Propositional Logic

Introduction

Discrete Mathematics
Andrei Bulatov
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What is Logic?

“Computer science is a mere continuation of logic by other means”

Georg Gottlob

“Contrariwise”, continued Tweedledee, “if it was so, it might be; and if it

were so, it would be; but as it isn’t, it ain’t. That’s logic”
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass
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Use of Logic

In mathematics and rhetoric:

 Give precise meaning to statements.

 Distinguish between valid and invalid arguments.
 Provide rules of `correct’ reasoning.

Natural language can be very ambiguous

`If you do your homework, then you’ll get to watch the game.’
≈

`If you don’t do your homework, then you will not get to watch ...’

`You do your homework, or you’ll fail the exam.’

=

`If you don’t do your homework, then you’ll fail the exam.’
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Use of Logic (cntd)

In computing:
 Derive new data / knowledge from existing facts
 Design of computer circuits.
 Construction of computer programs.
 Verification of correctness of programs and circuit design.
 Specification

What the customer How the Programmer What the customer

really needed understood it got
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Propositions (Statements)

Propositional logic deals with propositions (statements) and their

truth values
A proposition (statement) is a declarative sentence that can be
true or false
Truth values are TRUTH (T or 1) and FALSE (F or 0).
Examples:
- 1 + 1 = 2 (proposition, T)
- The moon is made of cheese (proposition, F)
- Go home! (not proposition, imperative)
- What a beautiful garden! (not proposition, exclamation)
- y+1=2 (not proposition, uncertain)
- The God exists (proposition, ?)
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Compound Propositions

Simplest propositions are called primitive propositions

We shall use propositional variables to denote primitive

propositions, p, q, r, …

We cannot decide the truth value of a primitive propositions. This

is not what logic does.

Instead we combine primitive propositions by means of logic

connectives into compound propositions or formulas and
look how the truth value of a compound proposition depends on the
truth values of the primitive propositions it includes.

We will denote compound propositions by Φ, Ψ, …

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Logic Connectives

 negation (not, ¬ ) `It is not true that at least one politician was
honest’
 conjunction (and, ∧ ) `In this room there is a lady, and in the other
room there is a tiger’
 disjunction (or, ∨ ) `Margaret Mitchell wrote `Gone with the Wind
or I am going home’
 implication (if…, then…, → ) `If there is a tiger in this room, then
there is no lady there’
 exclusive or (either …, or …, ⊕ ) `There is either a tiger in this
room, or a lady’
 biconditional (equivalence) (if and only if, ↔ )
`There is a lady in this room if and only if
there is a tiger in the other room’
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Truth Tables
Truth table is a way to specify the exact dependence of the truth value
of a compound proposition through the values of primitive propositions
involved truth values of primitive propositions
(propositional variables) truth value of compound propositions
(formulas)

p q Φ

0 0 0

0 1 1

… … …
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Truth Tables of Connectives (Negation and Conjunction)

Negation p ¬p unary connective

F (0) T (1) `Today is Friday’ 
`Today is not Friday’
T (1) F (0)

Conjunction binary
p q p∧q
connective
0 0 0 `Today is Friday’ 
`It is raining’
0 1 0
1 0 0 `Today is Friday and it
is raining’
1 1 1
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Truth Tables of Connectives (Disjunction)

Disjunction – inclusive `or’

`Students who have taken calculus
p q p∨q can take this course’ 
`Students who have taken computing
0 0 0 can take this course’
0 1 1 `Students who have taken calculus
or computing can take this course’
1 0 1
1 1 1

Be careful with `or’ constructions in natural languages!

`You do your homework, or you’ll fail the exam.’
`Today is Friday or Saturday’
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Truth Tables of Connectives (Exclusive or)

Exclusive `or’
One of the propositions is true but not both

p q p⊕q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

`You can follow the rules or be disqualified.’

`Natalie will arrive today or Natalie will not arrive at all.’
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Truth Tables of Connectives (Implication)

Implication
p q p→q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

Note that logical (material) implication does not assume any

causal connection.
`If black is white, then we live in Antarctic.’
‘If pigs fly, then Paris is in France.’
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Implication as a Promise

Implication can be thought of as a promise, and it is true if the

promise is kept
`If I am elected, then I will lower taxes’

- He is not elected and taxes are not lowered promise kept!

- He is not elected and taxes are lowered promise kept!
- He is elected, but (=and) taxes are not lowered promise broken!
- He is elected and taxes are lowered promise kept!
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Playing with Implication

Parts of implication

p → q
hypothesis conclusion
antecedent consequence
premise

`if p, then q’ `q unless ¬p’ `a sufficient con-

`if p, q’ `p implies q’ dition for q is p’
`p is sufficient for q’ `p only if q’ `a necessary con-
`q if p’ `q whenever p’ dition for p is q’
`q when p’ `q follows from p’
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Playing with Implication (cntd)

Converse, contrapositive, and inverse

p → q `The home team wins whenever it is raining’

(`If it is raining then the home team wins’)
 Converse q → p
`If the home team wins, then it is raining’

 Contrapositive ¬q → ¬p
`If the home team does not win, then it is not raining’
 Inverse ¬p → ¬q
`If it is not raining, then the home team does not win’
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Truth Tables of Connectives (Biconditional)

Biconditional or Equivalence
One of the propositions is true if and only if the other is true

p q p↔q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

`You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.’
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Example

`You can access the Internet from campus if you are a computer
science major or if you are not a freshman.’

p - `you can access the Internet from campus’

q - `you are a computer science major’

r - `you are a freshman’

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Homework

Exercises from the Book:

No. 1 ,2, 13, 31(c), 32(b,d), 37(a) (page 13)