Fire Protection Systems:

Clean Agent vs. Water-Based

Fire protection engineers must design, install, and maintain fire suppression
systems tailored to each hazard. Two broad categories are Clean Agent
Systems (e.g. FM-200, Novec 1230) and Water-Based
Systems (sprinklers, wet/dry risers, deluge/pre-action, standpipes). Clean
agents are gaseous chemicals that extinguish fires by interrupting
combustion or absorbing heat without leaving residue – ideal for data
centers, archives, control rooms, etc.techtarget.com. Water-based systems
(sprinklers/risers) use water to cool and suffocate fires and are covered by
NFPA 13/15/14 standards. This guide reviews both system families through
the full project lifecycle: design principles, applicable standards (NFPA, ISO),
key components and selection criteria, installation/integration steps,
testing/commissioning, inspection/acceptance, and troubleshooting best
practices. (A brief overview of CO₂, foam, dry chemical, and water mist
systems is given at the end.) Citations from NFPA, industry sources, and case
examples are provided throughout for depth and verification.

Clean Agent Systems (FM-200, Novec 1230,

Inert Gases)
Clean agents (chemically extinguishing fire without soot or water) are
governed by NFPA 2001 (Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing
Systems) and ISO 14520 seriescdn.standards.iteh.aiedufire.ir. Clean agents must be
electrically nonconductive and leave no residue techtarget.com. NFPA 2001 covers
“total flooding” (enclosed room) and local application systems, with design
criteria keyed to the fire hazard class (Class A ordinary combustibles; Class B
flammable liquids; Class C electrical) and human occupancy. Designers
calculate the minimum agent concentration to suppress the worst-case fire
in the protected volume (often with a safety factor of ~1.35) and then size
cylinders and nozzles accordingly. ISO 14520 similarly specifies design,
installation, testing, and safety requirements for gaseous
systemscdn.standards.iteh.ai. Both standards stress that systems shall be designed by
experienced engineers, in consultation with the Authority Having Jurisdiction
(AHJ)edufire.ir.

