TRANSMISSION WORKSHEET

QUESTION 1
Explain the functions of the VLR, HL, GMSC and EIR as GSM nodes.

Visitor locator register (VLR)

- A database in a mobile communication associated to a Mobile
Switching Centre (MSC)
- Contains the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present
in a service area
- Informs the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in a particular area
covered by the VLR
- Supports roaming functions for users outside the coverage area of their
own VLR

Home location register (HLR)

- A database within a GSM core network which stores essential
subscriber information.
- Used to identify management, location tracking and SMS delivery
- Stores all active customers of the mobile network i.e. number and service
entitlement.

Gateway Mobile Switching Centre(GMSC)

- A mobile switching center used to route calls outside the mobile
networks.
- Connects GSM to external networks (PSTN and SDN)
- Routes calls from originating MSC to destination MSC or PSTN.
- Converts dialed number into a format recognizable by destination
network.
- It collects call detail records and sends them to billing system.

Equipment Identity Register(EIR)

- A network entity in GSM network that stores and monitor lists of
IMEI.
- Contains list of authorized numbers and allows the IMEI to be verified
- Verifies the legitimacy of mobile numbers
- Prevents unauthorized devices from accessing the network
- Monitors and tracks devices based on IMEI numbers

Authentication Center (AUC)

- Responsible for policing actions in network
- Has all the data required to protect network against false subscribers
and protect calls of regular subscribers.
- Provides encryption keys to secure voice and data communication
- Ensures the integrity of data transmitted over the network.
- Verifies the identity of subscribers using algorithms and keys.
QUESTION 2
With reference to GSM network explain FDMA, TDMA, TDM, and
FDM.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

- Involves diving a frequency band into multiple bands ,so that each
subscribed frequency band is assigned to a single subscriber.
- In GSM, FDMA divides 25MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier
frequencies each with separation of 200Hz

Advantages
- Cheapest
- No need for network timing
- Can achieve lowest bandwidth and power requirements
- Uses well established technologies hence, simplest and cost effective to implement.
- No restrictions regarding the type of baseband or type of modulation

Disadvantages
- No need for frequency guards … waste of resources
- Intermodulation products cause carrier-to-noise ratio to fall
- Weak carrier tends to be suppressed
- Lack of flexibility in channel allocation, hardware controlled
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
- Allows multiple users to share a communication resource by dividing it
into different time slots , where each uses data is transmitted in a specific
slot.
- In GSM, TDMA divides 200kHz channels into 8 time slots each with a
data rate of 270.833kbps

Advantages
- Bandwidth efficient protocol
- Easy transmission plans
- No need for precise narrow bandwidth filters.
- More robust against noise and interfere
- Good for digital communication and for satellite on-board processing.

Disadvantages
- Complex
- Wide burst rate
- Requires network wide synchronization
- Requires complicated channel equalization in mobile systems
- Subject to multi-path distortion because of its sensitivity to timing.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
- Channel is divided into several time slot with each signal assigned a
specific time slot during which it can transmit it’s data.
- When a user transmits using TDM, they occupy the whole frequency
spectrum for a certain amount of time.
- Guard times used between each users transmission time burst to
minimize crosstalk collision btwn channels.

Advantages
- High throughput even for Many users
- Common Tx component design, only one power amplifier.
- Only one carrier frequency in the medium at any given time.
- The problem of Intermodulation distortion is not present in TDM

Disadvantages
- Latency issues
- Precise time synchronization necessary
- Requires a Rx terminal to support a much higher data rate than the
users information rate must take into account propagation delays
- Slow narrowband fading can wipe out all the TDM channels
- Need for modifications with increased data rates
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
- Total frequency spectrum available is divided into smaller, non-
overlapping frequency bands for transmission over a single digital
communication channel.
- Each message is assigned a frequency slot within the available band
- A frequency band is allocated per channel for the entire transmission
time signals are narrowband and frequency limited
- Frequency guard bands are placed btwn the users frequency bands to
avoid overlapping (ACI) creates wasted bandwidth

Advantages
- Also works for analog signals
- No dynamic coordination needed
- Lower channel bit rate means less susceptible to multi-path inter-symbol Interference
(ISI).
Disadvantages
- Requires guard bands btwn frequency channels
- Inefficient use of bandwidth if it’s traffic is distributed unevenly
- Inflexible – cannot readily support variable user data rates, fixed
channel width means fixed bit rate.

QUESTION 3
What is channel mapping
Channel mapping is the process of associating different communication
channels with specific parameters or characteristics to ensure efficient
and interference-free communication

QUESTION 4
Explain 2 types of GSM logical channels

Traffic Channels (TCH)

- Used to carry user data, such as voice or data sessions.
- Essential for the actual communication btwn users

Types include:
- Full rate (13kbps)
- Half rate (6.5kbps)
- Enhanced full rate (12.2kbps)
- Adaptive multi-rate (variable rate)

Control Channels (CCH)

- Carry signaling and management information btwn the mobile device
and the network.
- Critical for functions like call setup, handover, registration, and mobility management.

Types include:
- Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) – Transmits general information about the
network, such as network ID.

- Random Access Channel (RACH) – Used by mobile devices to request access to

the network.

QUESTION 5
What is the meaning of LSB in analogue and digital transmission
respectively

LSB in Analogue
- Represents the smallest change in the analogue input signal that can be
detected by the converter.
- It is the smallest step size or increment that the ADC can resolve.

LSB in Digital
- Is the bit position in a binary number that has the smallest value.
- It is the rightmost bit in a binary number and represents the smallest
increment of the value.

QUESTION 6
For PCM 30 system, state the number of i. number of bits/word ii.
Sampling frequency iii. Channel bandwidth iv. Duration of each time
slot (t/s) v. Bit transfer rate.

- Number of bits per word – 8 bits

- Sampling frequency – 8 KHz
- Channel bandwidth – 64 kbps
- Duration of each time slot – 125ms
- Bit transfer rate – 2.048 Mbps
QUESTION 7
A parabolic dish has a diameter of 1m. Determine the gain at i. 1GHz ii.
6GHz iii. Calculate the beam width

QUESTION 8
List the order of steps involved in the conversion of an analogue voice
signal to digital signal.

1. Sampling – Continuous analogue signal is sampled at regular intervals to create a

discrete-time signal.
2. Quantization – Sampled values are mapped to a finite set of levels, converting the
continuous amplitude values into discrete values.

3. Encoding – Quantized values are then encoded into a binary format, producing a digital
signal.

4. Modulation – Digital signal is modulated onto a carrier wave for transmission over a
communication channel.

QUESTION 9
What do you understand by the term BER?
Bit Error Rate is the rate at which errors occur in a transmission system.

