PHYSICS OF THE UNIVERSE

(PH1920)

Quantum Mechanics

Lecture 9: The wavefunction

Dr Richard Howl
[email protected]
PHYSICS OF THE UNIVERSE
(PH1920)

Quantum Mechanics

Lecture 9: The wavefunction

Dr Richard Howl
[email protected]
 Black body radiation experiments 1924: de Broglie’s 1926:
1802: Wollaston 1905: 1972-
wave-particle Born rule 1928:
sees spectral Einstein’s Bell
duality Dirac equation
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special experiments
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915: 1926:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
Schrödinger
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity
equation 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: 1932:

Newton’s ‘A Treatise on 1927: von Neumann's
“Reflections on Plank’s Davisson-
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body ‘Mathematical
Newtonian Magnetism’ Germer Foundations of
Power of Fire” radiation law: experiment
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism (Matter as Quantum
oscillators) 1913:
1925: Mechanics’
Bohr model Matrix mechanics
of atom
1887: 1927: 1964:
Hertz observes Heisenberg’s Bell’s theorem
1922: Stern-Gerlach
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric uncertainty
experiment
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect relation
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering 1930:
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment Dirac’s ‘The Principles of
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical Quantum Mechanics’
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
radioactivity ‘old quantum theory’ 1927:
lines of Hydrogen Salvay Conference on Physics
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900:

Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body Black body made of quantum oscillators:
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’
mechanics Electromagnetism
radiation law discretized energy levels. These then emit
Thermodynamics
light with energy E = h f (f = frequency of
oscillator)
1887:
Hertz observes
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas
Philosophy’ Theory” (published
1896:
Atomic Theory 1896)
Marie Curie
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900:

Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body Light always made up of photons that have
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’
mechanics Electromagnetism
radiation law: energy E = h f (this is coming from light
Thermodynamics
itself not just indirectly from the interaction
with black body oscillators)
1887: metal sheet
Hertz observes
photons
photoelectric of light hf
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s:
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published light quanta
1896:
Atomic Theory 1896) (photons)
Marie Curie
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s released electrons
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900:

Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body Light always made up of photons that have
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’
mechanics Electromagnetism
radiation law energy E = h f (this is coming from light
Thermodynamics
itself not just indirectly from the interaction
with black body oscillators)
1887:
Hertz observes Offers an explanation for photoelectric
photoelectric
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: effect (light causes electrons to free
Boltzmann’s effect
'A New System 1905: themselves from surface of material)
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published light quanta
1896:
Atomic Theory 1896) (photons)
Marie Curie
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: Einstein’s idea not accepted until
Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ Electricity and Compton scattering (X-rays
the Motive black-body
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law scattered off free electrons).
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism

1887: 𝜃
Hertz observes
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900:

Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism
1913:
Bohr model
of atom
1887:
Hertz observes 1911:
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric Rutherford
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect atom model
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: Bohr applies Planck’s quantization
Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ Electricity and
method to angular momentum of
the Motive black-body
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law
electrons in atoms.
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism
1913: Electron assumed to undergo random
Bohr model
of atom quantum jumps, emitting/absorbing
1887: light with E = h f where E matches
Hertz observes 1911:
photoelectric Rutherford
change in energy of electron
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s:
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect atom model (difference between energy levels)
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: Bohr applies Planck’s quantization
Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ Electricity and
method to angular momentum of
the Motive black-body
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law
electrons in atoms.
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism
1913: Electron assumed to undergo random
Bohr model
of atom quantum jumps, emitting/absorbing
1887: light with E = h f where E matches
Hertz observes 1911:
photoelectric Rutherford
change in energy of electron
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s:
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect atom model (difference between energy levels)
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
lines of Hydrogen radioactivity
 Black body radiation experiments
1802: Wollaston 1905:
sees spectral Einstein’s
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: Just a collection of ideas about how
Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ Electricity and
quantizing some variables can
the Motive black-body
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law
explain experimental data (“old
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism quantum theory”)
1913:
Bohr model
of atom But can they be connected and
1887: explained in a new fundamental
Hertz observes 1911:
photoelectric Rutherford
theory of nature that would overturn
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s:
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect atom model classical mechanics???
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
radioactivity ‘old quantum theory’
lines of Hydrogen
 Black body radiation experiments 1924: de Broglie’s
1802: Wollaston 1905: wave-particle
sees spectral Einstein’s duality
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900:

