazardous air pollutants may cause other less common but potentially dangerous
health effects, including cancer and damage to the immune system, and neurological,
reproductive and developmental problems. Acute exposure to some hazardous air
pollutants can cause immediate death.
 Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants.

Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare Effects

Carbon The colourless, Motor vehicle Headache reduced Contribute to the
Monoxide odourless gas exhaust, indoor mental alertness, formation of
(CO) sources include heart attack, smog.
kerosene or wood- cardiovascular
burning stoves. diseases, impaired
fetal development,
and death.
Sulfur Colourless gas Coal-fired power Eye irritation, Contribute to the
Dioxide dissolves in plants, petroleum wheezing, chest formation of acid
(SO2) water vapour to refineries, tightness, rain, visibility
form acid and manufacture of shortness of impairment, plant
interact with sulfuric acid and breath, lung and water
other gases and smelting of ores damage. damage,
particles in the containing sulfur. aesthetic
air. damage.
Nitrogen Reddish-brown, Motor vehicles, Susceptibility to Contribute to
Dioxide highly reactive electric utilities, respiratory smog formation,
(NO2) gas. and other infections, irritation acid rain, water
industrial, of the lung and quality
commercial, and respiratory deterioration,
residential sources symptoms (e.g., global warming,
that burn fuels. cough, chest pain, and visibility
difficulty breathing). impairment.
Ozone Gaseous Vehicle exhaust Eye and throat Plant and
(O3) pollutant when it and certain other irritation, coughing, ecosystem
is formed in the fumes. It is formed respiratory tract damage.
troposphere. from other air problems, asthma,
pollutants in the lung damage.
 presence of
sunlight.
Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, Anaemia, high Affects animals
lead smelters, blood pressure, and plants,
battery brain and kidney affects aquatic
manufacturers, damage, ecosystems.
iron and steel neurological
producers. disorders, cancer,
lowered IQ.
Particulate Microscopic Diesel engines, Eye irritation, Visibility
Matter particles of soot, power plants, asthma, bronchitis, impairment,
(PM) dust, or other industries, lung damage, atmospheric
matter, including windblown dust, cancer, heavy deposition,
tiny droplets of wood stoves. metal poisoning, aesthetic damage
liquids. cardiovascular
effects.

Source: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT Delhi/

Effects on Farm Animals:

The process by which farm animals get poisoned is entirely different from how human
beings exposed to the polluted atmosphere are poisoned. In the case of farm animals,
it is a two-step process:

1) Accumulation of the airborne contaminant in the forage.

2) Subsequent poising of the animals when they eat the contaminated vegetation.

In the case of farm animals, the danger is not in inhaling the polluted air, but rather the
ingestion of forage contaminated with pollutants like fluorine from the air. The three
pollutants responsible for most livestock damage are fluorine, arsenic and lead. These
pollutants originate from industrial sources or dusting and spraying.
Effects on Vegetation:

Air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, HF, particulate fluorides, smog, oxidants like
ozone, ethylene (from automobiles), NOx, Chlorine and herbicides and weedicide
sprays exert toxic effects on vegetation. The damage usually occurs in the form of
visual injury such as chlorotic marking, banding, silvering or bronzing of the leaf's
underside. Retardation of plant growth may also occur in some cases. The extent of
damage to a pant depends upon the nature and concentration of the pollutants, time
of exposure, soil and plant condition, stage of growth, relative humidity and the extent
of sunlight.

Environmental Effects:

Climate change on a global scale has been attributed to increased emissions of carbon
dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas. A global average temperature rise of the only 1ºC
could have profound implications. Possible consequences include melting of polar ice
caps, increased sea level; and increases in precipitation and severe weather events
like hurricanes, tornadoes, heat waves, floods, and droughts. Indirect effects include
increases in infectious disease, weather-related deaths, and food and water
shortages. All these effects put stress on ecosystems and agriculture and threaten our
planet as a whole.

Other atmospheric effects of air pollution include urban smog and reduced visibility,
associated with ozone-forming nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compound
emissions. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides combine with water in the atmosphere
to cause acid rain, which is detrimental to forests and other vegetation, soil, lakes, and
aquatic life. Acid rain also causes monuments and buildings to deteriorate.

Air Pollution Control

The following two basic approaches are used for controlling air pollution:
1. Controlling or confining the pollutants at the source. This can be achieved by:
• Modifying the process in such a way that pollutants do not form at all beyond
permissible concentration.
• We are reducing the pollutant concentrations to tolerable levels before they
are released to the environment, using suitable Equipment we can destroy,
alter or trap the pollutants formed.
2. Dilution of the pollutants in the atmosphere to permissible levels before they can
reach the receptor. This can be achieved by using tall stacks, controlling the
process parameters with due regard to the local meteorological conditions and
proper community planning to prevent the accumulation of dangerous ground-level
concentrations within the designated areas.