4 Examples of BERs include:

- Severe errors – 1 X 10-3 1 bit in 1000 bits has been affected

- Poor BER – 1 X 10-6 1 bit in 1000000 bits has been affected.

- Good BER – 1 X 10-9 1 bit in 1000000000 bits has been affected.

- Perfect BER – 1 X 10-12 1 bit in 1000000000000 bits has been affected.

Factors affecting BER include:

- Interference – Unwanted signals from other sources that can disrupt the communication.
- Attenuation – Loss of signal strength as it travels through the transmission medium.
- Crosstalk – Unwanted coupling of signals btwn adjacent channels or cables
- Noise – Random electrical disturbances that can alter the transmitted signal.

QUESTION 10
Draw and explain the block diagram of an FM transmitter system.

Microphone – Converts sound to an electrical signal.

Audio Amplifier – Amplifies the audio signal.
Oscillator – Generates a high-frequency carrier signal.
Modulator – Modulates the carrier signal with the audio signal.
Power Amplifier – Increases the power of the modulated signal.
Antenna – Transmits the signal.

QUESTION 11
State the audio frequency band
20 Hz to 20 000 Hz
QUESTION 12
What type of filters are used to have an audio output on the receiver?
Explain.

Low-Pass Filters – Allows frequencies below a certain cutoff point to

pass through while attenuating higher frequencies. Used to remove high-
frequency noise from the audio signal.

High-Pass Filters – Allows frequencies above a certain cutoff point to

pass through while attenuating lower frequencies. Used to eliminate low-
frequency noise, such as hum or rumble.

Band-Pass Filters – Allows a specific range of frequencies to pass

through while attenuating frequencies outside this range. Used to isolate the
desired audio signal from unwanted frequencies.

Notch Filters – Attenuate a narrow band of frequencies. Used to remove

specific unwanted frequencies, such as interference or feedback.

NOTES
Transmission is the process of sending and propagating an analogue or
digital information signal over a physical point-to-point or point-to
multipoint transmission medium, either wired, optical fiber or wireless.

Five main types of transmission lines

1. Circuits – Physical path that runs between two or more points.
2. Channels – Logical conversation path.
3. Lines – Connection that is configured to support a normal calling load
generated by one individual.

4. Trunks – Circuit that is configured to support the calling loads generated by a

group of users.

5. Virtual circuits – Logical connection between two devices in a network,

simulating a physical dedicated communication channel.

Switching system – A device that connects two transmission lines

together.

Characteristics of transmission path

- Attenuation – To overcome the attenuation of the transmission path adequate
amplification is required.

- Noise – Space out the amplification along the transmission path, so that the signal level is
always well above the noise level

- Variation in attenuation with frequency – Require equalization to ensure that all

frequencies receive the same attenuation.

- Variation in attenuation with time – Requires some form of automatic gain control
(AGC) to ensure that the receive signal level does not vary with time.

- Frequency band – If the frequency band of the transmission path differs from that of the
multiplex equipment, further modulation and demodulation will be required.

Main problems to overcome in any transmission system are:

- Attenuation – Reduction of signal strength or amplitude during transmission.
- Distortion – Alteration of signal waveform or frequency.
- Noise – Random, unwanted signals.
- Interference – Unwanted signals from external sources.
- Cross-talk – Signal leakage between nearby channels.

Advantages of digital over analogue

- Possibilities to send all thinkable services such as telephony, high
speed data, TV, music etc. via the same transmission medium.
- Utilization of the higher unused radio frequency bands. RF bands in the
region of 10GHz or above are unsuitable for analog transmission due to high attenuation by rain,
fog etc.

- S/N in analog systems decrease linearly with fading of the RF carrier, BER in
digital systems is unaffected by fading until the received signal reaches a certain threshold
value.

- High immunity against noise.

- Possibility to use integrated circuits makes digital systems economical
and alignment free
- Easy maintenance

Main steps required for a TDM system are

- Analogue to digital conversion
- Multiplexing
- Transmission over a digital path
- Demultiplexing
- Digital to analogue conversion

QUESTION 12
What is transmission systems with reference to telecommunications?
Transmission system – is a setup that transmits signals from one place to
another using various technologies such as copper cables, fiber-optic
cables, satellite links, and wireless communication technologies.

QUESTION 13
Explain the following FDM, TDM, FDMA, TDMA, OFDMA, and
OFDM.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Multiple signals are

transmitted simultaneously over a single transmission path by allocating
a unique frequency band to each signal.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Channel is divided into several time slot with each signal assigned a
specific time slot during which it can transmit it’s data.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Dividing a frequency

band into multiple bands, so that each subscribed frequency band is
assigned to a single subscriber.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Allows multiple users to share a communication resource by dividing it
into different time slots , where each uses data is transmitted in a specific
slot.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
OFDMA is a multi-user version of the (OFDM) Assigns subsets of
subcarriers to individual users, allowing simultaneous data transmission
from multiple users.

QUESTION 14
Explain a resource block with reference to 4G

Resource block is the smallest unit of resources that can be allocated to a

user.
- Consists of 12 subcarriers in the frequency domain and one slot in the
time domain, typically lasting 0.5 milliseconds.

QUESTION 15
What is multiplexing and Demultiplexing (explain how channel are
multiplexed)

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one signal

over a shared medium.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating a combined signal into
original individual signals using techniques like TDM, FDM and CDMA
Channels are multiplexed by combining multiple signals into one for
efficient transmission over a shared medium.

Methods include:
- Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) - assigns each signal a specific time slot in a
repeating sequence.

- Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) - allocates each signal a unique

frequency band within the available bandwidth.

- Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) Uses different wavelengths (colors) of

light for each signal in optical fiber communications.

- Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM) - Assigns a unique code to each signal,

allowing simultaneous transmission over the same frequency band.

QUESTION 16
Explain how an audio signal are connected to digitals system.

Audio signals are analog waveforms, while digital signals are discrete,
consisting of binary data. Connection between them happens via the
process of analog-to-digital conversion (ADC).

Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

- Sampling – Continuous analog audio signal is sampled at regular
intervals. Measuring the amplitude of the audio signal at regular intervals.
- Quantization – Each sample’s amplitude is measured and converted
into a numeric value. Converting the sampled values into discrete levels
- Encoding – Quantized values are encoded as digital binary data.
Representing the quantized values in binary form.

QUESTION 17
Explain the formation for 30 channel PCM system

A 30-channel Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) refers to the European E1

standard, which combines 30 voice channels into a single digital stream.
Each voice channel is sampled at 8 kHz, and each sample is encoded
into an 8-bit value, resulting in a data rate of 64 kbps per channel. The
combined data rate for 30 channels is 2.048 Mbps, including additional
bits for synchronization and signaling.