Newton’s “Reflections on ‘A Treatise on Plank’s
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body de Broglie’s wave-particle duality
Newtonian Power of Fire” Magnetism’ radiation law offered an explanation for Bohr’s
mechanics Electromagnetism
Thermodynamics
1913: quantization of angular momentum.
Bohr model
1887:
of atom Could this be extended to a new
Hertz observes 1911: fundamental theory of nature?
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric Rutherford
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect atom model
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical
1853: Angstrom and Henri
Mechanics
measures spectra Becquerel’s
radioactivity ‘old quantum theory’
lines of Hydrogen
Modern Quantum Mechanics
Research on quantum theory effectively broke into two schools: the Einstein and Bohr schools.
Modern Quantum Mechanics
Research on quantum theory effectively broke into two schools: the Einstein and Bohr schools.

The Einstein school hoped that previous ideas (Planck’s, Einstein’s and
Bohr’s) could be explained by a new fundamental theory based on wave-
particle duality (that objects can behave as both waves and particles) with
no need for intrinsic randomness or abandoning a realist philosophy of
science (e.g. that objects have pre-existing values to properties independent
of observation/measurement).
Modern Quantum Mechanics
Research on quantum theory effectively broke into two schools: the Einstein and Bohr schools.

The Einstein school hoped that previous ideas (Planck’s, Einstein’s and
Bohr’s) could be explained by a new fundamental theory based on wave-
particle duality (that objects can behave as both waves and particles) with
no need for intrinsic randomness or abandoning a realist philosophy of
science (e.g. that objects have pre-existing values to properties independent
of observation/measurement).
The Bohr school felt that the quantization method was fundamental with
randomness (quantum jumps) and an antireal/nonreal philosophy (e.g.
positivism/instrumentalism) integral to the new fundamental theory. (e.g.
that all knowledge derives from observation/measurement, with the idea
that an object having properties independent of observation/interaction
considered meaningless)
Modern Quantum Mechanics
Research on quantum theory effectively broke into two schools: the Einstein and Bohr schools.

The Einstein school hoped that previous ideas (Planck’s, Einstein’s and
Bohr’s) could be explained by a new fundamental theory based on wave-
particle duality (that objects can behave as both waves and particles) with
no need for intrinsic randomness or abandoning a realist philosophy of
science (e.g. that objects have pre-existing values to properties independent
of observation/measurement).
The Bohr school felt that the quantization method was fundamental with
randomness (quantum jumps) and an antireal/nonreal philosophy (e.g.
positivism/instrumentalism) integral to the new fundamental theory. (e.g.
that all knowledge derives from observation/measurement, with the idea
that an object having properties independent of observation/interaction
considered meaningless)
Modern Quantum Mechanics
Research on quantum theory effectively broke into two schools: the Einstein and Bohr schools.

The Einstein school hoped that previous ideas (Planck’s, Einstein’s and
Bohr’s) could be explained by a new fundamental theory based on wave-
particle duality (that objects can behave as both waves and particles) with
no need for intrinsic randomness or abandoning a realist philosophy of
science (e.g. that objects have pre-existing values to properties independent
of observation/measurement).
The Bohr school felt that the quantization method was fundamental with
randomness (quantum jumps) and an antireal/nonreal philosophy (e.g.
positivism/instrumentalism) integral to the new fundamental theory. (e.g.
that all knowledge derives from observation/measurement, with the idea
that an object having properties independent of observation/interaction
considered meaningless)

In fact, both schools would soon end up discovering (modern) quantum mechanics, but from
different angles.
Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.
Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.
Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.

To allay this, he took aspirin and

Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.

To allay this, he took aspirin and cocaine

Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.

To allay this, he took aspirin and cocaine

Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.

To allay this, he took aspirin and cocaine

But this still didn't help! So, he decided to do something even more severe…
Matrix Mechanics

Bohr school:

In 1925 Heisenberg was working with Max Born at the University of Göttingen (Germany) and
had recently visited Niels Bohr at the University of Copenhagen.

At Göttingen he developed a severe bout of hay fever due to pollen from trees.

