Lecture 1

Status of Agriculture in India

(Historical background, Current status, Role of Agriculture in Indian Economy)

Historical background of Agriculture in India: -

1. Ancient Agriculture (Indus Valley Civilization): Period: 3300 - 1300 BCE.
The earliest evidence of agriculture in India dates back to the Indus Valley Civilization (also known as the
Harrapan civilization). Archaeological findings from sites like Mohenja – Daro and Harappa suggest that
the people practiced crop cultivation particularly wheat, barley, peas, and cotton.
They have advance agricultural tools, irrigation techniques and even system for crop rotation and water
management, evidenced by their well planned drainage and water storage and systems
2. Vedic Period (1500BCE - 500 BCE)
During the Vedic Period, agriculture became more systematized, with references to farming in
ancient texts like the Rigveda. Farming was primarily done with the help of simple tools such as plows, and
oxen were used for cultivation. Rice, barley, wheat, and pulses were cultivated, and there were references to
other crops like sugarcane, cotton, and various fruits. Irrigation and canal systems began to be developed,
especially in the Indus-Ganges Plain.
3. Maurya and Gupta Periods (c. 321 BCE - 600 CE)
The Mauryan Empire (c. 321-185 BCE) under Ashoka saw significant advances in agriculture, with
the establishment of agricultural policies promoting irrigation and the construction of reservoirs. The Gupta
Period (c. 320-550 CE) is considered a golden age, with the agricultural sector flourishing. During this
period, there was a marked improvement in crop yields and agricultural techniques. New techniques like
crop rotation were introduced, and the use iron plows became more widespread, increasing productivity.
4. Medieval Period (600 CE — 1700 CE):
During the medieval period, especially under the Delhi sultanate (1206-1526) and the Mughal
Empire (1526-1857), agriculture advanced with the introduction of new crops from Central Asian and
Persia, such as cotton, saffron, sugarcane, and various fruits. Irrigation techniques were improved with the
construction of extensive canal networks, especially under the Mughal Empire, which significantly
increased agricultural output in regions like the Punjab and Gangetic plains.
The Mughal emperor Akbar introduced reforms like land revenue systems (e.g., Zabt system) that
encouraged agricultural growth.
5. Colonial Period (1757-1947) |
British colonial rule had a significant impact on Indian agriculture, with both positive and negative
consequences.
Commercial of agriculture: British policies shifted agriculture toward the production of cash crops like
cotton, indigo, jute, and tea for export to Britain. This led to a focus on monoculture farming.
Land revenue systems: British-imposed land revenue systems, such as the Zamindari system, heavily taxed
peasants, often leading to their impoverishment and periodic famines. The focus on cash crops undermined
food security, and famines became more frequent.
The introduction of new technologies and crops such as potatoes, maize, and tobacco was another influence
of the colonial period.
Irrigation systems were expanded, and railways helped facilitate the movement of agricultural produce, but
the overall effect of colonial rule on Indian agriculture was negative due to exploitation and changing the
focus to commercial crops.
6. Post-Independence Period (1947 onwards):
Green Revolution (1960s-1980s): After independence, India faced several food shortages. The Green
Revolution, initiated by the government in collaboration with international organizations like the Ford
Foundation Rockefeller Foundation, introduced high-yielding varieties of (HYV) of wheat, rice, and maize,
chemical fertilizers, and modern irrigation
This revolution transformed Indian agriculture especially in states like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar
Pradesh, turning India from a food- importing nation into one that could feed its growing population.
However, it also led to environmental concerns like water depletion, soil degradation, and overuse of
chemicals.
Post-Green Revolution: While India achieved self-sufficiency in food grain production, it continued
to struggle with regional disparities, ecological problems and reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
The government introduced schemes like the National Agricultural Policy, the Pradhan Mantri Krishi
Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), and Soil Health Management to promote sustainable agricultural practices.
7. Moderns Agriculture (2000s - present)
Today agriculture remains a crucial sector of India’s economy, with millions of farmers relying on it
for their livelihood. The sector faces challenges such as climate change, water scarcity, lack of modern
technology, and inadequate infrastructure.
There has been a growing emphasis on organic farming, sustainable agriculture, and agri-tech
innovations. Digital technologies and innovations like drip irrigation, genetically modified crops, and
precision farming are being introduced to improve productivity and sustainability.
Agricultural growth rate has fallen sharply, to 1.4% in 2023-24, compared to 4.7 % growth rate of
2022-23, mainly because of a drop in the food grain production due to delayed and poor monsoons caused
by El Nino,
The livestock and fisheries performing better than the traditional crops such as cereals, continued.
The share of livestock and fisheries in agriculture gross value added (GVA) at current prices increased from
24.38 % and 4.44 % in 2014-15 to 30.23 % and 7.25 % in 2022-23 respectively.
Role of Agriculture in Indian Economy: -
Agriculture has historically been, and continues to be, a cornerstone of the Indian economy. Even in
the face of rapid industrialization and urbanization agriculture remains a crucial sector due to its wide-
ranging impact on India’s economy, society, and environment. Here’s a detailed look at the role agriculture
in the Indian economy.
1. Contribution to GDP: Agriculture plays a key role in India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). As of
recent estimates (2023), the agricultural sector contributes around 17-18% of India’s total GDP, although
this percentage has been steadily declining as the economy diversifies.
Despite the decline in its share of GDP agriculture remains the largest sector in terms of employment and
continues to be critical to the livelihoods of millions of people.
2. Employment and Livelihood: Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for around 50-60% of
India’s population, particularly in rural areas. The majority of small and marginal farmers depend on
agriculture for their daily needs. In rural India, agriculture serves as the main source of direct and indirect
employment supporting not just farmers, but also labourers, agricultural traders, tranporters, and workers in
agro-processing industries.
3. Rural economy and Poverty Alleviation: Agriculture plays a central role in the development of rural of
areas. It generates income, employment, and infrastructural needs like roads, irrigation, markets, and storage
facilities. These developments further stimulate economic growth in the region. Poverty reduction: The
agricultural sector is closely linked to poverty alleviation in India. A significant proportion of rural
households depend on agriculture for income, and growth in agriculture can directly reduce poverty by
improving incomes and standards of living.
4. Source of Raw Materials for Industries: Agriculture provides essential raw materials to a number of
industries, such as textiles, food processing, sugar, tobacco, edible oils, and dairy. The textile industry, for
example, relies heavily on cotton, while the food processing industry depends on fruits, vegetables, cereals,
and dairy products. This creates a strong linkage between agriculture and India’s industrial sector,
contributing to overall economic growth.
5. Foreign Exchange Earnings: India is one of the largest producers and exporters of a variety of
agricultural commodities. These include rice, tea, coffee, spices, cotton, sugar, and marine products. Exports
from the agricultural sector are crucial for generating foreign exchange. The agricultural sector thus plays a
role in balancing g trade and maintaining the country’s foreign exchange reserves.
6. Food Security: Agriculture is fundamental to ensuring food security in India. The country produces
a wide variety of food crops, 1including rice, wheat, pulses, vegetables, and fruits, which cater to the food
needs of its vast population. Over the years, India has moved from food scarcity to self-sufficiency in food
production, particularly through initiatives like the Green Revolution in the 1960s. However challenges like
climate change, water scarcity, and regional disparities in produce continue to threaten food security in
some areas.
7. Rural-Man Linkages: Agriculture creates important linkages between rural and urban economies. The
rural products grown in rural areas supply urban markets, fueling trade and commerce. The demand for
agricultural products in urban areas leads to the expansion of the agriculture supply chain, from
transportation to retail. The Rural non farm economy, including agro processing, rural crafts and small
industries is also closely connected agriculture.
8. Government Revenue and Policies: Agriculture directly influences government revenue, as the sector is
subject to various taxes, duties, and subsidies. The Indian government plays an active role in supporting
farmers through various policies like Minimum Support Prices (MSP), subsidies on fertilizers and seeds,
and crop insurance schemes. Additionally, agricultural exports contribute to government revenues through
export duties and tariffs.
9. Environmental and Sustainability Challenges: Agriculture has a dual role in the environmental
context. On the one hand, it is central to sustaining rural economies, while on the other, it faces increasing
environmental challenges such as land degradation, deforestation, water scarcity and climate change.
10. Technological Innovation and Modernization: Agriculture in India has seen significant modernization
in recent decades, especially with the adoption of technologies like high-yielding crop varieties; genetically
modified crops drip irrigation, and precision farming. Digital platforms and agriculture agritech innovations
are increasingly being used to connect farmers to market provide real-time weather and crop information,
and optimize farming practices. This technological advancement helps increase productivity and
profitability.
11. Agricultural Credit and Financing: The agriculture sector has been a major focus for financial
inclusion efforts in India. Various government schemes, such as the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi
(PM-KISAN), provide direct income support to farmers, while agricultural credit and loan schemes aim to
provide necessary capital for farming activities.
12. Socio-Cultural Impact: Beyond its economic importance, agriculture has a deep socio-cultural
significance in India. It is tied to the traditions, rituals, and festivals of rural communities. Farming is not
just a livelihood but also a way of life. Agricultural practices, tools, crops, and rituals play a major role in
the social fabric.