QUESTION 18
What is bit stuffing

Involves inserting non-information bits into the data stream to break up

sequences of bits that might otherwise be misinterpreted as control
signals. To ensure that the data stream remains synchronized
i.e. In HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), a ‘0’ bit is inserted after five consecutive ‘1’
bits to prevent confusion with the frame delimiter.

QUESTION 19
Compare and contrast SDH and PDH systems
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
- Synchronous transmission.
- Easier multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
- Higher data rates (up to several Gbps).
- Better network management and fault detection.

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

- Plesiochronous (nearly synchronous) transmission.
- More complex multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
- Lower data rates (up to 140 Mbps).
- Limited network management capabilities.

QUESTION 20
What is a virtual container and explain 4 different types of virtual
containers?

A structure used in Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) to transport

user data.
- Provides a flexible and efficient way to manage and transport different
types of data streams.

Types include:
- VC-11- Used for lower-rate signals (1.5 Mbps).
- VC-12 - Used for 2 Mbps signals.
- VC-3 - Used for 34 Mbps signals.
- VC-4 - Used for 140 Mbps signals.

QUESTION 21
Explain three types of modulation with aid of diagrams

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the data signal.

Advantages:
1. Simple to implement
2. Cost-effective equipment
3. Good for long-distance transmission

Disadvantages:
1. Highly susceptible to noise
2. Low power efficiency
3. Requires larger bandwidth
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the data signal

Advantages:
1. Resistant to noise
2. Better sound quality
3. Efficient transmission
Disadvantages:
1. Limited coverage area
2. More complex equipment
3. Requires wider bandwidth

Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase of the carrier signal is varied in line with the data signal.
Advantages:
1. Less affected by noise
2. Efficient bandwidth usage
3. Stable signal

Disadvantages:
1. Complex and costly equipment
2. Phase ambiguity issues
3. Needs precise synchronization

QUESTION 22
Draw and explain block diagrams of radio transmitter and receiver

Radio transmitter
- Microphone – Converts sound to electrical signal.
- Modulator – Modulates the carrier signal with the audio signal
- Amplifier – Increases the power of the modulated signal.
- Antenna – Transmits the signal
Radio receiver

- Antenna – Receives the signal

- Tuner – Selects the desired frequency
- Demodulator – Extracts the audio signal from the carrier
- Speaker – Converts electrical signal back to sound

QUESTION 23
Draw and explain the block diagram of a FM radio transmitter

Microphone – Converts sound waves into electrical signals.

Audio Amplifier – Amplifies the weak audio signals from the microphone.
Oscillator – Generates a high-frequency carrier signal.
Modulator – Combines the audio signal with the carrier signal to produce a frequency-
modulated (FM) signal.

Power Amplifier – Increases the power of the FM signal for transmission.

Antenna – Radiates the amplified FM signal into the air.

QUESTION 24
State 3 different types of antennas and explain how they radiate power

Dipole Antenna
- Consists of two conductive elements such as metal wires or rods.
Radiates power by creating an electromagnetic field that propagates
away from the antenna.
- The radiation pattern is typically omnidirectional in the plane
perpendicular to the antenna.

Yagi Antenna
- Consists of a driven element, a reflector, and one or more directors.
- Radiates power in a specific direction, making it highly directional.
- This type of antenna is commonly used for television reception and
amateur radio.

Parabolic Reflector Antenna

- Uses a parabolic-shaped reflector to focus the radio waves into a
narrow beam.
- This type of antenna is highly directional and is used in applications
such as satellite communications and radar.

QUESTION 25
State and explain any 5 different types of modulation schemes

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

- The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the
message signal.
- Used in medium-wave (MW) and short-wave (SW) radio broadcasting.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
- Frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the message
signal.
- Provides better noise immunity compared to AM.
- Used in high-fidelity broadcasting, such as FM radio.

Phase Modulation (PM)

- The phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
message signal.
- Used in digital communication systems like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

- QAM combines both amplitude and phase modulation.
- It modulates the amplitude of two carrier waves that are out of phase
by 90 degrees.
- Used in digital television and cable modem systems.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

- A digital modulation scheme where an analog signal is sampled and
quantized into a series of binary numbers.
- Used for converting analog signals into digital form.
- Used in digital telephony and audio recording.
QUESTION 26
List and draw different types of wave-guides

Rectangular Wave guide

- Hollow metallic tube with a rectangular -section.
- Used for microwave frequencies.

Circular Wave guide

- Hollow metallic tube with a circular cross-section.
- Used for microwave frequencies but has different mode characteristics
compared to rectangular wave-guides.
Dielectric Wave guide
- A wave-guide that uses a dielectric material to guide the waves.
- It is used in optical fiber communications.

QUESTION 27
Draw the slot layout of the following radios and explain their differences
a. RTN910
b. RTN950
c. RTN980

RTN910
Slot layout – It has a compact design with fewer slots compared to the
RTN950 and RTN980.
- It includes slots for basic transmission and interface board.
- Supports TDM ,Hybrid and Packet microwave transmission.
- Suitable for small to medium capacity requirements.
- Used in scenarios where space and power consumption are Limited.

RTN950
Slot layout - Has a more extensive slot layout ,accommodating a variety
of interface and transmission boards.
- It includes slots for multiple IF boards, service boards and control
boards.
- Supports higher capacity and more complex configurations than
RTN910.
- Provides advanced features like XPIC (Cross Polarization Interference
Cancelling ) and MIMO.
- Suitable for medium to large capacity requirements and more
demanding network scenarios .

RTN980
Slot layout - Has the most extensive slot layout among the
three ,designed for high capacity and high performances requirements.
- It includes slots for multiple high capacity IF boards ,service board and
control board
- Supports the highest capacity and most advanced feature ls including
high order modulation schemes and large channel bandwidth.
- Ideal for backbone networks and scenarios requiring very high data
throughput
-Provides robust Support for 5G networks and future evolution.

QUESTION 28
a. Draw and explain the structure of an optical fiber
Core
- The central part of the fiber where light signals are transmitted.
- Made of pure glass or doped glass
- Diameter: 5-10 μm (single-mode), 50-100 μm (multi-mode)

Cladding
- Surrounds the core, helps confine light signals.
- Made of glass or plastic
- Refractive index: lower than core
- Diameter: 125 μm (standard)

Primary Coating
- Protects the fiber from mechanical stress. Made of soft plastic or UV-
cured resin
- Thickness: 10-50 μm
Strengthening Fibers (Reinforcement)
- Provides additional mechanical strength.
- Made of glass or Kevlar fibers
- Wrapped around the primary coating

Protective Coating (Outermost)

- Protects the fiber from environmental factors.
- Made of tough plastic or PVC
- Thickness: 100-500 μm

QUESTION 29
What is total internal reflection

T.I.R occurs when light traveling through a medium hits the boundary
with a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle,
causing it to be reflected back into the original medium.