 Design Principles: Begin by performing a hazard assessment of the

enclosure (e.g. telecom room, library, substation). Determine fuel loads
(paper, plastics, oils, electrical), room volume, heat release rate, and how an
agent will mix. NFPA 2001 requires the design to consider the “pressure
relief” needed (to avoid overpressure), maximum/minimum room
 temperature, and ventilation. Environmental factors (ODP/GWP of the agent)
are also considered in agent selectionedufire.ir. Common halocarbon agents
(HFCs like FM-200) work by heat absorption/chemical inhibition; inert gases
(IG-541, IG-100) displace oxygen/absorb heat. Designers must ensure agent
discharge won’t injure occupants (cardiac sensitization limits for humans)
and adhere to local release delays/alarms. Systems in normally occupied
spaces must include pre-discharge warnings and abort switches.
 Standards and Codes: NFPA 2001 (2022 edition) is the primary code,
supplemented by NFPA 72 for fire alarm integration and NFPA 70/70E for
electrical safety around agent cylinders and piping edufire.ir. ISO 14520 (2023)
parallels NFPA 2001 for international projects. Additional guidelines include
manufacturer listings and environmental regulations (e.g. EPA SNAP list). For
example, NFPA 2001 mandates that retrofit or mixed-agent applications
must use listed, compatible systemsedufire.ir. Many jurisdictions require
plans/specs to be stamped by a licensed fire protection engineer. As one
industry summary notes, “Specifications for total flooding and local
application clean agent systems shall be prepared under the supervision of a
person fully experienced and qualified… and with the advice of the
AHJ”edufire.ir.
 Major Components: A clean agent system typically includes: (a) Agent
storage – cylinders (HFC-227ea, HFC-125, etc.) mounted on a manifold or
bank; (b) Release valves – normally a manifold-mounted solenoid-operated
valve or explosive bulb actuator; (c) Control panel – release/control unit
that monitors smoke detectors and triggers agent discharge (with
abort/lockout circuits); (d) Detection – smoke/heat detectors (often cross-
zoned or dual sensor for reliability); (e) Discharge piping and nozzles –
steel or copper piping network distributing agent; (f) Pressure
gauges/monitoring – for cylinder pressure and reserve supply;
(g) Venting/pressure relief – when needed (per NFPA) for large spaces. All
equipment must be listed for the specific agent (e.g. 5.2.5 of NFPA 2001:
“Discharge nozzles shall be listed for the intended use…discharge orifices…
shall be made of material compatible with the agent and atmosphere” edufire.ir).
Nozzles are selected for the required flow and coverage; smaller enclosures
use a few hose-nozzle style fittings, larger ones use multiple directed nozzles
or discharge jets. Agents like FM-200 are stored near room temperature
(cylinders can be ambient or jacketed); high-pressure inerts (IG-541/IG-100)
require thicker cylinders.
 Component Selection Criteria: Agent selection (FM-200 vs. Novec vs.
inert) depends on hazard type and environmental profile. NFPA 2001
(A.7.2.2.1.3) notes deep-seated Class A fires may need higher concentrations
and hold timesedufire.ir. Designers calculate the Minimum Design
Concentration (MDC) for the hazard from agency design tables or listed
data (e.g. FM-200 ~7-9% by volume for a typical Class A load). Cylinder
quantities are sized so the largest hazard area receives this concentration for
the required hold time. Where uninterrupted protection is required, NFPA
2001 allows (or AHJ may require) a reserve supply – additional parallel
 cylinders to refill the distribution piping if a discharge occurs edufire.ir. Piping is
usually Schedule 40 carbon steel (welded joints) to handle discharge forces.
Valves and seals must be compatible with the agent; NFPA 2001 requires all
valves/field joints be pressure-rated and agent-compatible edufire.ir. Detecting
devices are chosen for low fluence (fast response) in data centers or smoke-
optimized for offices. Control panels and detection use supervised circuits as
per NFPA 72; interfaces to building alarm/safety control (door closers, HVAC
shutoff) are integrated.
 Installation and Integration: Installation follows NFPA 2001 Chapter 10.
Piping is typically Class I (welded) with seismic bracing. All nozzles and
joints must be firmly anchored to prevent movement under discharge
forcesedufire.ir. NFPA 2001 §5.2.5.5 specifically mandates nozzles “free of
obstructions” so the agent flow is not blocked edufire.ir. Nozzles are placed per
manufacturer spacing; NFPA 2001 limits impingement on personnel (e.g.
beams should direct flow away from walkways). A manual actuator (pull
station) and timed abort station must be located outside the enclosure. An
additional sequenced alarm (bells, horns, strobes, voice evacuation) is wired
to the panel for pre-discharge alert. Typically, a pre-discharge
delay (default 10-30 seconds) is set to allow evacuation – this is often
interlocked with door holders, elevator recall, ventilation shutdown, and
circuit breakers. Sprinkler-type quick-closing dampers or door closers can
seal off the protected room upon alarm. The entire release system (cylinders,
valves, nozzles, panel, detectors) must be electrically supervised: NFPA 72
mandates supervisory circuits on control power, and trouble/low battery
signalsdigitize-inc.com.
 Testing and Commissioning: After installation, the system is pressure-
tested (normally with air at ~450 psi) to verify no leaks. All tubing and piping
joints are checked (per NFPA 2001 Table 11.8.2) and immobilized for final
tests. A full-system functional test (typically with dry-ice/CO₂ discharge or
inert flushing, depending on local practice) verifies that detectors trigger the
panel and that the valves actuate. Pressure gauges, solenoids, and abort
switches are exercised to ensure proper response. Many AHJs require a
partial or witness discharge to prove coverage (often into a recovery vessel).
Fire pump acceptance tests (if a dedicated agent pump exists) follow NFPA
20. For integrated fire alarm/suppression systems, NFPA 72 acceptance
testing ensures that a clean agent discharge triggers the building alarm (and
vice versa, waterflow can’t falsely trip the clean agent, of course).
 Inspection, Maintenance, and Approvals: Once commissioned, clean
agent systems enter regular inspection cycles. NFPA 2001 and NFPA 72
prescribe monthly visual checks of cylinder pressure (or weight
measurement for inert systems) and quarterly checks of control components.
For example, NFPA 2001 requires verifying total agent quantity (cylinder
weights) annuallyedufire.ir. Pressure gauges should be ±10 psi of normal. All
release hardware (piping, nozzles, valves) is inspected for corrosion or
obstruction. The control panel’s batteries must be tested periodically (often
per NFPA 72: battery discharge test annually). Official authority approvals
 are usually obtained after final testing: the AHJ (fire marshal) reviews “as-
built” plans, load calculations, and testing records. Upon final acceptance,
documentation (system submittal, certificate) is submitted. A Certificate of
Fitness or system rating may be issued for operation.

