HUM 709 (Human Psychology & Environment)

CHAPTER-3 : MOTIVATION, FRUSTRATION, and EMOTION

We can define motivation as the desires, needs, and interests that arouse or activate an organism
and direct it toward a specific goal.

It can either steam from internal or external sources or from the interaction of both. For example,
desire for food or sex steams from internal biological needs. On the other hand, the desire for
social recognition or honor steams from external sources. But sometimes it can be steamed from
the interaction of both external and internal sources. For example, if someone feel need for food,
this comes from his internal drives. But by what type of food he wants to meet the hunger totally
depends on his choice. That means it came from external source.

*Q.02. Discuss major theories of motivation.

There are five major theories of motivation. These are: instinct theory, drive theory, arousal
theory, opponent process theory, and intensive theory. These theories are discussed below:

1) Instinct theory

Instinct theory is the oldest way in the notion of motivation. It was thought that an organism act
the way they do is for the by-born existence of instincts inside him. Instinct can be defined as
inborn behavior which doesn't require any learning or training. For example, when a squirrel
finds a nut on the ground, it will bury the nut for future consumption. This behavior doesn't need
any previous learning. The idea that instincts control certain behaviors is one of the oldest
notions in psychology.

In the very beginning of this notion, 10 basic instincts were suggested, including aggression,
reproduction, and flight (McDougall, 1908). But within few years, the number of basic instincts
increased to 100. Many of these proposed instincts had nothing to do with survival (For example,
cleanliness, modesty and so on). So within short time, the concept of instinct lost its appeal and
the term replaced by a new term named 'fixed-action pattern'. 'fixed-action pattern' was defined
as an unlearned behavior, universal for a particular species, that is elicited or released in the
presence of naturally occurring events. For example, a female fish named three-spined
stickleback shows aggression to male fishes when they notice the red belly of a the male fish.

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But it was not found when a dummy male fish was created without the red spot in the belly. It
elicited the aggressive behavior when that red color was added.

Modern instinct theory argue that, there is no existence of unlearned behavior, but it is learned in
the very early stage of the development. For example, the newly hatched ducklings can make
difference between the maternal call of their species and others. It happens because it is learned
during hatching time when the mother hatches the eggs.

2) Drive Theory

Another biologically based theory of motivation involves the concepts of drive and drive
reduction. These two related concepts, like the concept of instinct, have figured prominently in
motivation research for many years. Freud theorized that human behavior was motivated largely
by sexual and aggressive drives. But it was a learning theorist, Clark Hull, who undertook the
first systematic study of the concepts of drive and drive reduction (Hull, 1943). Hull and his
students believed that organisms were motivated to eliminate or reduce bodily tension. A
common example is the discomfort that arises from deprivation of food or water. Drive is the
term used to define the state of tension that occurs when a need is not met. Hull believed that
drives motivates organisms to reduce tension. In Hullian terms, organisms in a high state of
arousal are motivated to engage in the process of drive reduction. a set of behaviors designed to
reduce or eliminate bodily tension. In the previous example, the hungry man will be motivated to
have food.

Another concept called homeostasis has been made the concept of drive theory more
comprehensible. The optimal level of psychological functioning that maintains an organism at a
balanced or constant state is called homeostasis. Organisms strives for achieving this balanced
state. That is why it get motivated to do something.

Though drive theory contributed a lot in the study of motivation, it became questionable in 1950s
when it could not explain all kinds of behaviors which were not happened merely for drive
reduction. For example, monkeys were observed solving complex problems simply for the
opportunity to look at interesting events, such as a toy train moving around a track.

3) Arousal Theory

As the popularity of drive theory waned, psychologists began to reflect more broadly on
motivation, particularly in humans. One common observation was that on many occasions people
seemed to desire an increase in their level of tension or excitement, referred to as arousal. Some
contemporary examples of activities that suggest a need to increase arousal are roller coaster
rides, skydiving, and horror movies. Whereas these examples point to the need to increase

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arousal, on other occasions people seek to decrease arousal. In other words, we may have
preference for an optimal level of arousal that is neither too high nor too low.

Many psychologists are favorably impressed with the idea that nervous system seeks a balance-
an optimal level of arousal. Some have suggested a theoretical relationship between level of
arousal and degree of efficiency in performing certain task. For example, a person with lower
arousal (say, very tired) will be impaired in performing that task for lower energy. On the other
hand, very high level of his arousal will also impair his performance because of extreme
excitement or anxiety. The level of optimum arousal level varies person to person or situation to
situation.

4) Incentive Theory

Although they differ in several important ways, the instinct, drive, and arousal theories of
motivation share a common perspective. Each of these theories addresses the internal state of the
organism. Some level of tension or arousal motivates the organism to perform certain actions.
Put somewhat differently, the organism is pushed in certain directions by internal or biologically
based states.

A contrasting idea is that external goals motivate organisms to perform certain actions. The
external stimuli in the environment that 'pull' the organism in certain directions are called
incentives. The basic assumption of incentive theory is that if we anticipate a desirable outcome
following the completion of a particular action, we are motivated to perform that action.
Conversely, anticipation of an undesirable goal- something aversive or unpleasant- motivates the
organism not to perform the action. In short, incentive theorists ask what induces or inhibits
behavior by focusing on the environment rather than on internal states.

Incentive theorists can make useful distinctions in evaluating the factors that influence human
performance. For example, grades are an obvious incentive for students.

5) Cognitive Approach

Motivation is directed by people’s cognitions like their thoughts, expectations, and

Intrinsic motivation: It occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it
either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is
morally significant.