To allay this, he took aspirin and cocaine

But this still didn't help! So, he decided to do something even more severe…

He travelled to a land where there are no trees…

Matrix Mechanics
HELGOLAND
Matrix Mechanics

While at Helgoland, Heisenberg, studying the Bohr model, hit upon a new idea: non-
commuting observables.

"It was about three o' clock at night when the final result of the calculation lay before me. At
first, I was deeply shaken. I was so excited that I could not think of sleep. So I left the house and
awaited the sunrise on the top of a rock."
2025
2025
Matrix Mechanics

Heisenberg’s idea was that the result of two measurements on a quantum system can be
dependent on the order in which you perform them:

For example, if we measured the position and momentum of an object, we get a different result
for the position and momentum depending on the order we perform the measurements.

-> leads towards the idea that objects do not have pre-existing attributes before they are
observed/measured. (e.g. position and momentum of an object cannot be defined
simultaneously, so meaningless to assume they have definite values before measurement.)
Matrix Mechanics

On his return to Göttingen, he showed his idea to Max Born.

Matrix Mechanics

On his return to Göttingen, he showed his idea to Max Born.

Born recognized that the mathematics best suited for this idea of a
theory was matrices (which were not that well-used in physics at
the time!)

This led to a fundamental theory of quantum mechanics based on (in general infinite) matrices:
matrix mechanics (1925)
Matrix Mechanics

On his return to Göttingen, he showed his idea to Max Born.

Born recognized that the mathematics best suited for this idea of a
theory was matrices (which were not that well-used in physics at
the time!)

This led to a fundamental theory of quantum mechanics based on (in general infinite) matrices:
matrix mechanics (1925)

However, the mathematics required to understand this theory were unfamiliar, making it hard for
others to work with.
Wave Mechanics

The Einstein school: after de Broglie’s hypothesizes wave-particle duality, Peter Debye comments
that if matter particles can also behave as waves, they should satisfy some sort of wave equation.
Wave Mechanics

The Einstein school: after de Broglie’s hypothesizes wave-particle duality, Peter Debye comments
that if matter particles can also behave as waves, they should satisfy some sort of wave equation.

Waves obey a wave equation from which we can deduce how the displacement of the wave
changes with space and time.
Wave Mechanics

The Einstein school: after de Broglie’s hypothesizes wave-particle duality, Peter Debye comments
that if matter particles can also behave as waves, they should satisfy some sort of wave equation.

Waves obey a wave equation from which we can deduce how the displacement of the wave
changes with space and time.

For example:
x

is the speed of the wave

is the angular frequency
is the wavenumber

x
Wave Mechanics

The Einstein school: after de Broglie’s hypothesizes wave-particle duality, Peter Debye comments
that if matter particles can also behave as waves, they should satisfy some sort of wave equation.

Waves obey a wave equation from which we can deduce how the displacement of the wave
changes with space and time.

For example:
x

is the speed of the wave

is the angular frequency
is the wavenumber
A solution is a “plane wave” travelling at
velocity c:

or
Wave Mechanics

The thought process:

Classical light obeys a wave equation and this is derived from Maxwell’s fundamental
equations of electromagnetism.
Wave Mechanics

The thought process:

Classical light obeys a wave equation and this is derived from Maxwell’s fundamental
equations of electromagnetism.

So as waves, light obeys a wave equation from Maxwell’s equation, and as a particle (a photon)
we are able to use classical mechanics (special relativity).
Wave Mechanics

The thought process:

Classical light obeys a wave equation and this is derived from Maxwell’s fundamental
equations of electromagnetism.

So as waves, light obeys a wave equation from Maxwell’s equation, and as a particle (a photon)
we are able to use classical mechanics (special relativity).

Matter: as particles, we are able to apply classical mechanics (special relativity/Newtonian),

but, in analogy with light, what is the wave equation for matter when it behaves as a wave?
 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924, Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:
 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924, Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:

Assume that the wave is of the form:

(a plane wave)
 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924, Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:

Assume that the wave is of the form:

(a plane wave)

Only consider non-relativistic matter: energy must be conserved in the form

 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924 Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:

Assume that the wave is of the form:

(a plane wave)

Only consider non-relativistic matter: energy must be conserved in the form

De Broglie had speculated that:

and

Reminder: is called the reduced Planck’s constant (or just “hbar”)

 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924 Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:

Assume that the wave is of the form:

(a plane wave)

Only consider non-relativistic matter: energy must be conserved in the form

De Broglie had speculated that:

and

Reminder: is called the reduced Planck’s constant (or just “hbar”)

 Wave Mechanics

Inspired by Debye’s comments and recent work by Einstein, circa 1924 Schrödinger
investigated what sort of wave equation we might expect matter to obey.