Inspection/Checklist Examples: Typical monthly or quarterly tasks

include: checking cylinder pressures/weights, visually inspecting nozzles and
piping, testing the control panel (walk test detectors), verifying alarm
indications and abort functionality, and ensuring signage (e.g. “Inert Gas
System”) is in place. Annual testing includes a walkthrough with the AHJ and
a full activation exercise (with or without actual agent). Many authorities
require a schedule of maintenance steps stamped into the system record.
NFPA 25 (for water) parallels NFPA 2001 in emphasizing maintenance; for
water systems, NFPA 25 requires weekly valve exercises, monthly gauge
checks, quarterly flow tests, annual full inspections, and 5-year internal pipe
checksdavisulmer.comdavisulmer.com – clean agent systems follow similar rigor via NFPA
2001.

 Troubleshooting & Best Practices: Common issues include small leaks

(detected by dropping pressure/weight), blocked or corroded nozzles
(especially if in harsh atmospheres – NFPA 2001 mandates special material if
corrosive exposure is expectededufire.ir), and false alarms (smoke detector
malfunctions). To minimize such problems, best practice is to use clean, dry
nitrogen purge after hydrostatic tests, cap nozzles during construction, and
avoid routeing piping near hot surfaces (to prevent thermal burning of seals).
Training staff on manual recovery (if agents are discharged) and proper
evacuation is critical. It is also wise to maintain spare cylinders (full of agent)
on-site, and to coordinate with other disciplines (e.g. electrical shutdown
logic and HVAC). In retrofit situations, NFPA forbids mixing different agents in
one container (only single-listed mixtures are allowed) edufire.ir; this ensures
predictable performance. Finally, always perform a gas concentration test or
room integrity test if facility use changes (e.g. new walls or equipment) to
verify the system still meets the required concentration. edufire.irdigitize-inc.com (For
example, adding large cabinets or vents can dilute the agent, so nozzle
locations or counts may need adjustment.)

Water-Based Systems (Sprinklers, Risers,

Deluge, etc.)
Water-based systems encompass wet pipe, dry pipe, pre-action, deluge, and
standpipe assemblies, all primarily addressed by NFPA 13/14/20/25 (with
ISO 6182/6183 standards internationally). The fundamental design principle
is to provide adequate water flow and pressure to the hazard area, as
 quantified by hazard classifications and hydraulic calculations digitize-inc.com. NFPA
13 organizes occupancies into hazard levels (Light, Ordinary I/II, Extra I/II)
based on fuel load and expected fire intensity. Each hazard class has a
required density (gpm/ft² or L/min/m²) over a specified area of operation.
For example, a “light hazard” (offices, schools) might need 0.10 gpm/ft² over
1,500 ft², while an “extra hazard” (warehouse with plastics) might need
0.30–0.60 gpm/ft² over 2,500 ft². These values are tabulated in NFPA 13 and
drive the hydraulic design of the sprinkler network.