Lecture No.2
Status of Agriculture in Different States

Gujarat:Gujarat is a leading agricultural state, particularly known for its cotton and groundnut production.
The state's diverse climate and soil conditions support the cultivation of a variety of crops, including wheat,
rice, and pulses. Gujarat also has a significant horticulture sector, producing fruits like mangoes and
bananas. The state's dairy industry is robust, with the famous Amul cooperative headquartered here.
Gujarat's progressive agricultural policies and infrastructure contribute to its agricultural prosperity.
Punjab: Punjab, often called the “the “Food Basket of India” and “Granary of India,” is renowned for its
extensive wheat and rice cultivation. However, issues like soil degradation and water scarcity are becoming
critical. Punjab also grows significant quantities of maize and barley. The dairy sector is strong, with
substantial milk production. Punjab's agriculture is characterized by mechanization and high yields, making
it a crucial player in ensuring national food security.
Haryana: Similar to Punjab, Haryana is a major producer of wheat and rice. The state has also seen
diversification into horticulture and dairy farming.
Uttar Pradesh: Uttar Pradesh is the largest agricultural state in India. It is a leading producer of sugarcane,
wheat, rice, potatoes and various fruits and vegetables. The fertile Gangetic plains and favorable climate
allow for double cropping in most parts of the state, contributing immensely to agricultural production. Rice
wheat is the dominant cropping system practiced here.
Maharashtra: This state has a mix of traditional and modern farming practices. It is known for its
production of cotton, sugarcane, soybeans, and horticultural crops. However, it faces challenges with
drought and water management. The state's dairy industry is well-developed, contributing to its agricultural
output. Additionally, Maharashtra's progressive farming techniques and irrigation projects enhance its
agricultural productivity.
Madhya Pradesh:Madhya Pradesh, known as the "Heart of India," is a leading agricultural state with
significant production of soybeans and pulses. The state's diverse topography and climate support the
cultivation of wheat, rice, and maize. MP is also a major producer of oilseeds, particularly soybeans,
contributing to India's vegetable oil industry. Horticulture is another vital sector, with the state producing
various fruits and vegetables, bolstering its agricultural output and rural economy.
Tamil Nadu:Known for its diversity, Tamil Nadu produces both food and cash crops like rice, sugarcane,
and cotton. The state has been proactive in adopting technology and sustainable practices.
Karnataka:Karnataka stands out for its diverse agricultural activities, notably the cultivation of coffee and
spices in the Western Ghats region. The state is also a major producer of silk, earning it the title of India's
"Silk State." Millets, rice, and sugarcane are other significant crops grown in Karnataka. Its favorable
climate and varied geography enable the cultivation of a wide range of horticultural crops, including fruits
and vegetables, supporting the state's agricultural economy.
Andhra Pradesh:Andhra Pradesh is a key agricultural state, prominently producing rice, making it one of
India's top rice producers. The state's favorable climate supports the cultivation of various crops, including
tobacco, cotton, and chilies. Andhra Pradesh is also known for its horticulture, particularly the production of
mangoes, bananas, and citrus fruits. The state's extensive coastline supports a thriving fishing industry,
contributing to its diverse agricultural and allied activities.
Kerala:Agriculture in Kerala is characterized by spices, coconut, and rubber. The state is focusing on
organic farming and sustainable practices.
West Bengal: The state excels in rice production and has significant aquaculture activities. It also has a
growing focus on organic farming. The state also excels in growing jute, earning it the nickname "Jute Bowl
of India." Tea plantations in Darjeeling produce world-famous tea. The state's agriculture is diversified with
fruits, vegetables, and flowers, playing a vital role in its economy.
Odisha: Primarily known for rice, Odisha is also focusing on diversifying its agriculture with horticulture
and aquaculture initiatives.
Assam:Assam, located in northeastern India, is famous for its tea plantations, particularly in the Assam
Valley, producing some of the finest teas in the world. The state's agriculture also includes the cultivation of
rice, jute, and oilseeds. Horticulture and fishery sector also well developed.
Role of agriculture in Indian economy :
 As India is known as “land of villages” and about 65% of India's population lives in villages with
agriculture as their main occupation
 Any change in agriculture sector positive or negative has multifold effect on economy. Agriculture is the
dominant sector of our economy
 Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy
 Contribution to National economy: Agriculture and allied sector contributed approximately 18% of India
total GDP
 Contribution to Total employment: India’s 55 to 60% Population directly indirectly depend on
agriculture sector for employment.
 Industrial inputs: Raw material for textile, sugar, fruit processing, paper, oil etc. come from agriculture
sector.
 Food supply: Our current total food grain production is about 332 million tons in 2022-23.
 Source of food for domestic consumption: Agriculture provides food for domestic consumption like
millets, cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables etc
 Indian Agriculture is important for the industrial sector and trading purposes both internally and
externally. Agro-products such as tea, coffee, sugar, cashew nuts, spices, etc., which are edible and
textile products such as jute, cotton, and others contribute 50% and 20% respectively to the total export
of the total country.
 India’s planning prospects are also heavily reliant on the agriculture sector. A good harvest always
offers momentum to the country’s projected economic growth by improving the business climate for the
transportation system, manufacturing sectors, internal commerce, and so on.
 Lecture No. 3
INCOME OF FARMERS AND RURAL PEOPLE IN INDIA
(Factors affecting income, Rural-urban income gap, Government initiatives)

The income of farmers and rural people in India is a critical aspect of the agricultural economy
and the overall development of the country. Farming forms the backbone of the rural economy in India.
However, income levels among farmers and rural households vary widely due to several factors,
including landholding size, access to technology, government support, and market conditions.
Average income of farmers in India:
According to the Economic Survey, the average monthly income of a farmer in India was
estimated to be around 10,218 from all the sources during 2018-19. However, this figure varies
significantly across regions, types of crops, and the size of landholdings. Small and marginal farmers
earn much less than large-scale farmers.
Income disparities between different states in India are significant. States like Punjab, Haryana,
and Maharashtra, which have better irrigation facilities, infrastructure, and access to markets, tend to
have higher average farmer incomes compared to states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
Rural-urban income inequality is also a growing concern, with urban areas generally offering higher
income opportunities due to better access to non-farm employment, education, and healthcare.
Sources of income:
(1) Agriculture allied activities:
Agriculture is the primary source of income for a significant portion of rural population.
Small and marginal farmers rely on mixed source of income such as crop cultivation and allied activities
such as livestock, dairy farming, poultry, etc.
(2) Non-agricultural income
Many rural people also rely on non-agricultural sources of income such as rural industries,
handicraft, construction, service sectors and government schemes like MGNREGA, which provides
guaranteed employment for 100 days in a year.
(3) Government initiatives
The PM-KISAN scheme provides farmers with Rs. 6000 annually. Other initiatives | include
subsidies for seed, fertilizer, irrigation, etc.
Key factors influencing farmers’ income in India
(1) Land holding:
The income of farmers in India is often linked to the size of their landholdings. Small and
marginal farmers tend to have low income due to the limited scale of production. These farmers are
often trapped in cycles of low income and debt. Large farmers, on the other hand, generally have higher
incomes due to economies of scale, access to modern technology, and better market linkages.
(2) Market access and prices:
Income levels are heavily influenced by farmers' access to local and national markets.
Fluctuations in crop prices due to supply-demand imbalances, weather conditions, or international trade
can lead to income volatility. The minimum support price (MSP) set by the government for certain crops
helps stabilize income, but only a fraction of farmers is able to benefit from MSP schemes due to
logistical and infrastructure limitations.

(3) Type of crops:

Farmers’ income is also impacted by the types of crops they grow. Crops like rice, wheat, and
pulses are staple food crops that often provide modest income, while high-value crops like fruits,
vegetables, and cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and tobacco can generate higher returns. The shift
from traditional crops to cash crops, or diversification into horticulture, dairy, and poultry farming, can
enhance farmers’ incomes.
(4) Weather and climatic conditions:
India’s agricultural income is highly dependent on the monsoon season and the overall climate.
Irregular rainfall, droughts, floods, and other climate change- induced impacts often lead to crop failure,
which can significantly reduce farmers' income. Farmers in rain-fed areas are particularly vulnerable,
and the unpredictability of weather patterns poses a major risk to their income.
(5) Government support and subsidies:
The Indian government provides several support schemes aimed at improving farmers’ income,
such as the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) scheme, which provides direct income
support to farmers. There are also subsidies for fertilizers, electricity, and irrigation, which help reduce
production costs, but the effectiveness of these schemes often depends on proper implementation and
equitable distribution.
(6) Debt and financial stress:
Many farmers in India depend on loans to finance their agricultural activities. However, high levels of
indebtedness are a significant concern, as interest rates on informal loans (from moneylenders) can be
very high. This debt trap is a major factor contributing to rural distress and low-income levels.
Challenges to increase farmers’ income:
(1) Low productivity
Indian agriculture often faces low productivity due to outdated farming practices, inadequate access to
modern machinery, and limited research and development.
(2) Fragmented landholdings
The average size of landholding in India is very small, which limits the ability of farmers to adopt
efficient farming practices and invest in modern technology.
(3) Dependence on monsoons
Despite advances in irrigation, a large portion of Indian agriculture still relies on the monsoon, making
income susceptible to weather fluctuations.
(4) Marketing and storage issues
Poor storage facilities and insufficient access to organized markets often result in post- harvest losses,
which reduce the overall income of farmers.
 Lecture No. 4
LIVELIHOOD-DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND LIVELIHOOD PATTERN IN
URBAN & RURAL AREAS