(Not following Schrödinger), let’s make a guess at what this could be:

Assume that the wave is of the form:

(a plane wave)

Only consider non-relativistic matter: energy must be conserved in the form

De Broglie had speculated that:

and

Reminder: is called the reduced Planck’s constant (or just “hbar”)

Wave Mechanics

To get the above from

Wave Mechanics

To get the above from

We must have:

Time-dependent
Schrödinger equation
(Schrödinger 1925)
Wave Mechanics

To get the above from

We must have:

Time-dependent
Schrödinger equation
(Schrödinger 1925)
Wave Mechanics

To get the above from

We must have:

Time-dependent
Schrödinger equation
(Schrödinger 1925)

In this course, we are only interested in the time-independent version where time is taken out of
the equation:

= total energy (= )
Wave Mechanics

To get the above from

We must have:

Time-dependent
Schrödinger equation
(Schrödinger 1925)

In this course, we are only interested in the time-independent version where time is taken out of
the equation:

= potential energy (e.g. from a

classical force such as gravity) = total energy (= )
 Wave Mechanics

one-dimensional, time-
independent Schrödinger
equation

Note that although we used de Broglie’s hypothesis to guide us to this equation, the equation
is actually far more general and fundamental.
 Wave Mechanics

one-dimensional, time-
independent Schrödinger
equation

Note that although we used de Broglie’s hypothesis to guide us to this equation, the equation
is actually far more general and fundamental.

For instance, the solution is not necessary just a single plane waves (e.g. would not give
plane wave solutions) and therefore, we cannot always think of a single momentum or energy for
the matter object/wave as in de Broglie’s hypothesis (more on this later).
 Wave Mechanics

one-dimensional, time-
independent Schrödinger
equation

Note that although we used de Broglie’s hypothesis to guide us to this equation, the equation
is actually far more general and fundamental.

For instance, the solution is not necessary just a single plane waves (e.g. would not give
plane wave solutions) and therefore, we cannot always think of a single momentum or energy for
the matter object/wave as in de Broglie’s hypothesis (more on this later).

From this one equation alone, we can derive (and improve) the Bohr model’s energy levels of the
hydrogen atom (we “just” assume a Coulomb potential for and work with the 3d version)!
Wave Mechanics

Note, however, that this was for non-relativistic matter only (so it is also in a sense less general
than de Broglie’s hypothesis!).

Schrödinger, after finding the non-relativistic wave equation, attempted to derive a

relativistic one but ran into big problems.

A proper relativistic version requires quantum field theory (although the Dirac equation
is a steppingstone).

(Note that in the end the Schrödinger equation is a bit of a mix of a diffusion/heat equation and a
standard wave equation!)
Wave Mechanics

is called the wavefunction

Wave Mechanics

is called the wavefunction – but what is it meant to describe?

Wave Mechanics

is called the wavefunction – but what is it meant to describe?

Schrödinger (like others) initially thought of it as describing a kind of physical

“smearing” of matter/charge over space and time (through ). For an electron,
this would mean that its charge is distributed over space.
Wave Mechanics

is called the wavefunction – but what is it meant to describe?

Schrödinger (like others) initially thought of it as describing a kind of physical

“smearing” of matter/charge over space and time (through ). For an electron,
this would mean that its charge is distributed over space.

However, this did not match experiments

- it is therefore not correct!!!

To see this, let’s consider the double slit

experiment with single electrons
(although this wasn’t possible in 1925)…
Wave Mechanics

is called the wavefunction – but what is it meant to describe?

Schrödinger (like others) initially thought of it as describing a kind of physical

“smearing” of matter/charge over space and time (through ). For an electron,
this would mean that its charge is distributed over space.

However, this did not match experiments

- it is therefore not correct!!!

To see this, let’s consider the double slit

experiment with single electrons
(although this wasn’t possible in 1925)…
The Wavefunction

First, consider classical waves of water in the double slit experiment….

Intensity
The Wavefunction

First, consider classical waves of water in the double slit experiment….

Intensity
The Wavefunction

First, consider classical waves of water in the double slit experiment….