Conditions for T.I.R

- Light wave must be incident from a denser medium (higher refractive
index).
- Light wave must hit the boundary at an angle greater than the critical
angle.
- Refractive index of the second medium must be lower than the first

Process of T.I.R
- Light wave hits the boundary.
- Part of the light wave is reflected back into the denser medium.
- No light wave is transmitted into the rarer medium.

Characteristics of T.I.R
1. 100% reflection efficiency.
2. No energy loss.
3. Phase shift of 180°

Applications of TIR
1. Optical fibers
2. Prism optics
3. Beam splitters
4. Optical waveguides

QUESTION 30
Explain how light is launched in a laser
Light is launched in a laser by exciting electrons in a gain medium to a
higher energy state. When these electrons return to a lower energy state,
they emit photons, which are then amplified by stimulated emission.
QUESTION 31
Discuss different types of optical fibers and advantages
Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) - One light path, used for long-distance
transmission.
Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF) - Multiple light paths, used for shorter
distances.
Step-Index Fiber - Core and cladding have distinct refractive indices.
Graded-Index Fiber - Core and cladding have gradual refractive index
changes.

Advantages
1. High bandwidth
2. Low signal attenuation
3. Immunity to electromagnetic interference
4. Secure transmission

QUESTION 32
What is the color code of Core [36, 127, 142, 19, 67, 102, 112] in a 144
core cable?

- Core 36 – Orange
- Core 127 – Aqua
- Core 142 – Slate
- Core 19 – Brown
- Core 67 – Red
- Core 102 – Black
- Core 112 – Violet

QUESTION 33

Steps for Splicing an Optical Fiber

1. Preparation - Clean and strip the fiber ends.
2. Cleaving - Cut the fiber ends to create a smooth surface.
3. Alignment - Align the fiber ends using a splicing machine.
4. Fusion Splicing - Use an electric arc to fuse the fiber ends together.
5. Protection - Apply a protective sleeve over the splice.

QUESTION 34
Explain the principle of operation of a fijustu optical equipment
Fujitsu optical equipment works by converting electrical signals into
optical signals using a laser diode or LED. These optical signals travel
through fibers with minimal loss. Multiple signals are combined using
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM). Optical amplifiers boost the
signal over long distances. At the receiving end, signals are separated,
converted back to electrical signals, and processed for delivery to end
devices. This ensures high-speed, high-capacity data transmission with
minimal loss and interference.

Key components include:

- Optical Transmitters - Convert electrical signals into optical signals.
- Optical Receivers - Convert optical signals back into electrical signals.
- Multiplexers - Combine multiple signals into one for transmission.
- Demultiplexers - Separate combined signals back into individual
signals.
- Add/Drop Multiplexers (ADMs) - Add or remove specific signals from
the multiplexed data stream34.

Benefits of Fijustu Optical Equipment

- High-capacity transmission
- Long-haul transmission
- Low latency
- High reliability
- Scalability

QUESTION 35
Compare and contrast single mode and multimode fiber

Single Mode Fiber

- Core Diameter - Smaller core (approximately 9 µm).
- Light Propagation - Allows only one mode of light to propagate.
- Distance - Suitable for long-distance communication (up to 40 km or
more).
- Bandwidth - Higher bandwidth and less signal attenuation.
- Cost - Generally more expensive due to the precision required in
manufacturing and installation.
- Applications - Used in telecommunications, cable TV, and long-
distance data transmission.

Multi-mode Fiber
- Core Diameter - Larger core (50 µm or 62.5 µm).
- Light Propagation - Allows multiple modes of light to propagate.
- Distance - Suitable for short-distance communication (up to 2 km).
- Bandwidth - Lower bandwidth and higher signal attenuation compared
to single mode.
- Cost - Generally less expensive and easier to install.
- Applications - Used in local area networks (LANs), data centers, and
short-distance data transmission.

QUESTION 36
Explain satellite communication
Satellite communication is a method of transmitting data or signals
through satellites orbiting the earth.

QUESTION 37
List and explain 5 different types of satellites in space (explain
according to the distance from the ground and application)

Types of Satellites in Space

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
- Altitude - 160 to 2,000 km.
- Applications - Earth observation, scientific research, and
communication.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites

- Altitude - 2,000 to 35,786 km.
- Applications - Navigation (e.g., GPS), communication.

Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Satellites

- Altitude - 35,786 km.
- Applications - Weather monitoring, television broadcasting,
communication.

Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO) Satellites

- Altitude – Varies between 600 to 800 km.
- Applications - Earth observation, environmental monitoring.

Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) Satellites

- Altitude - Transfer orbit to GEO.
- Applications - Transition phase for satellites moving to GEO78.

QUESTION 38
Explain how earth stations operates

Earth stations, or ground stations, communicate with satellites by

transmitting and receiving radio waves. They use parabolic antennas to
establish a telecommunications link with the satellite.

The process involves:

- Transmission - Sending signals to the satellite (uplink).
- Reception - Receiving signals from the satellite (downlink).
- Multiplexing/Demultiplexing - Combining and separating multiple
signals for efficient communication.

QUESTION 39
Explain how a satellite transponder operates
A satellite transponder is a device that receives signals from the Earth
station, amplifies them, and retransmits them back to another Earth
station.

The process involves:

- Receiving - The transponder receives the uplink signal from the Earth
station.
- Frequency Conversion - It converts the received signal to a different
frequency to avoid interference with the uplink signal.
- Amplification - The signal is amplified to ensure it can travel back to
Earth.
- Transmission - The amplified signal is transmitted back to the Earth
station on the downlink frequency.

QUESTION 40
Explain Kepler’s law of orbits
Kepler’s laws describe the motion of planets around the sun, which also
apply to satellites orbiting Earth:
- First Law (Law of Ellipses) – The orbit of a planet (or satellite) is an
ellipse with the sun (or Earth) at one of the two foci.
- Second Law (Law of Equal Areas) – A line segment joining a planet
(or satellite) and the sun (or Earth) sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time.
- Third Law (Law of Harmonies) – The square of the orbital period of a
planet (or satellite) is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of
its orbit.

QUESTION 41
What is meant by perigee and apogee with reference to satellite orbits

Perigee – The point in the orbit of a satellite closest to Earth.