The dictionary definition of livelihood is a ‘means to living’

Livelihood can be defined as the activities, the assets and the access that jointly determine the living
gained by an individual or household.
A livelihoods comprises the assets (Natural, Physical, Human, Financial and Social Capital), the
activities and the access to these (mediated by institution and social relations) that together determine
the living gained by the individual or household (Chambers and Conway, 1992).
Sustainable livelihood: A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and
shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the natural resource base.
Rural livelihood diversification: Rural livelihood diversification is defined as the process by which
rural households construct an increasingly diverse portfolio of activities and assets in order to improve
their standard of living. “What is a livelihood”, few would struggle to answer.
“Making a living”, “supporting a family”, or “my job" all describe a livelihood. The term is well
recognized as humans inherently develop and implement strategies to ensure their survival. The hidden
complexity behind the term comes to light when governments, civil society, and external organizations
attempt to assist people whose means of making a living is threatened, damaged, or destroyed. From
extensive learning and practice, various definitions have emerged that attempt to represent the complex
nature of a livelihood.
A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and
activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover
from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future,
while not undermining the natural resource base. (Chambers & Conway, 1991).
In order to better understand how people develop and maintain livelihoods, the UK Department
for International Development (DFID), building on the work of practitioners and academics, developed
the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF). This framework is an analysis tool, useful for
understanding the many factors that affect a person's livelihood and how those factors interact with each
other.
The SLF views livelihoods as systems and provides a way to understand:
1. The assets people draw upon
2. The strategies they develop to make a living
3. The context within which a livelihood is developed
4. Those factors that make a livelihood more or less vulnerable to shocks and stresses
What is Urban Livelihood?
Urban areas, in a nutshell, are defined as areas where modernization took place. These areas
generally consist of an extensive population. For instance, metropolitan cities such as Bangalore, New
Delhi, Mumbai, and so on are urban areas. Livelihood, on the other hand, is simply defined as the
lifestyle of an individual or their occupation. Thus, the civics chapter on rural and urban livelihood
covers the basic details into distinguishing forms of urban livelihood. You will learn about the lifestyles
of different people, jobs available in the industry, and the functioning of different urban areas or cities.
Types of Urban Livelihoods:
1. Urban Livelihood of Street Workers: In cities and towns, you might often come across several
individuals working in the streets. For instance, ice-cream sellers, vegetable vendors, rickshaw pullers,
cobblers, and so on, are some of the working individuals that you may stumble across on streets. These
are recognized as self-employed individuals. Moreover, they don't work in permanent shops. Their
occupation is carried out from anywhere and anywhere. While some of these individuals move around in
cycles, some of them live and maintain their work in shacks. About a majority of these workers briefly
migrate from rural areas to earn money for a living and provide for their family.
2. Self Employed Business: Another type of urban livelihood is those of the self-employed business.
Clothe stores, cafes, medicine shops, and other such businesses are run by self-employed
2. Self Employed Business Another type of urban livelihood is those of the self-employed business.
Clothe stores, cafes, medicine shops, and other such businesses are run by self-employed businesses.
These are individuals that establish their own organizations. Several businessmen are even worth
billions. For instance, businesses that established ‘multinational corporations and even other small
business owners. These businesses are categorized into the organized sector and unorganized sector.
When it comes to occupation in urban areas, organized sector businessmen are those whose businesses
and accounts are monitored. In unorganized sectors, small businesses invest money on their own and
make profits steadily.
3. Organized Sector Workers: Most of the urban livelihood falls into this category of working
professionals. For instance, civil engineers, doctors, and marketing managers are some of the workers
that fall into this category. They are bound to earn the maximum salary annually in the city. However,
they don't work on hourly wages like that of labourers. These workers have access to a wide range of
perks, unlike the factory labourers. Some ofthese perks may be medical insurance, the company’s
retirement plan, paid leaves; and so on. Due to this, these types of jobs are in extreme demand. Cities
consist of the rich and the poor. This extreme gap that coexists in urban livelihoods is rather Unfortunate
and saddening.
4. Factory Workers: Lastly, urban Livelihoods also consist of factory workers. These individuals
aren't formally employed. Due to this, they briefly are categorized into the unorganized sector. While
you now know what urban livelihood is, factory workers are solely unofficially employed individuals
for urban livelihood occupation. Occupation in urban areas is vast and comprehensive. Factory workers
work at the convenience of the employer. They further earn a drastically small amount of income for the
work they do. Labourers that lift Harvey packages, sewers in clothes factories, etc, are some examples of
this type of urban livelihood.
RURAL LIVELIHOOD: Rural livelihood is the engagement of rural population in various
economically productive occupations. The hallmark of rural livelihood is agriculture and allied
occupations. Major livelihood activities for rural population are cultivation of food and cash crops, fish
farming, cattle rearing, dairying, food processing, wood industries, organized plantation activities such
as rubber, tea, cashew, coffee, cardamom, pepper etc. It can be seen that there is a gradual and
increasing urbanization and industrialization of rural livelihood. There are several emerging occupations
in the rural sector, such as, rural transportation, rural communication, rural health and education sector,
rural infrastructure, export oriented organic farming horticulture, floriculture etc. Increasing the rural
and urban connectivity, such as, urban projects offers new avenues of rural livelihood.
There is close connection and collaboration between rural and urban livelihood. Knowingly or
unknowingly we are following an urban model of economic development. While the government
announces the smart ity project, we should not forget that new towns and cities emerge from developed
villages. Every village is in a process of transformation to city. There is constant rural urban as well as
urban rural migration of skilled as well as unskilled people. Therefore, there is a common consideration
for non-agricultural occupations in both rural and urban areas. In the context of urbanization of rural
areas, division of nonagricultural occupations in the rural and urban sectors is arbitrary and
unreasonable. What can be called typically rural livelihood is the agricultural and allied occupations.
Accepting the basic premise that, rural livelihood is what rural populations do, rural livelihood can
broadly be grouped into agricultural and non-agricultural activities. Nonagricultural activities are similar
to what urban populations are engaged in. Agricultural and allied occupations are typical of rural
livelihood. There is a large number of people who are engaged in agriculture and allied activities like
cattle rearing, fish farming, dairying etc. Landless people constitute the vast majority of rural mass who
are engaged in agriculture and allied occupations. When we discuss about rural livelihood we should
exclusively think about the agriculture and allied occupations. Rural livelihood is related to rural
development. Rural livelihood is just one key component of rural development. Rural development
considers all the agricultural and non-agricultural livelihood options. In ideal situations, rural and urban
development considerations are similar or ideally developed villages are similar to the ideally developed
cities and towns. It is a challenge to distinguish rural and urban development factors. When we consider
rural livelihood independent of rural and urban development, we need to concentrate on purely
agricultural and allied occupations, the factors influencing their promotion and the consideration for the
sustainable rural livelihood.
Types of rural livelihoods:
1] Agriculture Laborers:
Agriculture Labourers are those people in rural areas who work as labour in fields and get daily wages.
They comprise twofifths of the total rural population in India.These labourers do not own land of their
own, thus are forced to work in the lands of |richer farmers. Even if some labourers own land, it is extre
mely small and not enough |for the family. These workers are sadly exploited by rich farmers, as they
don’t have any |alternative ways to earn money and they come in plenty as ‘cheap labour” for the fields.
2] Farmers: This group consists of villagers who carry out farming activities in their own lands. They
sow seeds, weed and harvest crops by themselves and also reap the profits themselves. However, eighty
percent of these farmers also have very small land holdings and need to depend on other sources of
income like having a poultry or dairy business. To earn enough money to barely survive, these farmers
borrow money from money lenders for seeds, fertilizers, etc. and are at great risk of being in debt. This
is why we hear of so many unfortunate news of farmer suicides in India.
3] Farmers with Other Sources of Income:
The farmers who do not earn enough from their land, or by working on other rich farmer's lands need
other sources of income. They work in mills near the farms or sell milk of the cows that they own.
Selling other by-products like sap, collecting wood, leaves of certain plants, fruits, etc, helps them to
sustain and survive. Some farmers also seasonally go to the cities or towns to work as wage earners as
there is more opportunity to earn money in cities.
4] Rich Farmers and Landowners:
The “rich” farmers that we have spoken about above are in a very small percentage in rural areas. They
are the ones who own most of the land and hire agricultural labourers to work for them. They are also
the exploitative village money lenders and also generally own the nearby mills and small factories.
5] Other Service Providers:
In villages, apart from labourers, farmers and landlords, there are also people who provide basic
services. Barbers, nurses, village teachers, etc, are small professionals who are found in villages. Some
of them are self- employed and some are employed under government schools or hospitals.
Factors affect rural livelihood:
There are several personal, social, economic, cultural, religious, geographical, climatic and
ecological factors that affect rural livelihood. These factors are important considerations when we have
to promote sustainable livelihood.
1. Personal factors:
Most important factor in rural livelihood is personal interest and motivation. The recent trend in
India is a fascination for urban livelihood. Seldom can we find educated and qualified manpower
engaged in agricultural and allied occupations. Unless the rural population is sincerely interested in
continuing cultivation, dairying, cattle rearing, fish farming and other allied occupations, rural livelihood
options cannot be protected and promoted. These occupations constitute the primary economic activity.
People show a gradual trend of shifting from primary sector to secondary and tertiary sectors of
occupations. This shift is generally considered as sign of economic progress. In order to protect a
nation’s economic stability, we need to reverse this false trend. We need to convince the people that
investment and engagement in the secondary and tertiary sectors at the cost of the primary sector is
harmful to the nation and its people. Government has to take measures to increase the personal interest,
motivation, knowledge, skills and attitude of the people to turn towards primary sector and practice
sustainable forms of agriculture such as organic farming, export oriented organic horticulture and
floriculture. There are highly profitable agricultural and allied activities which will in the long run,
stabilize our economy and economic growth. We need to leave behind the myth that increasing share of
economy in the secondary and the tertiary sectors is the sign of economic progress. Increasing share of
national economy in the secondary and tertiary sector is the indicator of national dependency on other
people and nations 6 for its survival and development. On the other hand, increasing share of primary
sector in the national economy is the indicator of self-reliance, independence and sustainable progress.
2. Social factors:
Social factors constitute the demographic, gender, family, educational, caste and class factors.
Often the rural livelihood is not the matter of personal choice, but a social obligation. One’s social and
demographic factors influence their particular livelihood options. There are traditional and household
occupations, caste based occupations and socially imposed rural occupations in the agricultural and
allied sectors. Government and civil society organizations have to take special care in dealing with these
social factors that influence rural livelihood. There are both positive and negative impacts of social
factors. Positively, these factors provide with social stability and collective responsibility. Negatively
they conflict with individual aspirations, interests, abilities, talents and motivations. Maintaining a
judicious balance between social change and social stability is the most challenging task in dealing with
rural livelihood.
3. Economic factors:
Inheritance of wealth and the land resources in the rural areas is an important factor in rural
livelihood. There is a vast majority of landless agricultural labourers who are engaged in rural livelihood
options. They fluctuate between rural and urban livelihood seasonally. Since most of the agricultural
operations are seasonal by nature, they have no other option that shifting from one occupation to
another. Since they seldom own rural resources such as land and cattle, they have limited opportunity in
the agriculture allied engagements. They prefer to migrate seasonally to urban areas and engage in non-
agricultural, unskilled occupations such as construction, domestic labour, daily wager, and casual labour
in the industrial and manufacturing houses. Securing productive assets to the rural mass is a challenge
for the civil authorities dealing with rural livelihood.
4. Cultural factors:
Cultural factors in the rural areas are mainly concerned with caste factors. Other cultural factors are
linguistic and regional considerations. These factors have indelible impact on one’s livelihood options in
the rural areas. Cultural factors play the same role as that of social factors with regard to rural livelihood.
Rural livelihoods for many are culturally determined and the individuals have limitations In the choice
of a desired occupation. The government and civil society organizations have challenging task to deal
with all the cultural factors that interfere with the people’s livelihood options.
5. Religious factors:
Religion is another important cultural factor which has significant influence upon rural livelihood.
Certain occupations are considered meritorious from certain religious perspectives and certain others are
considered undesirable. Religion sometimes interferes with the personal, social and national interests
and the civil agencies as well as the government face great challenge to deal with such religious forces
while dealing with rural livelihoods.
6. Geographical factors:
Geographic factors include the type of soil, availability of water, distance from the sea and the height
from the sea level. All these factors affect all the agricultural and allied activities. They are the major
considerations while dealing with rural livelihood. The government and non-government agencies
working in the rural sector have to take due consideration of all these geographical factors while
designing new projects for protecting and promoting rural livelihood options. Conservation of soil and
water is the chief geographical consideration in the context of rural livelihood.
7. Climatic factors:
Climatic factors include the possibility of monsoon rainfall, wind, cyclone or flood conditions,
severity of winter and summer etc. Climatic conditions are related to geography of a particular village.
Therefore, geographical and climatic factors are often considered together and they have significant
impact on rural livelihood. Climatic conditions are often beyond human control and we need to adapt to
such conditions. Rural livelihood options have to take due consideration of all the climatic forces. For
example, the cropping pattern, rotation of crops and farming schedules have to be in accordance with the
climatic factors.
8. Ecological factors:
Ecological factors refer to the environmental impacts of rural livelihood. It is related to the
sustainability of the rural livelihood. Rural livelihood should not affect the ecological balance or
endanger the environment. They should not pollute, water, air and soil resources. People need to engage
in such economic activities that would protect the environment or inflict minimum damage to the natural
resources. From ecological perspective, tribal livelihood options are most eco-friendly and the urban
livelihood options are the least eco-friendly. Rural livelihoods are sometimes eco- friendly and
sometimes ecologically harmful. Deforestation, soil erosion and water contamination (due to the use of
pesticides) are often cited as harmful impacts of agricultural and allied activities. Farmers need to be
taught about organic farming and the ways and means to practice rural livelihoods in harmony with
nature. This is related to the sustainable livelihood.