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Extrinsic motivation: It comes into play when a person is compelled to do something or act a
certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Whether it is internally or externally motivated, it varies widely from person to person, culture to
culture, believes to believes and so on. For example, a person might be motivated to kill a person
who holds opposite believes. But in the same situation, another person might have totally
opposite view of killing a person. Second person might have positive attitude toward diversity of
believes.

6) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Approach

What motivates behavior? According to humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow, our actions
are motivated in order to achieve certain needs. Maslow first introduced his concept of a
hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" and his subsequent book
Motivation and Personality. This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic
needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs.

He proposed five levels of the hierarchy of needs.

1. Physiological Needs

These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food,
and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the
hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.

2) Safety needs

The next set of needs that are satisfied are safety needs. These include needs for physical safety
and needs for psychological safety or security. Maslow thought that children experience this
need more than adults, but adults who experienced little safety as children may be highly
Concerned with safety when they grow up. They feel less safe than others in the same situations
and direct much of their energy to building safety and security. This prevents them from trying to
satisfy higher needs.

3) Belongingness and Love needs

People who have satisfied their physiological and safety needs can attempt to meet
belongingness and love needs. These form the third step in the hierarchy. These needs include
the need to be accepted by and included in groups, and the need for affection from parents, peers,
and other loved ones. People who feel loved, and who feel their needs to be included are
gratified, can move to the next step in the hierarchy. People who do not feel that these needs
have been met will focus their energies on being accepted and being loved. These people may act
in other ways to gain acceptance and approval.
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4. Esteem Needs

Esteem needs are next in Maslow’s hierarchy. Essentially, these needs relate to a desire to have a
positive self-concept. They include the need to be competent, to achieve, to be effective, and to
be free, autonomous, and independent. In addition, esteem needs include the desire to have one’s
achievements and competencies recognized and appreciated by others. This recognition gives
one the added capacity to be effective in interactions with other people. As with other needs,
people who lack positive self-esteem will be excessively concerned with gaining recognition.

5. Self-actualizing Needs

The final step on the motivational hierarchy is the need for self-actualization. This is the need to
develop all of one’s potentials and capacities and to be all that one can be. It includes the need to
appreciate the intrinsic worth of our surroundings and to experience the world deeply. It also
includes the need to grow in harmony with the world around us. The need for self-actualization
is an entirely different kind of need from the lower needs in the hierarchy. Maslow refers to the
lower needs as deficiency motives. They are all stimulated by a lack or a deficit. The person
experiencing them strives to get whatever it is he or she feels is missing.

Q.03. Describe three main theories of emotion.

Emotion is a very complex portion of human behavior. For explaining emotion, many theories
have been evolved. Three prominent theories are discussed below.

1. James-Lange Theory

A very traditional concept of emotion is that emotion first comes to us, then some physical
changes happen, and finally it is revealed. For example, according to traditional concept, we first
become sad and then cry or we first become happy and then laugh.

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American psychologist William James (1984) first expressed a totally opposite view of this. He
said, 'a physiological changes is occurred immediately after perceiving a stimulating event and
this physiological change is known as emotion'. Very famous Danish physiologist Carl Langue
also expressed almost same theory in 1885. For this reason, this theory is known together 'James-
Langue Theory' of emotion.

According to this theory, we first perceive an event and then react immediately after being
perceived the event. For making it more clear, James said, 'we feel sad because we cry, we hit
others because we get angry, and we feel fear because we get trembled.'

Criticism of the theory: Though this theory of emotion became one of the prominent theory at
that time, it has still some criticisms.

1) This theory is completely opposite to the traditional idea.

2) There is no differentiation between the physiological sensations create emotion and do not
create emotion. For example, abdominal (belly) pain is not related to any emotion.

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3) Different types of emotion can create the same type of physical changes. For example, during
very happy moment and very frightening moment, our pelage becomes straight. Or we cry both
for being too much sad or happy. So, this theory cannot explain these types of situations.

4) By cutting off the connection between viscera and brain, Cannon, Lui and Briton (1927) didn't
find any emotional difference among the dogs and cats.

2) Cannon-Bird Theory

During criticizing James-Lange theory, Harvard physiologist Walter B. Cannon (1027) proposed
a new concept of emotion. He argued that physiological change can be happened without any
emotional change (For example, physiological change during physical exercise). He rationalized
that internal change of organism due to emotion is very less than the conscious experience. He
also argued that human being experience fear, joy, anger and so on, but the response of these
emotions are almost same.

Another physiologist Philip Bard (1928) said that there is nothing to do with autonomous
nervous system during emotional state, but the emotion creating stimuli goes to Thalamus and
that sends the emotional information concurrently to cortex (uppermost portion of the brain) and
autonomous nervous system. In this way, Bard developed the theory of Cannon and that is why it
is known today as Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. It is also called as Thalamic Theory of
Emotion.

3) Schachter's Two-Factor Theory

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American Psychologist Stanley Schachter (1964) proposed a new theory of emotion. He said that
'situation cue' plays a vital role in separating different types of emotion. Schachter and Singer
intensively studied on emotion later on and they stressed hugely on cognitive factors of
emotion. This theory is known as Two-Factor Theory, because they said that emotional
experience depend on two factors:

1) Autonomic Arousal

2) and the cognitive explanation of these autonomic arousal.

According to this theory, when an individual or organism experiences a visceral arousal, he finds
out an explanation of that arousal from the environment. For example, when a person goes for
facing an interview he explain the immediate experience as anxiety.