Apogee – The point in the orbit of a satellite farthest from Earth.

QUESTION 42
State different types of frequency bands that are used in the transmission
network giving the frequency range operation.

L Band
- 1 to 2 GHz
- Used in satellite communication and GPS

S Band
- 2 to 4 GHz
- Used in weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites.

C Band
- 4 to 8 GHz
- Used in satellite communication and Wi-Fi.

X Band
- 8 to 12 GHz
- Used in radar and satellite communication.

Ku Band
- 12 to 18 GHz
- Used in satellite communication and direct broadcast satellite services.

Ka Band
- 26.5 to 40 GHz
- Used in high-resolution satellite communication and radar.

QUESTION 43
Give 10 applications of satellite communication

- Television Broadcasting – Delivering TV signals to homes.

- Internet Access – Providing internet connectivity in remote areas.
- Weather Monitoring – Observing weather patterns and forecasting.
- Navigation – GPS systems for location tracking.
- Military Communication – Secure communication for defense purposes.
- Disaster Management – Coordinating relief efforts during natural disasters.
- Scientific Research – Studying space and Earth’s atmosphere.
- Telemedicine – Providing medical services to remote locations.
- Maritime Communication – Ensuring communication for ships at sea.
- Aviation Communication – Supporting communication for aircraft.

QUESTION 44
Explain how space craft control systems operates
Spacecraft control systems manage the orientation and position of a
spacecraft.
- Attitude Control – Maintains the spacecraft’s orientation using
gyroscopes, reaction wheels, and thrusters.
- Orbit Control – Adjusts the spacecraft’s orbit using thrusters.
- Telemetry and Command – Sends and receives data between the
spacecraft and ground control.

QUESTION 45
Explain how the space stations or crafts is launched into space

Launching involves several stages:

- Preparation – Assembling and testing the spacecraft.
- Launch – Using a rocket to propel the spacecraft into space.
- Orbit Insertion – Adjusting the spacecraft’s trajectory to achieve the
desired orbit.
- Deployment – Activating the spacecraft’s systems and deploying any
necessary components, such as solar panels.

QUESTION 46
Explain different types of satellite communication subsystems

- Power Subsystem – provides and manages power for the satellite.

- Communication Subsystem – Handles the transmission and reception
of signals.
- Thermal Control Subsystem – Maintains the satellite’s temperature
within operational limits.
- Attitude and Orbit Control Subsystem – Controls the satellite’s
orientation and position.
- Command and Data Handling Subsystem – Manages the satellite’s
operations and data processing.

QUESTION 47
With reference to satellite communication explain fama and dama

Fixed Assignment Multiple Access (FAMA) –Allocates fixed frequency

bands or time slots to users. Suitable for predictable and constant traffic.
Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA) – Allocates frequency
bands or time slots based on demand. Suitable for variable and busy traffic.

DAMA FAMA
1 Dynamic allocation of 1 Static allocation of bandwidth
bandwidth
2 Assigns bandwidth on demand 2 Assigns fixed bandwidth to
each user
3 Efficient use of bandwidth 3 Simple implementation
4 Suitable for variable bitrate 4 Suitable for constant bitrate
applications applications
5 Use request giant protocol 5 No request grant protocol
needed
6 Used video conferencing, VoIP, 6 Used in television
data transmission broadcasting, radio broadcasting,
constant bitrate transmission

QUESTION 48
Compare and contrast WDM and DWDM

DWDM WDM
- Channel 0.8 to 1.6 1 to 20nm
- Number of channels 32
to 256 2 to 16
- Wavelength range 1525
to 1565nm Variable
- Applied in long-haul, Applied in metropolitan
and access
- Higher cost Cheap
QUESTION 49
Give calculated examples of satellite link budgets and microwave
terrestrial network

QUESTION 50
Explain polarization

Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field of an

electromagnetic wave.

Types include:
Linear Polarization – electric field oscillates in a single plane.
Circular Polarization – Electric field rotates in a circular motion.
Elliptical Polarization – Electric field describes an ellipse.
QUESTION 51
Explain diversity

Diversity is a technique used to improve the reliability of a signal by

using multiple communication paths.

Types include:
Frequency Diversity – Transmitting the same signal on different
frequencies.
Time Diversity – Transmitting the same signal at different times.
Space Diversity – Using multiple antennas at different locations.

QUESTION 52
Differentiate between frequency and space diversity

Frequency Diversity – Involves using multiple frequencies to transmit

the same signal, reducing the impact of frequency-specific fading.

Space Diversity – Involves using multiple antennas spaced apart to

receive the same signal, reducing the impact of spatial fading.

QUESTION 53
Distance between induction and radiation fuse with respect to antennas
and transmission systems

The distance between the induction and radiation fields of an antenna is

determined by the wavelength of the transmitted signal. The induction
field is close to the antenna and is dominated by reactive energy, while
the radiation field is farther away and carries the propagating energy.

QUESTION 54
Describe briefly the principle of operation of a radar system with aid of a
diagram

A radar system detects objects by transmitting a radio wave and

analyzing the reflected signal.

Basic components include:

- Transmitter – Generates and amplifies the radio wave.
- Antenna – Transmits the radio wave and receives the reflected signal.
- Receiver – Detects and amplifies the reflected signal.
- Processor – Analyzes the signal to determine the object’s distance,
speed, and direction.

QUESTION 55
State different types of frequency bands in a frequency spectrum
- VLF – 3 to 30 kHz
- LF – 30 to 300 kHz
- MF – 300 kHz to 3 MHz
- HF – 3 to 30 MHz
- VHF – 30 to 300 MHz
- UHF – 300 MHz to 3 GHz
- SHF – 3 to 30 GHz
- EHF – 30 to 300 GHz

QUESTION 56
What is DWDM

DWDM is a technology that increases bandwidth by combining multiple

optical carrier signals on a single optical fiber by using different
wavelengths (or colors) of laser light. It allows for the transmission of
multiple data streams simultaneously over the same fiber, significantly
increasing the capacity of the network.

QUESTION 57
As a Transmission Telecommunications Technician, You have been
tasked to survey and install a 40km Transmission link.
a. Give four factors that must be considered to set up the link.
 b. Explain five parameters that must be configured to bring up the
link.
c. State and explain the desirable microwave frequency band to use.