Lecture No. 5
Different Indicators to Study Livelihood Systems
(Economic, Social and Environmental indicators, measuring livelihood resilience)

The success of the livelihood interventions can be assessed by understanding their contribution
to livelihood outcomes that people consider important.
e.g. Rise in income, increased livestock, education to children are some easily monitored outcomes.
Livelihood status can be measured using various approaches. One approach is to construct a scale/score
to measure livelihood status based on multiple indicators such as income, vulnerability, risk, health,
nutrition, education, and other household objectives. Various livelihoods indices can be calculated using
the score of different indicators.
1. Economic Efficiency Indicators:
i. Net Cropped area: Proportion of net sown area in the total cropped area, represents the extent of
utilization of land resources for farming activities.
ii. Net irrigated area: Area under assured irrigation reflecting the irrigation potential of the region.
iii. Grain yield of food crops: Total food grain production of cereals and pulses per unit area.
Productivity of output indicates the efficiency of all the resources used in its production.
iv. Fertilizer use: Right quantity, method, and timing of fertilizer usage based on soil test are crucial in
the optimum usage of fertilizers. It not only economizes production but also results in sustainability.
v. Productivity of land: Income earned from agriculture and its related activities per unit cultivated area
represents the productivity of land in monetary terms. It varies depending on the type of crops being
cultivated, livestock components being reared, technologies being used, etc.
vi. Productivity of labour: it reflects the per capita income of the agricultural labourers earn from
agriculture and its related activities. It is crucial element in economical growth.
2. Ecological Security Indicators:
vii. Forest cover: Forest cover plays an important role in ecological balance. It has a greater influence
on the hydrological cycle and carbon concentration.
viii. Human density:
ix. Density of livestock: The number of individuals and livestock component per unit of geographical
area represents the density of the human and livestock population, respectively. The extent of pressure
exerted by human and livestock population have a direct effect on natural resources like land, water, etc.
and ecological balance.
x. Degraded land: The extent of degradation of natural resources influences social cost to be borne by
the society
xi. Rainfall variability: Agriculture mainly depends on rainfall, and its variation has greater influence
on net cropped area. Net irrigated area depends on availability of groundwater, and its recharge which
further depends on rainfall pattern. Optimum rainfall with uniform distribution is considered as the
robust indicator of ecological balance.
xii. Pressure on ground water: It indicates the availability of ground water for future generations.
Recharge of groundwater mainly depends on rainfall. Excess utilization of groundwater as compared to
recharge, leads to tremendous pressure on groundwater.
xiii. Cropping intensity: Growing a greater number of crops per unit area is a feasible alternative for
attaining food and fodder security. Higher cropping intensity leads to more productivity from arable
land.
3. Social Equity Indicators
xiv. Availability of food grains:
xv. Availability of milk: In addition to food security, nutritional security is of immense importance in
attaining development. Availability of food and milk to adults, children, pregnant women as per the
recommendation of ICMR is crucial in determining the development of any region. Malnutrition and
malnourishment have a negative bearing on development.
xvi. Literacy of rural female: Gender equity is crucial in the development of any region. Both genders
(male and female) should have equal opportunities in terms of access to resources, ownership of
resources, decision making, etc.
xvii. Rural electrification: Energizing pump sets is essential for the effective and efficient usage of
groundwater, a major source of irrigation. It is essential to run small cottage industries, handicrafts,
agro- based industries. It is also essential for performing usual activities at home, for education of
children, people residing in remote areas having poor road connectivity, etc. Proper supply of power has
a greater influence on the economic growth of the region.
xviii. Village road connectivity: Proper road connectivity is essential for the marketing of produce from
any production activity. Transportation alone forms more than 50 % of the marketing costs. It is
considered as the key factor in determining infrastructural development in the region.
xix. Mortality rate of infants: This is a key factor reflecting the overall physical health of the
community and eventually influencing regional socio-economic development.
xx. Availability of ground water: Adequate ground water is crucial for agricultural growth. It is
considered the major source of irrigation and its availability varies depending on various factors having
a positive bearing on its recharge.
 Lecture No. 6
Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS): Meaning and Approaches
(Definition, Significance of ALS, Integrated farming systems, Approaches)