Intensity

Displacement
Displacement
Total Displacement

Displacement

Displacement
The Wavefunction

First, consider classical waves of water in the double slit experiment….

Intensity

Displacement
Displacement
Total Displacement

Displacement

Displacement
The intensity at the screen comes from

Note
The Wavefunction

First, consider classical waves of water in the double slit experiment….

Intensity

The intensity at the screen comes from

Note
The Wavefunction

If did the same experiment with many, many electrons, we also get same picture (see Davisson-
Germer experiment)

Intensity

The intensity at the screen comes from

Note
The Wavefunction

But now imagine sending a single electron through the experiment (with a screen monitoring
where the electric charge goes).

If the wavefunction represents the electron smeared over space, we would expect to see the
screen “light” up the same as in the experiment with light, representing the electron (and its
charge) “smeared” in space.

Intensity
The Wavefunction

But now imagine sending a single electron through the experiment (with a screen monitoring
where the electric charge goes).

If the wavefunction represents the electron smeared over space, we would expect to see the
screen “light” up the same as in the experiment with light, representing the electron (and its
charge) “smeared” in space.

Intensity
The Wavefunction

But now imagine sending a single electron through the experiment (with a screen monitoring
where the electric charge goes).

If the wavefunction represents the electron smeared over space, we would expect to see the
screen “light” up the same as in the experiment with light, representing the electron (and its
charge) “smeared” in space.

Intensity
 The Wavefunction

But instead, we see just a single dot on the screen:

The wavefunction can thus not represent the physical “smearing” of matter across space and time
(as de Broglie and Einstein most likely envisioned when hypothesizing wave-particle duality).
 The Wavefunction

So, what does it describe?

Where the electron shows up on the screen seems to be random. We repeat the experiment over
and over again with exactly the same setup, yet the electron doesn’t always end up in the same
place – it seems to be a random process (we can’t say exactly where it ends up in one run).
 The Wavefunction

So, what does it describe?

Where the electron shows up on the screen seems to be random. We repeat the experiment over
and over again with exactly the same setup, yet the electron doesn’t always end up in the same
place – it seems to be a random process (we can’t say exactly where it ends up in one run).
The Wavefunction

However, if we jot down where on the screen the electron shows up in each run of the
experiment, we find that the number of times the electrons shows up in a particular spot
appears to follow the intensity pattern seen in wave experiments:

Number
The Wavefunction

However, if we jot down where on the screen the electron shows up in each run of the
experiment, we find that the number of times the electrons shows up in a particular spot
appears to follow the intensity pattern seen in wave experiments:

Number
The Wavefunction

However, if we jot down where on the screen the electron shows up in each run of the
experiment, we find that the number of times the electrons shows up in a particular spot
appears to follow the intensity pattern seen in wave experiments:

Number

tells us the distribution of the number of

hits per unit area and time on the screen
after many runs of the experiment.
The Wavefunction

However, if we jot down where on the screen the electron shows up in each run of the
experiment, we find that the number of times the electrons shows up in a particular spot
appears to follow the intensity pattern seen in wave experiments:

Number

Where is largest is where we had more hits

on the screen (after many runs), and thus
where we are more likely to see the electron
The Wavefunction

Therefore, for a single run of the experiment, tells us the probability (density) that
the electron will show up at some point on the screen.

In fact, in general provides the probability density that an electron will be

observed if we look for it at any particular x and t. For example, if we tried to measure the
electron before it hit the screen.

Probability
The Wavefunction

Therefore, for a single run, the wavefunction attributed to the electron behaves as a
wave (following Schrödinger’s equation), passes through both slits, and interferes with itself.

Then provides the probability density for where on the screen we might record
seeing the electron.

Probability
The Wavefunction
Note that, since we are dealing with a continuous space, is probability density.

The probability of the electron being seen in a region around is

Probability
The Wavefunction
Note that, since we are dealing with a continuous space, is probability density.

The probability of the electron being seen in a region around is

Probability
The Wavefunction
Note that, since we are dealing with a continuous space, is probability density.

The probability of the electron being seen in a region around is

Therefore, we must have -> called the normalization condition.

Probability
The Wavefunction
Note that, since we are dealing with a continuous space, is probability density.

The probability of the electron being seen in a region around is

Therefore, we must have -> called the normalization condition.