Setting up Link:
- Distance – The length of the transmission link affects signal strength
and quality.
- Terrain – Physical obstacles like mountains or buildings can interfere
with signal propagation
- Frequency Selection – Different frequencies have varying propagation
characteristics.
- Environmental Conditions – Weather factors such as rain or fog can
affect microwave transmission

Parameters:
- Modulation Type – Choose the appropriate modulation scheme (e.g.,
QPSK, 16-QAM).
- Bandwidth – Set the bandwidth to accommodate the required data
rates.
- Power Levels – Adjust transmission power to ensure adequate signal
strength without causing interference.
- Error Correction – Implement techniques like FEC to improve
reliability.
- Frequency Assignment – Assign specific frequencies to avoid
interference with other links.
The 2-40 GHz frequency range is desirable for microwave transmission.
- It Offers a good balance between range and data capacity, with lower
frequencies providing better penetration through obstacles and higher frequencies allowing for
higher data rates.

QUESTION 58
Compare and contrast cable TV and Satellite TV.

Cable TV
- Delivered through coaxial or fiber-optic cables.
- Generally provides more stable signal quality.
- Limited by geographical coverage; requires infrastructure.

Satellite TV
- Delivered via satellite signals to a dish at the viewer’s location.
- Offers broader geographic coverage, especially in rural areas.
- Signal quality can be affected by weather conditions.

QUESTION 59
Explain color mixing and state the main colors used to produce all other
colors on videos and pictures.
Color mixing refers to combining different colors to create new ones.
The primary colors of light are Red, Green, and Blue (RGB). By varying
the intensity of these colors, all other colors can be produced.
- On a computer screen, different shades of colors are created by adjusting the brightness of red,
green, and blue pixels.

QUESTION 60
You are required to install an Optical Fibre Transmission Link between
Harare and Mutare which is only 270km long. State the type of optical
Fibre Cable you would use and explain?

For a 270 km link, Single-Mode Optical Fibre (SMF) is recommended.

- SMF has a small core diameter and allows light to travel straight down
the fiber with minimal signal loss, making it ideal for long-distance
transmissions.

QUESTION 61
Fujitsu OLTE is divided into three main sections; state and explain their
functions.

- Optical Line Terminal (OLT) – The central device that manages the
optical network and connects the service provider’s backbone network to
the subscriber’s network.
- Optical Network Unit (ONU) – Located at the customer premises, it
converts optical signals into electrical signals for use by the customer’s
devices.
- Passive Optical Network (PON) – A network that uses unpowered
optical splitters to distribute signals from the OLT to multiple ONUs,
enabling efficient use of bandwidth.

QUESTION 62
State the audio frequency band.

20 Hz to 20kHz

QUESTION 63
What type of filters are used to have an audio output on the receiver?
Explain.

Low-pass filters are commonly used in receivers to allow audio

frequencies (20 Hz to 20 kHz) to pass through while attenuating higher
frequencies. This ensures that only the desired audio signal is outputted,
avoiding noise from higher-frequency components.

QUESTION 64
Describe the function of the oscillator, frequency Synthesizer,
Multipliers, and Dividers.

Oscillator
- An oscillator generates a continuous, oscillating signal, typically a sine
wave or square wave.
- Essential for creating stable frequencies needed in communication
systems and electronic devices.

Frequency Synthesizer
- Generates a range of frequencies from a single reference frequency.
- Used in to produce precise and stable frequencies for tuning and signal
generation.

Multipliers
- Are circuits that perform the mathematical operation of multiplication
on two input signals.
- Used in modulation and demodulation processes, where the signal’s
amplitude or frequency needs to be altered.

Dividers
- Are circuits that perform the mathematical operation of division on an
input signal.
- Used to reduce the frequency of a signal by a specific factor, which is
essential in frequency synthesis and clock generation.

QUESTION 65
Describe the following cooling systems
a. Forced air cooling
b. Oil cooling
c. Water cooling

Forced air cooling

- Uses fans or blowers to move air over components to dissipate heat.
The moving air absorbs heat from the components and carries it away,
helping to maintain optimal operating temperatures and prevent
overheating.
- Used in electronic devices, computers, and telecommunications
equipment.

Oil cooling
- Involves submerging components in oil or circulating oil around them
to transfer heat away. The oil absorbs the heat generated by the
components and then dissipates it through a heat exchanger or radiator.
- Used in high-power transformers, engines, and some high-performance
electronic systems due to its efficiency in managing high heat loads.

Water cooling
- Uses water as a coolant to absorb and transfer heat away from
components. The water circulates through a closed-loop system, passing
over the hot components and then through a radiator or heat exchanger
where the heat is dissipated.
- Water cooling is highly effective and is used in high-performance
computing systems.
QUESTION 66
Explain how automatic tuning is achieved using analogue and digital
techniques including automatic antenna tuning

Automatic tuning refers to the process of adjusting the parameters of a

device (like a radio receiver or transmitter) to match the operating
conditions of the system, ensuring optimal performance without the need
for manual intervention.

Analog Techniques include:

Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) – Used to automatically adjust the
tuning of a radio receiver to keep it tuned to a specific frequency. It
detects any frequency drift in the receiver's local oscillator and makes
corrections.
Variable Capacitors and Inductors – In analog circuits, variable
capacitors or inductors are used to adjust the resonant frequency of the
circuit. The tuning is controlled by a voltage or current that adjusts these
components, which then change the resonant frequency to match the
received signal.
Automatic Antenna Tuning – Antenna Tuning Units (ATUs)
automatically match the impedance of the antenna system to the
transmission line or the transmitter. This is crucial for minimizing
reflection losses and maximizing power transfer.

Digital Techniques for Automatic Tuning

Digital Signal Processing (DSP) – Uses algorithms and software to
automatically adjust the frequency, phase, or other parameters of a
signal.
Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) – Involves continuously measuring
the difference between the received signal’s frequency and the expected
frequency, then adjusting the receiver’s tuning digitally.
Automatic Antenna Tuning in Digital Systems – automatic antenna
tuning is achieved through microcontroller-based systems that
continuously monitor and adjust the impedance match using electronic
components like varactors (voltage-controlled capacitors) or stepper
motors to adjust physical antenna elements.

QUESTION 67
The PCM 30 (E1) signal is the basis for transmission systems, illustrate
the PCM 30 and describe the contents of each timeslot

The PCM 30 (E1) is a digital transmission system for carrying voice and
data over digital circuits.

The E1 system is composed of 32 time slots, with each time slot

carrying 8 bits of information (one byte), totaling 2048 kbps for the
entire stream.
- The data is structured in frame format, where each frame consists of 32
time slots, and it repeats every 125 microseconds.
- Time Slots 1 to 30 is used for user data, which could include voice
channels or digital data.
- Time Slot 16 is reserved for framing information, which helps the
system synchronize and maintain alignment between transmitting and
receiving ends
- Time Slot 0 is often reserved for signaling or for maintenance and other
system-related functions, depending on the implementation.