The Agricultural Livelihood system (ALS) refers to the integrated and holistic approach to managing
agricultural activities that contribute to the economic and social well-being of individuals and
communities. This system is vital in rural areas where agriculture is a primary source of income, food
security, and cultural identity. OR
Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS) refer to the various ways in which agricultural activities
contribute to the livelihoods of individuals and communities. This includes crop production, livestock
rearing, agroforestry, and other related activities that provide income, food security, and employment.
ALS encompasses the various agricultural-based activities and strategies employed by households and
communities to secure their livelihoods.
It includes the farming activities, income diversification strategies, access to markets, inputs, and
support services that shape the living conditions of individuals who depend on agriculture for their
sustenance
Approaches of Agricultural Livelihood system:
1. Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA): This approach focuses on understanding the assets
(natural, financial, human, social, and physical) that people use to make a living, the strategies they
employ, and the outcomes they achieve. It emphasizes sustainability and resilience1.
2. Farming Systems Approach (FSA): This approach views agriculture as a complex, interdependent
system that includes crops, livestock, agroforestry, and socio-economic factors. It aims to optimize the
interactions between these components to enhance productivity, sustainability, and resilience2.
3. Livelihood and farming system approach: This approach can be applied to farm level data to define
a local typology of farming systems. It can also identify other relevant options for generating income
and subsistence, such as hunting, fishing or gathering.
Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF)
According to Solesbury (2003), the sustainable livelihoods framework presents the key factors
that influences people's livelihoods decisions, outcomes, and relationships between these.
The livelihoods framework is a way of understanding how households derive their livelihoods using
their assets and capabilities to develop livelihood strategies composed of a wide range of activities.
It provides a holistic and multidimensional approach to assess and understand the various dimensions of
livelihoods. It emphasizes the multiple interactions between the various factors which affect livelihoods.
It considers the different assets or capitals that households possess, including human, financial, physical,
natural, and social capital.
The framework also takes into account how households cope with shocks and stresses. It also
considers the impact of livelihood strategies on livelihood outcomes and livelihood sustainability.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is a tool that can help analyze the causes of poverty and
develop strategies to alleviate it. It is used for planning new development activities and assessing the
impact of present development activities and interventions.
It can be used as a practical tool for policymakers and researchers to inform interventions and prioritize
resources for sustainable development.
 Lecture No. 7
Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS): Framework and case studies in India

Framework for Agricultural Livelihood Systems (ALS):

The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) is a widely used approach for analyzing ALS. It
provides a structured way to understand the factors affecting livelihoods and strategies to improve them.
The key components of the SLF are as follows:
a. Livelihood Assets:
1. Natural Capital: Access to land, water, forests, and biodiversity.
2. Financial Capital: Savings, credit, subsidies, and other economic resources.
3. Human Capital: Knowledge, skills, health, and labor availability within households.
4. Social Capital: Community networks, trust, cooperation, and institutional support.
5. Physical Capital: Infrastructure such as roads, storage facilities, irrigation systems, and
technology.
b. Vulnerability Context:
1. Shocks: Natural disasters (droughts, floods), market failures, and pest infestations.
2. Trends: Long-term changes in climate, population dynamics, or technology.
3. Seasonality: Seasonal variations in labor demand, prices, and agricultural productivity.
c. Transforming Structures and Processes:
1. Institutions: Role of government, NGOs, and farmer organizations.
2. Policies: Agricultural subsidies, land reforms, and rural development schemes.
3. Processes: Access to markets, extension services, and value chains.
d. Livelihood Strategies:
The diverse combinations of agricultural and non-agricultural activities that households undertake, such
as:
1. Crop and livestock farming.
2. Agroforestry, fisheries, and horticulture.
3. Non-farm employment and migration.
e. Livelihood Outcomes:
1. Increased household income.
2. Improved food and nutritional security.
3. Enhanced well-being and reduced poverty.
4. Reduced vulnerability to risks and shocks.
5. Sustainable management of natural resources.
Case Studies in India:-
a. Punjab: Green Revolution Success and Challenges
Context: High productivity in wheat and rice due to Green Revolution technologies.
Outcomes: Economic growth but with challenges such as soil salinity, declining water tables, and over-
dependence on chemical inputs.
Livelihood Strategies: Transitioning to crop diversification and organic farming to ensure
sustainability.
b. Maharashtra: Agrarian Crisis and Diversification:-
Context: Frequent droughts affecting cotton and sugarcane farmers; high indebtedness due to crop
failures.
Outcomes: Increased focus on watershed management (e.g., Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan).
Livelihood Strategies: Shift to horticulture, dairy, poultry farming, and non-farm employment for
income diversification.
c. Kerala: Integrated Farming Systems (IFS)
Context: Small landholdings with high literacy rates among farmers.
Outcomes: Successful integration of crops, livestock, fisheries, and agroforestry. Value-added
products (spices, coconut-based products) enhance market linkages.
Livelihood Strategies: Use of cooperatives and marketing boards for better income generation.
d. Odisha: Tribal Farming and Forest-Based Livelihoods
Context: Shifting cultivation practices (podu) and reliance on forest produce.
Outcomes: Introduction of agroforestry and millet-based farming under the Odisha Millet Mission.
Livelihood Strategies: Empowering women through self-help groups for income generation.
e. Northeast India: Organic Farming Transition
Context: Traditional farming systems with minimal chemical input usage.
Outcomes: Sikkim became the first fully organic state in India. Organic tea, spices, and
horticultural crops marketed globally.
Livelihood Strategies: Promotion of organic certifications and access to niche markets.

Lecture No. 8
Definition of Farming Systems and farming based Livelihood Systems
(Definition and Role of farming systems in rural livelihoods, Examples of systems)
Farm:
A farm is organized economic unit in which crop and animal production is carried out with purpose of
producing economic net returns.
It is an area of land, including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and
managing food, fibers and fuel.
Farming:
The term farming covers a wide spectrum of agricultural production work. At one end of this
spectrum is the subsistence farmer, who farms a small area with limited resource inputs, and produces
only enough food to meet the needs of his family. At the other end is commercial intensive agriculture,
including industrial agriculture. Such farming involves large fields and/or numbers of animals, large
resource inputs (pesticides, fertilizers. Etc.) and a high level of mechanization. These operations
generally attempt to maximize financial income from grain produce or livestock.
Farming System:
Farming system refers to the farm as an entity of interdependent farming enterprises carried out on the
farm.
Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained production to
meet divers requirement of farm household while a system preserving resource base and maintaining
high level environmental quality (Lal and Millar, 1990).
Farming system is a decision making unit comprising the farm, household, cropping and livestock
systems that transform land, capital and labour into useful products that can be consumed or sold
(Fresco and Westphal, 1988). Farming system represent integration of farm enterprises such as cropping
system, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. for optimal utilization of resources bringing prosperity
to the farmer.
Farming system are characterized by their physical, biological and socio-economic setting and by the
farm families, goals and other attributes access to resources, choices of productive enterprises and
management practices.
Farming system concept:
Farming’ is a process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products.
System’ implies a set of interrelated practices and processes organized into functional entity i.e. an
arrangement of components or parts that interact according to some process and transform inputs into
outputs. Farming system is therefore, designed as a set ofagricultural activities organized into functional
unit(s) to profitableharness solar energy while preserving land productivity and environmental quality an
d maintain desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability,
The emphasis is more on system rather than |gross output. In other words ‘farming system’ is a resource
management strategy to achieve economic and sustained production to meet diverse
requirement of farm household while a |system preserving resource base and maintaining high level envi
ronmental quality (Lal and |Millar, 1990).
In farming system all the activities, decision, management, input/output, purchase/sale and resources
utilized make the matrix of farming system which interacts with socio-economic and bio-physical
environment for purchasing the necessary inputs and disposing the outputs by utilizing the natural
resources (land, water, air, sunshine etc.) effectively. Sustainability is the objective utilization of inputs
without impairing the quality of environment with which it interacts. Therefore, it is clear that farming
system is process in which sustainability of production is the objectives.
Objectives of Farming System:
1. To identify existing farming systems in specific area and assess their relative viability.
2. To formulate farming system models involving main and allied enterprises for different farming
situation.
3. To ensure optional utilization and conservation of available resources and effective recycling of farm
residues within system.
4. To maintain sustainable production system without damaging resources base/environment.
5. To raise overall profitability of farm household by complementing main/allied enterprises with each
other.
Scope of Farming System:
Farming enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish tree crops, plantation crops, sericulture etc. a
combination of one or more enterprises with cropping, when carefully chosen, planned and executed,
gives greater dividends than single enterprises, especially for small and marginal farmers.
Farm a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration of the enterprises to be
combined with crop production activity.
Integration of farm enterprises depends on following factors such as
 Soil and climatic features of the selected area.
 Availability of the resources, land, labour and capital.
 Present level of utilization of resources.
 Economics of proposed integrated farming system.
 Decision-making skill of the farmer.
Advantages of farming system
(1) Productivity: Farming system provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit area per
unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises.
(2) Profitability: The system as a whole provides an opportunity to make use of produce or waste
material of one enterprise as an input in another enterprise at low cost. Thus, by reducing the cost of
production, the profitability and benefit cost ratio works out to be high.
(3) Soil health: Soil health is a key factor for sustainability. It is getting deteriorated and polluted due to
faulty agricultural management practices viz., excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, irrigation, efc. In farming system, organic manures and waste recycling maintain soil health
for longer time.
(4) Balanced food: In farming system, diversification of enterprises provides opportunity to produce
different sources of nutrition namely proteins, carbohydrates, fats and minerals, efc. from the same unit
land. This helps in solving the malnutrition problem prevalent among the marginal and sub-marginal
farming households.
(5) Environmental safety: In farming system, eco-friendly practices like efficient use of byproducts,
recycling of waste, bio control measures for pests and diseases, etc. bring down the application of huge
quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, which pollute the soil water and environment.
Integrated Farming System (IFS) greatly reduces environmental
pollution.
(6) Income or cash flow round the year: In single enterprise like crop activity, income is expected
only at the time of disposal of economic produce. IFS enables cash flow round the year by way of sale
of products from different enterprises. This enhances the purchasing power of the farmer and provides
an opportunity to invest in improved technologies for enhanced production.
(7) Saving energy: Availability of fossil fuel has been declining at a rapid rate. In farming system,
effective recycling of organic wastes to generate energy from biogas plant can mitigate energy crisis to
certain extent
(8) Meeting fodder crises: In IFS, every inch of land area is effectively utilized. Practices like alley
cropping, growing fodder legumes along the borders, inclusion of fodder in cropping systems help to
produce sufficient fodder for livestock component of the farming system.
(9) Solving timber and fuel crises: The current production level of fuel wood and timber wood is
insufficient to meet the current demand. Agro-forestry component in farming system would increase
timber and fuel wood production and reduce deforestation, which will help to preserving our natural
ecosystem.
10) Employment generation: Various farm enterprises viz., crop +livestock or any other allied
enterprise in the farming system would increase labour requirement significantly and would help to
solve the problem of under employment. An IFS provides enough scope to employ family labour round
the year.
(11) Scope for establishment of agro-industries: Surplus production from different components of IFS
in the region provides opportunity for value addition establishment of agro-industries.
(12) Enhancement in input use efficiency: ran IFS provides good scope for resource utilization in
different components leading to greater input use efficiency and benefit- cost ratio.