Methods and Equipment used to control gaseous pollutants:

1) Combustion: This technique is used when pollutants contain gases or vapours,

which are organic. Flame combustion or catalytic combustion of these pollutants
converts them into water vapours and relatively innocuous products, such as CO2.
The Equipment used for flame combustion includes fume incinerators, steam
injection or venture flares and afterburners.
2) Absorption: In this technique, the gaseous effluents are passed through scrubbers
or absorbers containing a suitable liquid absorbent to remove or modify one or more
pollutants present in the gas stream. The efficiency of the gas absorption process
depends upon:
• The chemical reactivity of the gaseous pollutants in the liquid phase.
• The extent of surface contact between the liquid and the gas.
• The contact time and
• The concentration of the absorbing medium.
The types of Equipment used include plate towers, spray towers, packed towers etc.
The gas absorption technique is widely used for removing pollutants like NOx, H2S,
SO2, SO3 etc.
3) Adsorption: In this technique, the gaseous effluents are passed through porous
solid adsorbents taken in suitable containers. The effluent gases' organic and
inorganic constituents are held at the stable adsorbent interface by physical adsorption
or chemisorptions. The efficiency of adsorption depends upon the surface area per
unit weight of the adsorbent, other physical and chemical characteristics of the
adsorbent and nature and concentration of the gas being adsorbed.

Methods and Equipment used for controlling particulate emissions:

Particulate materials in ambient air may originate from stationary as well as mobile
sources. The various devices used may be classified as follows:

1) Mechanical devices: These devices mostly operate based on the following two
mechanisms:
• Gravity settling in which the velocity of the horizontal carrier gas is reduced
adequately so that the particles settle by gravitational force.
• A sudden change of direction of the gas flow causes the particles to separate
due to their more significant momentum.
Settling chambers, buffer chambers and cyclone separators commonly use
mechanical devices to separate particulates from gases.

2) Filtration Systems: Dust laden gases are forced through a porous medium such
as woven or filled fabric. The particles are trapped and collected in the filters, and the
gases devoid of the particles are discharged out. Fibrous or deep-bed filters and cloth
bag filters are commonly used. Gas fibre filters have superior chemical resistance.

3) Electrostatic Precipitators: When a gas or an air stream containing aerosols, e.g.,

dust, fumes or mist is passed between two electrodes which are electrically insulated
from each other and between which appreciable difference in electrical potential
exists, then the aerosols particles get precipitated on the electrodes that are at a lower
potential.
Electrostatic precipitators are the devices of choice when

• Vast volumes of gases are to be handled

• Valuable dry material is to be recovered
• Very high collecting efficiency for the removal of fine particulates is essential and
• When the gas temperatures are very high.
4) Wet Scrubbers: Wet scrubbers are used

• When fine particles have to be efficiently removed

• When particulates, as well as gaseous contaminants, have to be removed
• When the gases to be treated are combustible
• When the volume of the gases being treated is low.
Wet scrubbers are classified according to the method of particle collection as follows:

• Liquid carriage type where the gas stream containing the particles is allowed to
strike a liquid surface within the collector. The liquid carrying the trapped gas
particles moves to a location outside the collector for ultimate disposal.
• Particle conditioning type where the dust particles in the gas stream are brought
into intimate contact with water so that the particles' sufficient size is increased
due to the formation of heavier water particulate agglomerates. These can be
more easily separated from the gas stream by any of the collection mechanisms.
Many wet scrubbers are in use in air pollution control, including venture scrubber,
gravity spray scrubber, wet impinger scrubber, cyclone spray chambers, and wet
centrifugal scrubber.

Units of Measurement of Air Pollution:

The concentration of the air pollutants is most often expressed in one of two ways.
One of these, parts per million, is based on volume measurements and represents
contaminants' volume in 1 million works of air. The importance of pollutant and air is
determined at a standard temperate and pressure of 25ºC and 760 torrs (atmospheric
pressure at sea level).
The second way of expressing concentration relates to the mass of pollutants to the
air volume containing it. The unit is often used as a microgram per cubic meter (µg/m³),
where one microgram is equal to 10-6 grams. In heavily polluted areas, milligrams (10-
3
grams) per cubic meter are used to avoid large numbers. A milligram is 1000 times
larger than a microgram, so a concentration of 10,000 µg/m³ becomes 10 mg/ m³.