QUESTION 68
Show the multiplexing of signals from an E1 to E4 showing the number
of channels and the associated data rates

Multiplexing from E1 to E4
- E1: 2.048 Mbps, 32 channels.
- E2: 8.448 Mbps, 4 E1s, 128 channels.
- E3: 34.368 Mbps, 4 E2s, 512 channels.
- E4: 139.264 Mbps, 4 E3s, 2048 channels.

QUESTION 69
Using a suitable diagram explain how an STM-4 is obtained from an E1

STM-4 from E1
E1 (2.048 Mbps) > STM-1 (63 E1s, 155.52 Mbps) > STM-4 (4 STM-1s,
622.08 Mbps)
QUESTION 70
Draw the SDH frame structure and explain the function of each section

RSOH – Synchronization, error monitoring, and communication

channels.
MSOH – Network management, protection switching, and error
monitoring.
AU-PTR – Indicates the start of the payload.
Payload – Contains the actual data being transmitted.

QUESTION 71
What are the advantages of using SDH over PDH.
Standardized Interfaces – Easier interconnection and interoperability.
Higher Capacity – Supports higher data rates and more efficient bandwidth utilization.
Network Management– Enhanced monitoring, maintenance, and fault detection.
Flexibility – Easier to add/drop channels without disrupting the entire system.
Synchronization – Uses a common clock, reducing timing issues and improving reliability.

QUESTION 72
Draw the block diagram of a VSAT and explain the function of each
electromagnetic block.

User Device – Is the source of data, such as a computer or telephone,

that needs to be transmitted.
Modem – Modulates the digital data from the user device into an
intermediate frequency (IF) signal for transmission and demodulates the
received IF signal back into digital data.
Up Converter – Converts the IF signal to a higher radio frequency (RF)
signal suitable for satellite transmission.
Power Amplifier – Amplifies the RF signal to a level suitable for
transmission to the satellite.
Antenna – Transmits the amplified RF signal to the satellite and receives
signals from the satellite.
BUC (Block Up Converter) – Converts the IF signal to the RF signal and
amplifies it for transmission.
LNB (Low Noise Block Downconverter) – Receives the RF signal from
the satellite, amplifies it, and converts it back to an IF signal.
Down Converter – Converts the received RF signal back to an IF signal.
LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) – Amplifies the weak signals received from
the satellite with minimal added noise.

QUESTION 73
State frequencies for the C band, KU band, and KA band and state an
advantage and a disadvantage of using each

C Band
- Frequency Range – 4 to 8 GHz.
- Advantage – Less susceptible to rain fade, making it reliable in adverse
weather conditions.
- Disadvantage – Requires larger antennas, which can be impractical for
some applications.

Ku Band
- Frequency Range – 12 to 18 GHz.
- Advantage – Allows for smaller, more compact satellite dishes.
- Disadvantage – More susceptible to rain fade compared to C Band.

Ka Band
- Frequency Range – 26.5 to 40 GHz
- Advantage – Provides higher bandwidth capacity, enabling high-speed
data services.
- Disadvantage – Highly susceptible to rain fade, which can significantly
affect performance.

QUESTION 74
What parameters are configured to establish a VSAT link

1. Frequency Band – Selection of the appropriate frequency band (C,

Ku, or Ka) based on the application and environmental conditions.
2. Antenna Alignment – Precise alignment of the VSAT antenna to the
satellite to ensure optimal signal strength.
3. Modulation Scheme – Choice of modulation technique (e.g., QPSK,
8PSK) to balance between bandwidth efficiency and signal robustness.
4. Power Levels – Setting the transmit power levels to ensure adequate
signal strength without causing interference.
5. Data Rates – Configuration of uplink and downlink data rates to
match the required bandwidth for the application.
6. Network Protocols – Implementation of network protocols (e.g.,
TCP/IP) to manage data transmission and ensure reliable
communication.
7. Error Correction – Use of error correction techniques (e.g., FEC) to
minimize data loss and improve link reliability.
8. Encryption – Application of encryption methods to secure data
transmission against unauthorized access.

QUESTION 75
What is an AIS signal

An Automatic Identification System is an automated tracking system

used on ships and by vessel traffic services (VTS) to identify and locate
vessels.

Loopback is a method used to test the communication infrastructure by

routing electronic signals or digital data streams back to their source
without intentional processing or modification. This helps in verifying the
functionality of the communication system.

QUESTION 76
Define the terms loopback and remote loopback

Remote loopback involves sending test signals through the network to

another device, which then echoes the signals back to the sender. This type
of loopback test is used to verify the integrity of the communication link between two distant
points.

QUESTION 77
For an SDH system illustrate and explain
a. Dependent Synchronization Mode
b. Independent Synchronization Mode
c. State safe working practices when working with optical Fibre
systems.

In dependent synchronization mode, network elements rely on a master

clock for synchronization. The master clock provides timing signals to
slave clocks, ensuring that all elements are synchronized to a common
time source. This mode is essential for maintaining timing accuracy across the network.

In independent synchronization mode, each network element has its own

independent clock source. These clocks are not synchronized to a
common master clock but are instead synchronized to a highly accurate
external reference, such as a GPS clock. This mode is used to avoid dependency on
a single clock source and to enhance the robustness of the network.

Eye Protection – Always wear safety glasses to protect your eyes from
accidental exposure to laser light, which can cause serious eye injuries.
Proper Handling – Handle optical fibers with care to avoid breakage and
injury from sharp fiber ends. Use appropriate tools for cutting and
splicing fibers.
Cleanliness – Keep connectors and splices clean to prevent
contamination, which can degrade signal quality. Use lint-free wipes and
isopropyl alcohol for cleaning.
Disposal – Dispose of fiber scraps and waste properly in designated
containers to prevent injury and environmental harm.
Work Area – Maintain a clean and organized work area to avoid
accidents and ensure efficient workflow.
Training – Ensure that all personnel working with optical fibers are
properly trained in handling and safety procedures.
Labeling – Clearly label all fiber optic cables and connections to avoid
confusion and accidental disconnections.

QUESTION 78
Briefly describe the color TV systems SECAM, NTSC and PAL

Séquentiel Couleur à Mémoire is an analog color television system that

transmits color information sequentially, which helps reduce color
artifacts but also can lead to different quality characteristics compared to
other systems

National Television System Committee is an analog color television

system that transmits color information simultaneously with brightness
signals, which can sometimes result in color shifting under poor
transmission conditions.
Phase Alternating Line is an analog color television system that
alternates the phase of the color signal to correct color errors
automatically.