Principles of farming system:

(1) Minimization of risk
(2) Recycling of wastes and residues
(3) Integration of two or more enterprises
(4) Optimum utilization of all resources
(5) Maximum productivity and profitability
(6) Ecological balance
(7) Generation of employment potential
(8) Increased input use efficiency
(9) Use of end products from one enterprise as input in other enterprise.

Classification of farming system:

A) According to the Size of the Farm:
1. Collective Farming system:
It includes direct collection of farm products from non arable lands. It may include either regular
or irregular harvesting of uncultivated plants. Hunting and fishing usually go hand in hand with
collection. In pre historic times, activities of this kind were major sources of food supply. In some region
these activities still provide rather important additions to the subsistence food grained from organized
production in arable farming and husbandry. Only in few cases the wild oil-palms in some parts of West
Africa, the gum Arabic of the Sudan, the wild honey of Tanzania is collecting a major cash earning
activity.
2. Cultivation Farming:
In this system farming community cultivates the land for growing crops for obtaining maximum
production per unit area, Cultivation farming is major farming system.
Types of cultivation farming:
1. Small scale farming 2. Large scale farming
Sr. Small scale farming Large scale farming
no
1. Intensive cultivation possible Not possible
2. No labour problem Difficult to get labours
3. Easy to manage Difficult to manage
4. Less risk due to natural calamities More risk
5. Per unit output is more Per unit output is less
6. marketing as less produce Better marketing of agril. products possible
7. Mechanization is difficult Costly machines can be maintained
8. Lack of capital for other enterprises Other enterprises can be started
9. Proper utilization of factors not possible Proper utilization of factors of production possible
10. research possible Research work is possible
11. of production is high Cost of production is less
Cultivation farming classified into different groups based on different criteria
B) According to the Proportion of Land, Labour and Capital Investment:
a) Intensive cultivation: A type of farming where more labour and capital used in the same piece of
land to increase the output
b) Extensive cultivation: A type of farming when more area is brought under cultivation to increase
output
C) According to the Value of Products or Income or on the basis of Comparative Advantages:
i) Specialized farming: A farming in which 50% or more income comes from only a single
crop/enterprise.
ii) Diversified farming: Farming in which there are different enterprises but no enterprise gives as
much as 50% of total income
Difference:
Sr.no. Specialized farming Diversified farming
1. Better management Difficult to inspect/manage
2. Better marketing Only if done cooperatively
3. Mechanization possible Not possible
4. Skill of labour increases Farmer & labour engaged but not skillful
5. Less equipments & labour More equipments & labour
6. Farm records maintained easily Difficult to maintain records
7. More risk Less risk
8. By-products not utilized By-products can be utilized
9. Soil fertility deteriorates Improving soil fertility
10. Returns after harvest Regular & quick returns
11. Better use of land Better use of land, labour & capital
 iii) Mixed farming: When crop production is combined with rearing of livestock it is called mixed
farming”
- “About 10 to 49% income come from livestock (cows & buffaloes).”
-At least 10% of gross comes from livestock
iv) Ranching: A practice where livestock graze on natural vegetation is called Ranching.”
 Ranch land is not utilized for tilling or raising crops.
 Make use of public grazing land Followed in Australia, America, Tibet & certain parts of India
 Here farmers enjoy free access to fodder for their livestock so they have comparative advantage
because of low cost of production.

v) Dry farming: Practice of cultivating crops in an area which receive less than 750 mm of rainfall
or even less than that
D) According to the Water Supply:
i) Rained farming.
ii) Irrigated farming.
E) According to:
I) Type of Rotation:
a) Lay system:- Several years of arable farming followed by several years of grasses & legumes
utilized for livestock production
i) Unregulated lay farming: Various grasses, bushy growth on pastures is allowed during fallow.
Improperly managed pasture
ii) Regulated lay system: Certain types of grasses grown during fallow period. Well managed
pastures with fencing & rotational grazing system
b) Field system: Arable crops (field crops) & grasslands are completely separated & are grown
simultaneously
c) Perennial crop system: Crops which cover land for many years are grown and alternated with
fallow or field crops or grasses” e.g. tea, coffee, sugarcane, Tree crops (oil palm, rubber) are
alternated with fallow, field crops, grazing etc.
II) Intensity of the Rotation:
a) Shifting cultivation: Shifting cultivation is a traditional farming system where land is cleared
crops are planted, and then the land is abandoned after a few years to allow the forest to
regenerate.
b) Lay or fallow farming: Several years of cropping followed by several years of fallow/grasses
c) Permanent cultivation: More years of cultivation and less years fallow i.e. Perennial crop system
d) Multiple cropping:
F) Classification According to Degree of Commercialization:
a) Commercialized farming: A type of farming where more than 50% of produce sold in the
market is called commercialized farming.” E.g. farmers who are growing cash crops like cotton,
sugarcane.
b) Partly commercialized farming: A type of farming where less than 50% of produce is sold in the
market and more than 50 percent is kept for family consumption is called Partly commercialized
farming.” E.g. farmers who are growing crops like cereals and pulses.
c) Subsistence farming: A system which provides food and commodities just sufficient for farming
family needs but there is no surplus to sell” E.g. farmers who are growing crops that are staple
food rice, wheat, millets or have a small poultry unit.
G) Classification According to Degree of Nomadic:
a) Total nomadic.
b) Semi nomadic.
c) Partial nomadic.
d) Transhumant.
e) Stationary animal husbandry.
H) Classification According to Cropping and Animal Activities:
I) Classification According to Implements Used for Cultivation:
a) Spade farming. b) Hoe farming. c) Mechanized or tractor farming