Probability

Discrete version:
Born rule

In one run, provides the probability of finding the particle in a region around

If we sent N electrons through in one go (and they didn’t interact), we can think of
as providing “intensity”

Intensity

N electrons
Born rule

Careful, represents the probability (density), NOT itself!

It is not probability “interfering” since always

is in general a complex (!) function, that satisfies the Schrödinger equation. It is

sometimes called the “probability amplitude” although the name is somewhat misleading.

Probability
Summary of “single-particle” double-slit experiment

An electron is fired at two slits: some complex function propagates through experiment,
interfering with itself and obeying Schrodinger’s equation.

At each point , represents the probability that we might see the particle within a
region around the point. This is just a probability, so the electron is seen at a random point
on the screen in each experiment, but is more likely to be seen at some places than others.

After many experiments, a wave pattern is seen, not what we would expect for a classical particle
picture.
Probability
Born rule

Born was the first to note that represents the probability density of obtaining the result
that the electron has position

(Although he first thought it should be !)

This is part of the so-called Born rule.

Another aspect of this rule, is that, once the observation has been carried out, and we have a
result for the location of the electron, then we must “update”

Let’s see how this is meant to work…

Born rule

Consider that we put a position measuring device at one of the slits (slit 1) – see lecture 5!

Intensity

2
Born rule

Consider that we put a position measuring device at one of the slits (slit 1) – see lecture 5!

Probability

Born rule: if the device “sees” the electron, we update as -> we

know the electron has passed through slit 1. (Also called the “collapse” of the wavefunction.)
Born rule

Consider that we put a position measuring device at one of the slits (slit 1).

Probability

If the device does not “see” the electron, then we must also update
Born rule

Then, in each run of the experiment, the wavefunction only “passes” through one of the slits.

It, therefore, does not interfere with itself after passing through the slits.

After many runs (and recording where the electron of each run was seen to hit the screen), we
obtain a similar pattern to that expected from sending single particles through every time:

Intensity
Born rule

Then, in each run of the experiment, the wavefunction only “passes” through one of the slits.

It, therefore, does not interfere with itself after passing through the slits.

After many runs (and recording where the electron of each run was seen to hit the screen), we
obtain a similar pattern to that expected from sending single particles through every time:

Intensity
Born rule

Then, in each run of the experiment, the wavefunction only “passes” through one of the slits.

It, therefore, does not interfere with itself after passing through the slits.

After many runs (and recording where the electron of each run was seen to hit the screen), we
obtain a similar pattern to that expected from sending single particles through every time:

In particular, in this case:

Intensity

Rather than:

This then “explains” the results of the

experiment outlined in lecture 5.
Wave mechanics

In summary, as if have two processes:

Wave mechanics

In summary, as if have two processes:

• The smooth (“unitary”) evolution of a complex wave :

This part is “deterministic” (if all we cared about was ): given at some time ,
we can find what will be at a later time from the above equation.
Wave mechanics

In summary, as if have two processes:

• The smooth (“unitary”) evolution of a complex wave :

This part is “deterministic” (if all we cared about was ): given at some time ,
we can find what will be at a later time from the above equation.

• But wait! If we measure the position of the object, then we must apply the Born rule such that
represents the probability density I will obtain result .
The measurement result then requires us to “update” (it “collapses” the wavefunction –
in the Copenhagen interpretation).
Wave mechanics

In summary, as if have two processes:

• The smooth (“unitary”) evolution of a complex wave :

This part is “deterministic” (if all we cared about was ): given at some time ,
we can find what will be at a later time from the above equation.

• But wait! If we measure the position of the object, then we must apply the Born rule such that
represents the probability density I will obtain result .
The measurement result then requires us to “update” (it “collapses” the wavefunction –
in the Copenhagen interpretation).

This part is non-deterministic -> we are working with probabilities and randomness (it also
has an element of “non-locality” -> my measurement instantly affects all of )
Wave mechanics
system
In summary, as if have two processes:

• The smooth (“unitary”) evolution of a complex wave :

This part is “deterministic” (if all we cared about was ): given at some time ,
we can find what will be at a later time from the above equation.

• But wait! If we measure the position of the object, then we must apply the Born rule such that
represents the probability density I will obtain result .
The measurement result then requires us to “update” (it “collapses” the wavefunction –
in the Copenhagen interpretation).