 Standards: NFPA 13 (Installation of Sprinklers) is the core code for

sprinkler systems. It “provides comprehensive guidelines” for design types
(wet, dry, pre-action, deluge), sprinkler placement, water supply
requirements, pipe sizing, and installation practices digitize-inc.com. Sprinkler layout
must meet NFPA 13 spacing and coverage criteria (e.g. 225–400 ft² per
sprinkler head, depending on type and hazard). NFPA 14 covers standpipes
(hose connections in stairwells), NFPA 20 covers fire pumps, and NFPA
25 mandates inspection/testing of all water-based systems (weekly to 5-year
schedules)davisulmer.com. In seismic areas, NFPA 13 requires bracing of risers and
headers. ISO 6182-1 (2013/2022) provides similar requirements
internationally.
 System Types & Selection: NFPA 13 defines several system
arrangementsdigitize-inc.com:
 Wet Pipe (Automatic Sprinkler): Piping is constantly filled with water.
When a sprinkler head’s heat-sensitive element (glass bulb or fusible link)
fails from fire heat, water immediately discharges locally digitize-inc.com. This is the
most common, simplest system. It is reliable and low-maintenance but
unsuitable for freezing environments.
 Dry Pipe System: Piping is pressurized with air or nitrogen. On sprinkler
opening, the air vents out and a dry pipe valve admits water into the piping.
Used in unheated or cold areas. Discharge delay (typically a few seconds)
occurs due to air release and valve operation digitize-inc.com. Dry systems require a
device to prevent slow leaks (air maintenance devices) and can be costlier.
 Pre-Action System: A hybrid requiring two triggers. Piping is normally dry
(pressurized air) like a dry system, but a separate detection (usually smoke
or heat detectors) must activate first to “prime” the system, then a second
fire event opens sprinklers to admit waterdigitize-inc.com. This “two-step” reduces
accidental discharge risk, making it ideal for high-value contents (data
centers, museums)digitize-inc.com. Pre-action is often single-interlock (both
detection and sprinkler open needed) or double-interlock (detector opens dry
pipe valve, then sprinkler opens).
 Deluge System: All sprinklers are open (no heat-activated element). The
piping is empty and connected to a deluge valve. When fire detection
(smoke/flow) signals, the deluge valve opens and all sprinklers discharge
simultaneously with large water flowdigitize-inc.com. Used in very high-hazard areas
(hydrocarbon storage, aircraft hangars, chemical plants) where rapid flood is
 needed. NFPA 13 notes this is “one place where… all fire sprinklers
activating simultaneously is actually true!” digitize-inc.com.
 Standpipe Systems (NFPA 14): These provide hose connections (2½″
outlets) on each floor of tall or large buildings for manual firefighting by
personnel. Dry standpipes are allowed in some occupancies (NFPA 14 has
dry/wet). Standpipe design involves calculating hose pressure losses (NFPA
14, Fire Pump Chapter of NFPA 20).
 Sprinkler Head Types: Upright, pendent, sidewall, and ceiling recessed
types are chosen based on ceiling style and room hazards. Special heads
(CMSA, ESFR) are used for storage/high-challenge fires. Each head carries a
k-factor (gpm/psi^0.5) that factors into hydraulic calculations. Manufacturers
list coverage area and operating pressure/temperature for each head type.
 Design Principles: Occupancy hazard classification is the first step: classify
the protected area as Light, Ordinary I/II, or Extra I/II hazard (with sub-
classes for storage commodities). This sets the required design density and
area (e.g. “design for 4 sprinklers flowing at 0.15 gpm/ft² over 1,500 ft²” in a
certain hazard). Then prepare hydraulic calculations (usually computer-
aided) to size pipe diameters so that at the most remote head, the required
pressure and flow are met. NFPA 13 also requires a minimum residual
pressure (often 15 psi residual at the design flow). Water supply must be
able to meet this demand for the code-specified duration (often 60 minutes
for light/ordinary hazards, 90 min for higher hazards). If municipal supply is
insufficient, an on-site fire pump and/or storage tank (NFPA 20) are
provided. NFPA 20 requires an automatic start pump (electric or diesel) sized
to the hydraulic demand. If a diesel pump is used, fuel supply and testing
(per NFPA 20) are required. Backflow prevention is also mandated (typically
a double check or reduced-pressure assembly) to protect potable water.
 Installation and Integration: Sprinkler piping must be installed per NFPA