QUESTION 79
Distinguish between cable, terrestrial and satellite TV stating an
advantage of each

Cable TV delivers television programs to subscribers via coaxial cables

or fiber-optic cables.
Advantage – Less likely to be affected by weather conditions, providing
a more stable signal

Terrestrial TV broadcasts television signals over the air using radio

waves from terrestrial transmitters.
Advantage – No need for a subscription, making it a cost-effective
option for viewers.

Satellite TV transmits television programs via communication satellites

and is received by a satellite dish.
Advantage – Provides coverage in remote and rural areas where cable
TV might not be available

QUESTION 80
Describe the following protection mechanisms used in SDH
a. Multiplex section protection (MSP)
b. VC path protection switch (PPS)
c. Unit protection

Multiplex Section Protection (MSP) is a mechanism that provides

protection for the multiplex section of an SDH network. It ensures that if
a failure occurs in the working section, the traffic is automatically
switched to a protection section.
- Typically implemented in a 1+1 configuration, where one path is active
and the other is a standby path ready to take over in case of a failure.

VC Path Protection Switch (PPS) is a protection mechanism that

operates at the virtual container (VC) level. It provides end-to-end
protection by switching the traffic to a pre-defined backup path if a
failure is detected on the primary path.
- This ensures that the data transmission continues without interruption,
even if there is a fault in the network

Unit protection is designed to protect specific units or sections within the

network. It operates by monitoring the current at both ends of the
protected zone and comparing them. If an abnormal condition is detected
within the zone, the protection mechanism isolates the fault by tripping
the relevant circuit breakers.
- This type of protection is highly reliable and fast-acting, making it
suitable for critical components like transformers, bus bars, and
generators.
FIBRE OPTICS TECHNOLOGY

QUESTION 81
a. Explain the basic operation of Fibre optic communications links.

The process begins with a light source, typically a laser or LED, which
generates light signals.
These light signals are modulated to encode the data being transmitted.
The modulated light signals are transmitted through optical fibers, the
optical fiber acts as the transmission medium, guiding the light signals
over long distances with minimal loss.
At the receiving end, a photodetector (such as a photodiode) converts the
incoming light signals back into electrical signals.
The electrical signals are then demodulated to retrieve the original data.

QUESTION 82
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber compared to
copper transmission lines.

1. Higher Bandwidth – Carry significantly more data than copper cables, making them
ideal for high-speed internet and large data transfers.

2. Longer Distances – Signals in optical fibers can travel much longer distances without
significant loss, reducing the need for repeaters.
3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference – Electromagnetic interference is a
significant issue for copper cables.

4. Security – It is more difficult to tap into optical fibers without being detected, providing
better security for data transmission.

5. Lightweight and Thin – Optical fibers are much lighter and thinner than copper
cables, making them easier to install and handle.

6. Cost – The initial cost of optical fiber installation is higher than that of copper cables.
7. Fragility – Optical fibers are more fragile and can be damaged more easily than copper
cables.

8. Complexity of Installation and Repair – Installing and repairing optical fibers

requires specialized skills and equipment.

QUESTION 83
Identify the component parts of an optical fiber as used in
communication systems

1. Core – The central part of the optical fiber that carries the light
signals. It is made of glass or plastic with a high refractive index.
2. Cladding – Surrounds the core and has a lower refractive index to
keep the light signals within the core through total internal reflection.
3. Buffer Coating – A protective layer that surrounds the cladding to
protect the fiber from physical damage and moisture.
4. Strength Members – Materials such as aramid yarn (Kevlar) that
provide tensile strength to the fiber, preventing it from breaking during
installation and handling.
5. Outer Jacket – The outermost layer that protects the fiber from
environmental damage and provides additional mechanical protection.
QUESTION 84
Explain the terms associated with optical fibers:
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Refractive index
d. Core
e. Cladding
f. Acceptance angle
g. Critical angle
h. Total internal reflection

QUESTION 85
Discuss Snail’s Law in optical fiber transmission

QUESTION 86
Describe and explain the following losses in optical fibers
a. Absorption
b. Scattering
c. Dispersion
d. Bending
e. Radiation

QUESTION 87
State the basic concepts of:
 a. Emission and absorption of radiation
b. Population inversion
c. The Einstein relations

QUESTION 88
Discuss the most commonly used transmitting devices are the Light
Emitting Diode (LED) and the Semiconductor Laser Diode (SLD).

QUESTION 89
Distinguish between the basic properties of the LED and the SLD.

QUESTION 90
Describe the principle of a double hetero junction (DH), light emitting
diode (LED).

QUESTION 91
Recognize the labeled construction drawings of the following types of
devices:
a. Surface emitter (LED)
b. Edge emitter Led (ELED)
c. Outline the constructional differences between the LED and the
ELED

QUESTION 92
Compare the Light Amplification Simulated Emitted Radiation
(LASER) and LED devices in terms of:
a. Complexity of fabrication
b. Cost
c. Reliability
d. Drive circuitry
e. Linearity
f. Temperature dependency

QUESTION 93
State safe working practices when working with optical fibers and
semiconductor laser diodes.

QUESTION 94
Briefly describe electromagnetic wave propagation and aerial operation

QUESTION 95
Draw the electric and magnetic field patterns of the simple dipole.

QUESTION 96
Sketch the picture of an electromagnetic wave detaching from the local
field.

QUESTION 97
Distinguish between induction and radiation fields.

QUESTION 98
List and explain the special characteristics of:
a. Isotropic antenna
b. Dipole
c. Ferrite rod
d. Parabolic in particular prime – focus and offset
e. Loop
f. Rhombic
g. Yagi

QUESTION 100
Define polarization of the electromagnetic wave.

QUESTION 101
Define radiation resistance of an aerial.

QUESTION 102
Explain the separate and composite effects of reflector and director

QUESTION 103
Define the gain of an aerial in terms of an isotropic radiator.
QUESTION 104
Describe the methods of matching aerials.

QUESTION 105
Describe the feeders used with aerials.

QUESTION 106
Distinguish between ground and sky wave

QUESTION 107
Describe the effects of refraction in ionosphere layer.

QUESTION 108
Discuss the application of Snail’s Law of refraction, reflection in the
ionosphere

QUESTION 109
Define and use example to show calculations for the following:
a. Skip distance
b. Critical frequency
c. MUF

QUESTION 110
Describe the phenomenon of and reasons for fading.

QUESTION 111
Explain the choice of transmission frequencies in the High Frequency
(HF) band.

QUESTION 112
Describe the use of Very High Frequency (VHF) bands for point – to –
point communication.

QUESTION 113
Explain the characteristics of grounded and ungrounded antennas.

COMPILED BY
SHAMMAH MUSHAMBI