Lecture No. 9
Prevalent Farming Systems in India contributing to livelihood
(Traditional vs. Modern farming systems, Regional differences)
Traditional vs. Modern farming systems: -
The Modern farming reflects Doing Agriculture with applications of science and technology is a part
of humane advancement. this perfectly, yet traditional farming still exists as a small fraction of
agriculture farming.
Traditional Farming:
Traditional farming is also called “small-scale farming; it refers to agricultural practices followed
from generation to generation. Further more, they rely on old age techniques and tools. It also
involves cultivating crops and raising livestock. they rely on old-age techniques and tools. It also
involves cultivating crops and raising livestock.
Traditional farming often emphasizes on local and indigenous knowledge that relies on natural
processes. Moreover, with the use limited mechanization or modern technology use. This approach
focuses on sustainability and harmony with the environment and climate. Moreover, it helps in
maintaining soil fertility and biodiversity. Yet, it is less efficient in yield than modern industrialized
farming methods. The traditional farming methods vary across cultures and regions. This reflects the
diversity of agricultural practices worldwide.
Traditional Method:
1. Intercropping: This process involves growing different crops together in the same field.
Furthermore, it helps in increased productivity and efficient space use.
2. Integrated Crop Animal Farming: This method combines crop cultivation with livestock
rearing. In order to, optimize nutrient cycling and agricultural output.
3. Water Harvesting: This traditional farming method includes collecting and storing rainwater.
with the purpose to mitigate water scarcity and improve irrigation of agriculture.
4. Crop Rotation: It involves sequentially planting different crops in the same area. This method
helps in maintaining soil health and preventing pest buildup.
5. Shifting Cultivation: It involves temporary cultivation in one area until soil fertility declines.
after that, moving to a new plot, allowing the land to ‘regenerate.
6. Poly Culture: This method involves cultivating many crop species in a single area. In order to,
mimic natural ecosystems and promote biodiversity.
7.Agroforestry: It involves integrating trees with crops or livestock. Furthermore to enhance
sustainability, soil fertility, and ecosystem services.
8. Cover Cropping: This includes planting specific crops to cover and protect soil during off-
seasons It also prevents erosion and improves soil structure
9. Traditional Organic Composting: This traditional method uses natural materials to decompose
and enrich soil. It also fosters nutrient cycling and fertility.
10. Mixed Cropping: This method involves cultivating different crops in one field. In order to
optimize resource use and enhance resilience.
Traditional farming practices have both positive and negative effects on the environment.
Positive Impacts:
1. Biodiversity: Traditional farming often involves diverse crop varieties and mixed cropping, this
promotes biodiversity and maintains a wider range of plant and animal species.
2. Local adaptation: Traditional farmers often use locally available seed varieties and farming
techniques. Moreover, it reduces the reliance on monoculture and promotes resilient ecosystems.
3. Soil Health: Certain traditional practices like crop rotation and organic composting enhance soil
fertility and structure over time.
4. Water Management: Traditional systems incorporate water harvesting and efficient irrigation
methods. These methods help manage water resources more sustainably.
5. Cultural Heritage: Traditional farming preserves indigenous knowledge and cultural practices
tied to the land.
Negative Impacts:
1. Deforestation: Some traditional farming practices involve clearing forests for cultivation. This
leads to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.
2. Soil Erosion: Unsustainable traditional practices, such as shifting cultivation can cause soil
erosion and degradation when not managed properly.
3. Chemical Use: While traditional farming relies less on synthetic chemicals some practices
involve the use of harmful substances like certain traditional pesticides or inadequate waste disposal.
4. Resource Depletion: Without utilizing modern techniques for replenishing nutrients, traditional
farming can lead to the depletion of soil nutreints over time.
5. Limited Productivity: Traditional methods may have lower yields compared to modern industrial
farming. Furthermore, this can contribute to increased pressure on natural habitats to meet food
demands.
Modern Farming:
Modern Farming Method is also known as “industrial or conventional farming”. It is a highly
mechanized and technology driven approach to agriculture. To maximize yield, It emphasizes large
scale monoculture, utilizing genetically modified crops, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides.
Modern farming methods like GPS-guided machinery, drones, and data analytics optimize resource
use. While increasing productivity and meeting global food demands is a major concern Modern
farming often faces concerns about environmental sustainability due to chemical runoff, soil
degradation, and biodiversity loss. Despite its efficiency, a balance between high output and
ecological responsibility remains a challenge. Furthermore, this prompts the exploration of
alternative practices that minimize negative environmental impacts.
Modern farming methods:
1. Precision Farming: This method of modern farming uses technology to optimize crop
management and resource use for increased efficiency.
2. Aeroponics: This method utilizes an air-mist environment without soil for growing plants.
Moreover, this promotes efficient nutrient absorption.
3. Aquaponics: It combines aquaculture (fish farming) and hydroponics, where fish provides
nutrients for plants.
4. Hydroponics: It cultivates plants in nutrient-rich water solutions, without soil, to enhance growth.
5. Drones in Modern Farming: This method utilizes unmanned aerial vehicles for tasks like
monitoring, mapping, and precision applications in agriculture.
 6. Monoculture: It involves planting a single crop species over a large area to reduce biodiversity.
7.Tissue Culture: This method deals with propagating plants in a controlled laboratory environment
from small tissue samples.
8. Vertical Farming: This practice includes growing crops in stacked layers or vertical structures. It
is often used in urban settings to save space.
9. Controlled-Environment Agriculture (CEA): This is a method of growing crops indoors with
controlled temperature, light, and humidity for optimal conditions.
10. Integrated Pest Management (IPM): It involves employing various techniques to manage pests
while minimizing environmental impact.
Effect of Modern-Day Farming method on Environment:
Modern methods of farming have significant effects on the environment.
Positive Impacts:
1. Increased Productivity: Modern farming techniques have enabled higher crop yields. Moreover,
it helps to meet the growing global demand for food.
2. Efficient resource Use: Precision agriculture technologies optimize water, fertilizer and pesticide
application. This use of technology reduces waste and improves resource efficiency.
3. Reduced Land Conversion: Higher yields on existing farmland limit the conversion of natural
habitats into agricultural land.
4. Technological Innovation: Modern farming drives innovation in agricultural technologies,
leading to more sustainable practices.
Negative Impacts:
1. Soil Degradation: The use of intensive tilling and chemicals leads to soil erosion, compaction,
and reduced fertility.
2. Chemical Pollution: The excessive use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can contaminate
soil and water bodies. Furthermore, it impacts non-target species.
3. Biodiversity Loss: Monoculture and chemical use can lead to a decline in plant and animal
diversity which disrupts ecosystems.
4. Water Pollution: Runoff from fields carries pesticides and fertilizers into waterways. Thus,
causing pollution and harming aquatic life.
5. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Modern farming fuel use, synthetic fertilizer production and
livestock methane contribute to greenhouse gas emissions
6. Loss of Agroecosystem Services: Intensive modern agriculture practices reduce the capacity of
ecosystems to provide services like pollination and natural pest
Difference between Modern Farming and Traditional Farming:
Traditional Farming Modern Farming
Low rate of production Higher rate of production
Minimum damage to the environment Less environment-friendly
More farm labour and use of cattle Less farm labour and use of tractors
Use of compost and manure Use chemical based fertilizers and pesticide
Grow quality products Produces lower quality products
Aspects Traditional Farming systems Modern Farming systems
Land Use Small-scale, diversified (crops Large scale, monoculture intensive livestock
livestock)
Inputs Low, organic (manure, crop high synthetic (fertilizers, pesticides, GM seeds)
rotation)
Technology Technology Traditional tools Mechanization, precision faming, biotech
Environmental low sustainable minimal pollution High soil degradation, water pollution, loss of
impact biodiversity
Productivity Lower yields per hectare High yields, high input/output ratio
Economic focus Subsistence local market Commercial global market
Labour Family based labour intensive Mechanized hire labour
Sustainability High sustainability, resilient to Less sustainable, dependent on chemical inputs
climate change and technology

Types of Traditional and Modern Farming Systems:

Traditional Farming Systems:
(1) Shifting Cultivation (Slash and Burn Agriculture): Also known as slash-and-burn agriculture, where
land is cleared, cultivated for a few years, and then left fallow to regenerate naturally.
(2) Subsistence Farming: Small-scale farming aimed at producing enough food to meet the needs of the
farmer’s family, with little surplus for sale.
(3) Pastoralism (Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic): Livestock rearing as the primary livelihood, often
involving seasonal movement of herds in search of pastures and water.
(4) Mixed Farming: Combining crop cultivation with livestock rearing to maximize farm productivity
and income diversification.
(5) Terrace farming: Cultivation of crops in hilly or mountain regions is done by cutting out steps or
slopes to form terraces. This practice is labor intensive and prevents soil erosion and water loss to
increase productivity.
(6) Rainfed farming: Rainfed farming is a method of growing crops that relies solely on rainwater. It is
practiced in a variety of soil types, climates, and rainfall conditions.
Modern Farming Systems:
(1) Monoculture : Involves growing a single crop on the same piece of land year after year. eg. growing
rice or wheat continuously in the same field.
(2) Commercial farming: Based on a business model that seeks to produce agricultural products, not just
for one’s own needs and sustenance but also for sale in the market and exportation to other nations for
profits.
(3) Agro forestry: A system where trees or shrubs are grown alongside crops or livestock. o Example:
Growing fruit or timber trees alongside crops like maize or wheat.
(4) Hydroponics and aquaponics: The process requires growing healthy plants without the use of solid
media, employing nutrients such as a mineral-rich water solution is called as hydroponics.
Aquaponics:It combines aquaculture (fish farming) and hydroponics, where fish waste
provides nutrients for plants
Aeroponics: This method utilizes an air-mist environment without soil for growing plants. Moreover,
this promotes efficient nutrient absorption
(5) Precision farming: Use of advanced technologies (e.g., GPS, IoT, data analytics) to optimize farming
practices and improve productivity.
(6) Vertical farming: involves growing crops in stacked, vertical layers, often indoors, using controlled
environments and soilless techniques like hydroponics, aquaponics, or aeroponics, maximizing space
and output.
(7) Protected cultivation: The practice of growing plants in controlled environment such as green
houses, polyhouse and other structures to protect them from adverse weather conditions, pest and
diseases.
(8) Genetically Modified (GM) Farming: Use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to enhance
crop traits like yield, pest resistance, and drought tolerance

Lecture No. 10
Components of farming system/farming-based livelihood systems - Crops and Cropping
Systems
The components of a farming system or farming-based livelihood system refer to the interconnected
elements that work together to support agricultural production and sustain the livelihoods of farming
households.
These components include natural resources, inputs, outputs, human and social capital, and supporting
institutions. Together, they define how effectively a farming system can function, produce food,
generate income, and ensure sustainability.