13’s practices: properly sloped for drainage (wet systems), suspended with
hangers rated for seismic if applicable, and using fittings/pipe materials
approved for fire protection. Risers (vertical mains) often incorporate a main
control valve (with tamper switch) and a pressure gauge. Check valves (or
alarm check valves) maintain water retention; NFPA 13 requires a main drain
and flow (inspector’s) test on each riser meyerfire.com. Fire Department
Connections (FDC) are installed so firefighters can supplement water
pressure. Standpipes are similarly installed with riser control valves. All
valves must be supervised by switches to the fire alarm panel (tamper
switches) and pressure gauges (wet systems) must be checked (per NFPA 25
monthly). Integration with fire detection requires that any sprinkler waterflow
(open-head discharge) triggers an alarm via a flow switch. Pre-action and
deluge valves are interlocked with detection panels: NFPA 13 and NFPA 72
together ensure that initiation circuits (smoke detector) and the waterflow
alarm circuits communicate so that an alarm sounds whenever sprinklers
flowdigitize-inc.com. In modern buildings, sprinkler valves and sensors often tie into
building management or alarm systems using supervised outputs (dry
contacts).
 Commissioning and Testing: Before filling the system, hydrostatic tests
are conducted (NFPA 13 requires testing piping at 200 psi or 50 psi above
working pressure). All sprinkler heads are removed or protected during
testing; after testing, piping is drained and checked for debris. Once cleaned,
the system is slowly pressurized with water. The fire pump (if any) is
hydrostatically tested and flow-tested to establish its curve (as per NFPA 20).
The final acceptance test involves flowing water through a test header
(inspector’s test) to simulate multiple sprinklers. Flow and residual pressure
are measured to verify the hydraulic design. The AHJ or a consulting
engineer witnesses this test. Valves are exercised (flowed then reset) to train
operators. NFPA 25 requires witness of any pump churn (no-flow) test and
annual full-flow test. The test reports (including NFPA 20 Pump Test reports)
are submitted to the AHJ for final sign-off.
 Inspection/Maintenance: NFPA 25 (2022) prescribes a rigorous
inspection/testing schedule for water systems. For example, systems
require weekly or monthly checks of control valves (inspecting that riser
gate valves are open and sealed) and gauge
readings. Quarterly inspections cover waterflow alarm devices, valve
tamper switches, and hydraulic nameplates. Annually, every sprinkler head,
pipe, hanger, and backflow preventer is inspected for condition davisulmer.com.
Flow tests and main drains are typically done quarterly/annual, pump
systems monthly (diesel) and weekly (electric) as per NFPA 20. Every 5 years
a hose stream test of the pump should be performed davisulmer.com. A useful
inspection checklist includes: verifying proper sprinkler head types and
orientation, checking that sprinklers are not painted or obstructed,
confirming the correct pressure on gauges, and ensuring that spare
sprinklers (of each type installed) are stored. All deficiencies found must be
corrected promptly. For new sprinkler installations, authorities often require
an “owner’s certificate” or AHJ form certifying compliance (some NFPA 13
annexes refer to this).
 Troubleshooting & Best Practices: Common issues in water systems
include sprinkler leakage or constant flow (often due to broken wires on
tamper switches or debris in valves), false alarms from pressure surges, and
corrosion or hanging. Freeze prevention is critical: dry systems require a
maintenance contract to ensure air pressure remains adequate. Draining and
refilling should follow proper procedures to avoid introducing air pockets.
Sprinkler heads are sensitive – protect them during construction (cover
plates or guards) and replace any damaged heads immediately. Calibration
of gauges and flow switches should be verified annually. Pipe flanges and O-
rings should be greased; no incompatible materials that corrode (e.g.
aluminum pipe in chlorinated environments). As with clean agents,
coordination with other trades is key: lock-out procedures should be in place
if fire pumps need service, and signage for control valves must be clear. A
real-world example: after a warehouse fire incident, engineers found that
relocating a deluge valve remotely (for easier maintenance) prevented
 future downtime and improved access for firefighting, a best-practice
adjustment in that case.