This part is non-deterministic -> we are working with probabilities and randomness (it also
has an element of “non-locality” -> my measurement instantly affects all of )
Wave mechanics

Summary of wave mechanics:

• (or ) is called the wavefunction (or probability amplitude). It obeys the

Schrödinger equation, which in its time-independent (and one-dimensional) form is:

Time-independent
Schrödinger equation
Wave mechanics

Summary of wave mechanics:

• (or ) is called the wavefunction (or probability amplitude). It obeys the

Schrödinger equation, which in its time-independent (and one-dimensional) form is:

Time-independent
Schrödinger equation

• represents the probability density of observing the quantum system in position

Wave mechanics

Summary of wave mechanics :

• (or ) is called the wavefunction (or probability amplitude). It obeys the

Schrödinger equation, which in its time-independent (and one-dimensional) form is:

Time-independent
Schrödinger equation

• represents the probability density of observing the quantum system in position

• This requires that must always be “normalized”:

Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger’s equations (and contributions from Max Born etc.) led to the wave mechanics
formulation of quantum theory.
Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger’s equations (and contributions from Max Born etc.) led to the wave mechanics
formulation of quantum theory.

Its final formulation ended up not being completely within the spirit of the Einstein
school: it was apparently nondeterministic and seemed to fit most naturally into a
antirealist/nonrealist framework (as pursued by Bohr -> see Copenhagen interpretation).
(There are, however, other interpretations – see the 1st lecture!)
Quantum Mechanics

Schrödinger’s equations (and contributions from Max Born etc.) led to the wave mechanics
formulation of quantum theory.

Its final formulation ended up not being completely within the spirit of the Einstein
school: it was apparently nondeterministic and seemed to fit most naturally into a
antirealist/nonrealist framework (as pursued by Bohr -> see Copenhagen interpretation).
(There are, however, other interpretations – see the 1st lecture!)

However, its mathematics and concepts (wave physics) were more familiar to physicists of
the day than matrix mechanics.
Quantum Mechanics

Surprisingly these theories were soon found to be describing the same theory but from
different mathematical directions (see Schrödinger and Dirac). Together this is sometimes
called “modern” quantum mechanics or just quantum mechanics and can be formulated in
other mathematical languages (e.g. Hilbert spaces)
Quantum Mechanics

Surprisingly these theories were soon found to be describing the same theory but from
different mathematical directions (see Schrödinger and Dirac). Together this is sometimes
called “modern” quantum mechanics or just quantum mechanics and can be formulated in
other mathematical languages (e.g. Hilbert spaces)

This was later “superseded” by quantum field theory where relativistic phenomena
(including light and its interaction with matter) is also properly described by quantum
theory.
 Black body radiation experiments 1924: de Broglie’s 1926:
1802: Wollaston 1905: 1972-
wave-particle Born rule 1928:
sees spectral Einstein’s Bell
duality Dirac equation
lines in sunlight 1877: Boltzmann Special experiments
(mathematically?) Relativity 1915: 1926:
1859: Kirchhoff’s discretizes energy Einstein’s
Schrödinger
definition of General
1700 1800 a ‘black body’ 1900 Relativity
equation 2000

1687: 1824: Carnot’s 1873: Maxwell’s 1900: 1932:

Newton’s ‘A Treatise on 1927: von Neumann's
“Reflections on Plank’s Davisson-
‘Principia’ the Motive Electricity and black-body ‘Mathematical
Newtonian Magnetism’ Germer Foundations of
Power of Fire” radiation law: experiment
mechanics Thermodynamics Electromagnetism (Matter as Quantum
oscillators) 1913:
1925: Mechanics’
Bohr model Matrix mechanics
of atom
1887: 1927: 1964:
Hertz observes Heisenberg’s Bell’s theorem
1922: Stern-Gerlach
1808: Dalton’s 1870’s: photoelectric uncertainty
experiment
'A New System Boltzmann’s effect relation
1905:
of Chemical “Lectures on Gas Einstein’s
Philosophy’ Theory” (published 1923: Compton scattering 1930:
1896: light quanta
Atomic Theory 1896) experiment Dirac’s ‘The Principles of
Marie Curie (photons)
Statistical Quantum Mechanics’
and Henri
Mechanics
Becquerel’s
radioactivity ‘old quantum theory’ 1927:
Salvay Conference on Physics
2025