Other Suppression Systems (Overview)

In addition to the above, several specialty suppression systems exist:

 CO₂ Systems (NFPA 12): Use high-pressure carbon dioxide gas for total-
flooding protection. CO₂ displaces oxygen to extinguish fire, so
it’s extremely hazardous to people – typically used only in unoccupied
rooms (engine rooms, flammable liquid pits, computer rooms with timed
shutdown). CO₂ systems are designed per NFPA 12 with very high discharge
pressures (~800–900 psi cylinders) and require pressure relief vents. They
can achieve high fire suppression (good for Class B oils, some electrical
equipment) but have largely been phased out where safer agents (Novec,
FM) exist. Key design: ensure rapid evacuation alarms (sirens, strobe lights)
before discharge.
 Foam Systems (NFPA 11): Use foam (water with foam concentrate) to
blanket flammable liquid fires. Foam systems are classified by expansion
ratio (low, medium, high). Low-expansion foam (1–20×) is common in
flammable liquid storage or industrial processes; Medium-expansion (200–
1000×) in ARFF (aircraft rescue) vehicles or warehouse; High-expansion
foam (1000+×) in enclosed spaces (tanks, compartments). Components
include a foam concentrate tank and proportioner (aspirating eductor or
inline proportioner) that mixes water with concentrate at a set ratio (typically
0.5–6%). The foam/water is then delivered via sprinklers, monitors, or foam
chambers. NFPA 11 guides the design densities (gpm/ft² and foam quality)
for hydrocarbon vs. polar solvent fires. For example, an aircraft hangar might
use medium-expansion foam to quickly flood a hangar bay.
 Dry Chemical (NFPA 17/17A): Extinguish fires by coating with fine powder
(monoammonium phosphate for Class A/B/C, or potassium bicarbonate
(Purple-K) for Class B). Standard dry chemical (NFPA 17) systems are
total-flooding for flammable liquid tanks or engine rooms. Wet chemical
systems (NFPA 17A) use a liquid potassium-based agent (e.g. in
commercial kitchens to saponify grease fires). Dry chemical cylinders
(pressurized with nitrogen) discharge through a network of piping and
nozzles. They act very fast on Class B fires but create a corrosive residue
(need wash-down after use). Typical use-cases: industrial paint spray booths,
truck/trailer protection, kitchen hoods (wet chem) and deep-fat fryers.
 Water Mist (NFPA 750): A relatively new technology using very fine water
sprays. Droplets (around 50 microns) have high cooling efficiency and
evaporate quickly, suppressing fire by both cooling and displacing oxygen
locally. Water mist systems require special nozzles/pumps (often at high
pressure) and can significantly reduce water usage compared to sprinklers.
They are used where water damage must be minimized (data centers,
telecom, museums) and in marine or turbine applications. NFPA 750 provides
design guidelines; typically, water mist is suitable for small machinery
spaces, generator rooms, or upholstered furniture rooms.

Each of these specialty systems has its own design criteria and standards
(e.g. NFPA 12 for CO₂, NFPA 11 for foam, NFPA 17/A for chemical, NFPA 750
for mist). Key use-cases are driven by hazard specifics: CO₂ for unoccupied
power rooms; Foam for flammable liquid storage and rescue; Dry chem for
high-risk Class B and grease fires; Water mist for high-value, water-
sensitive environments.

Summary
This guide has outlined the end-to-end lifecycle of clean agent and water-
based fire suppression systems. Clean agent systems like FM-200 are
designed under NFPA 2001/ISO 14520 for gas suppression in enclosed
spaces, with carefully sized cylinders, piping, nozzles, detection, and venting
to achieve rapid, residue-free extinguishment. Water-based systems are
designed per NFPA 13/20 using hazard classification to determine densities
and hydraulic demand, with wet/dry/pre-action/deluge variations for different
environments. In both cases, components (valves, pumps, detectors) must
be carefully selected, installed, and tested. Rigorous commissioning and
maintenance regimes (per NFPA 25 or 2001) ensure long-term readiness.
Finally, understanding supplemental systems (CO₂, foam, chemicals, mist)
adds flexibility to the engineer’s toolkit for specialized hazards. Throughout,
adherence to code requirements (AHJ approval, plan reviews, certified
inspectors) and best practices (proper sequencing, training, and
documentation) is essential to a safe, effective system.