Key components of farming systems and farming-based livelihood systems:

1. Natural Resources: Natural resources are the foundational assets that a farming system relies on for
production. These resources vary based on the geographical location, climate, and type of farming
practiced.
i. Land: The most critical resource for any farming system. It includes both the quality of soil and the
size of the landholding, which determines the types of crops and livestock that can be produced.
ii.Water: Essential for irrigation, livestock and aquaculture. Access to water sources like rivers, lakes,
groundwater, or rainfall is critical for successful farming.
iii.Climate and Weather: Climatic conditions, includingtemperature, rainfall, &seasonal variation, play a
significant role in determining what farming practices can be sustained.
iv.Biodiversity: Crop diversity (e.g., multiple crops or crop varieties) and livestockdiversity can enhance
resilience and productivity.
2. Agricultural Inputs:
It refers to the resources and materials that are added to the farming process to enhance productivity and
ensure successful production.
• Seeds and Planting Material: Quality seeds, planting stock, or saplings are essential for achieving good
yields.
• Fertilizers and Soil Amendments: Chemical fertilizers, organic manures, compost, and other soil
amendments (e.g., lime) are used to enhance soil fertility and increase crop yields.
• Pesticides and Herbicides: Chemicals to manage pests, diseases, and weeds that threaten crops. In
organic systems, natural pest control methods like biological pest control are used.
• Irrigation Systems: Water supply mechanisms like drip irrigation, sprinklers, or traditional methods to
ensure crops get adequate water, especially in areas with insufficient rainfall.
• Machinery and Tools: Implements such as tractors, plows, harvesters, or manual tools that help in land
preparation, sowing, weeding, and harvesting
3. Crops and Livestock:
Farming systems are centered around the production of crops, livestock, or a combination of both. The
specific crops or animals chosen are influenced by local environmental conditions, market demand, and
the farmer’s needs.
• Crops: These can range from staple crops (e.g., rice, wheat, maize) to cash crops (e.g., sugarcane,
cotton) and horticultural crops (e.g., fruits, vegetables, spices). Crop selection is essential for ensuring
both food security and income generation.
• Livestock: Livestock such as cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and pigs contribute to farming systems by
providing milk, meat, eggs, and manure for crop production.
• Aquaculture: In certain systems, fish farming or shrimp farming forms an integral part of the livelihood
system.
• Agroforestry: Involves the integration of trees on farms, either for timber, fruit, or as part of crop
rotation systems.
4. Human Capital:
It refers to the skills, labor, and knowledge that the farming household or community possesses. It is a
critical component in ensuring that farming practices are well-managed and productive
Labor: Farming activities require manual labor for tasks such as planting, weeding, irrigation,
harvesting, and post-harvest processing.
• Skills and Knowledge: The expertise of the farmer or farming community in understanding local
conditions, managing crops and livestock, and using modern techniques and tools (e.g., pest
management, soil conservation, or irrigation practices) significantly affects productivity.
• Education and Training: Access to agricultural education, extension services, and training programs
helps farmers improve their productivity and adapt to new technologies or farming methods.
5. Social and Institutional Capital:
The social and institutional networks surrounding farming households play a crucial role in providing
support, access to resources, and market linkages.
•Farmer cooperatives and Groups: Farmers often form cooperatives or groups to share resources, access
credit, buy inputs in bulk, and market their produce more efficiently.
•Government policies and subsidies: Government programs and subsidies for fertilizers, seeds,
irrigation, crop insurance, and minimum support prices provide crucial support for small-scale farmers.
•Extension Services: it provide technical advice and training to farmers, helping them adopt new
farming techniques, improve yields, and diversify their production.
•Access to credit and financial services: Farmers require access to credit for purchasing inputs like
seeds, fertilizers, and machinery. Microcredit, rural banks, and self-help groups help farmers invest in
their farms.
•Market Access and Infrastructure: The availability of markets where farmers can sell their produce, as
well as transportation, storage, and processing facilities, are crucial for the profitability of farming
systems
Components of farming systems and farming-based livelihood systems:
1. Cropping:
2. Horticulture:
3. Livestock/Dairy farming: a) Cattle b) buffalo c) goat d) sheep
4.Poultry : chicken farming, duck farming, guinea fowl farming, quail farming, Turkey
farming, Emu farming,
5. Piggery:
6. Fishery /aquaculture:
7. Sericulture: Moriculture, silkworm , silk reeling
8. Apiculture:
 9. Lac farming:
10. Mushroom cultivation:
11. Agroforestry
12. Biogas plant
13. Vermicomposting
1. Cropping:
 Important component of farming system.
 Backbone of farming system, implemented in all type of situations like wetland, garden land and
dry land.
 There are many types of crops and cropping systems raised by the farmers to fulfill their food,
fiber and fuel requirements.
 Cereals, pulses, oilseed, fiber, fodder and cash crops are the important crops cultivated by
majority of farmers.
 Serves as base for many other components as it provides raw material and inputs to other
components.
2. Horticulture:
 The demand and production of different horticultural crops viz., fruit, flower and vegetable crops
are increasing day to day.
 A large number of farmers have included cultivation of horticultural crops as a component of
farming system in garden land and dry land areas to fulfill the market demand and receiving
higher economic returns.
 The horticulture-based food processing industries are also developing which support this
component and create parallel economy and employment opportunities for the people.
3. Livestock/Dairy farming:
 Integral part of the system.
 It provides constant income to the farmers throughout the year.
 Significant role in generating employment to landless, small and marginal farmers and farm
women.
 Many farmers are shifting their activities to livestock and agroforestry when crop production
becomes difficult due to failure of monsoon.
 Successful dairy farming needs sound management practices. It is imperative to provide good
managerial inputs (feed, fodder, housing, health care, breeding, general management and
marketing) to exploit the full genetic potential of livestock and to make this economically viable.
 The success of dairy farming depends on the availability of inputs and better marketing facilities
to milk.

(a) Cattle: Cattle rearing in India is carried out under a variety of adverse climatic and environmental
conditions. The breeds are broadly classified into three groups.
(i) Draft breeds: The bullocks of these breeds are good draft animals, but the cows are poor milkers,
e.g. Khillari, Nagori, Hallikar, Mali.
(ii) Dairy breeds: The cows are high milk yielders, but the bullocks are of poor draft quality, e.g.,
Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir.
(iii) Dual purpose: The cows are fairly good milkers and the bullocks are with good draft work
capacity, e.g., Tharparkar, Hariana, Ongole, Kankrej and Deoni.
(iv) Exotic breeds: The exotic breeds are high milk yielder e.g., Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Aryshire,
Brown Swiss and Guernsey.
 (b) Buffalo:
Buffaloes digest more of roughage than cows and thrive well on dry fodder. Majority of the dairy
products in the country are based on buffalo.
The higher fat percentage (7-8%) in buffalo milk is more profitable in dairy enterprises, particularly for
toned and double toned milk.
Buffalo milk is comparatively cheaper to produce, since a buffalo is able to utilize coarse feed even
rejected also. Buffaloes are also utilized as a source of power for various field operations. They are
slow, but heavy and strong and are well suited to work in muddy and submerged fields where they are
able to pull heavier loads than cattle.
Breeds: Murrah, Nili Ravi, Kundi, Bhadawari, Tarai, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Mandya, Kalahandi,
Sambalour (Central region), Toda, Surti, Jaffarbadi and Mehsani, Dharwari.
(c) Goat farming:
Largest population of goats, i.e. about 23% of the world population. Employing goat rearing in
integrated farming system is profitable and gives assured dividends. Small animals and easy to manage.
Goats are browsing (leaves and twigs of trees and shrubs) rather than grazing. They obtain their intake
from a wide variety of vegetation throughout the year. Goat farming can be more profitable if good
pastures are available. The average milk production is 1 litre/day/animal. Goats produce a low-fat meat.
The smallest viable unit of goats comprise 50 does (female) + 2 bucks (male).
One can establish organized goat farms in multiples of 50+ 2.
Breeds: Milk & Meat: Jamnapari, Osmanabadi, Barbari , Beetal
Meat and skin: Black Bengal, Kanni adu
Meat, skin and milk: Barvari, Malabari (Tellicherry), Sirohi, Surti
Meat, hair and skin: Gaddi, Kutchi, Marwari
Fibre: Angora, Gaddi, Pashmina, Chegu, Changthangi
(d) Sheep farming:
Sheep is also a small ruminant with a high adaptability to extreme climate. Sheep can thrive well in all
agro climatic conditions except in high rainfall areas.
Sheep plays important role in the animal production in arid and semi-arid regions and largely in
marginal and small holdings. Sheep with its multi-facet utility for wool, meat, milk, skins and manure,
form an important component of rural economy.
Sheep rearing can be recommended as an occupation to the rural people especially to the weaker
sections in hilly, drought prone and desert area. In the event of failure of seasonal rains and crops, sheep
rearing gives a helping hand to the farmers. Sheep can subsist on low set and sparse vegetation whereas
other species of farm livestock may be struggling to thrive. This is possible because of their inherent
capacity to browse very close to the roots of herbage. Sheep penning in harvested field enhances soil
fertility due to addition of faeces materials, rich in nutrients.

4. POULTRY:
Poultry is one of the fastest growing food industries in the world. Poultry meat accounts for about
27% of the total meat consumed worldwide and its consumption is growing at an average of 5%
annually. The total egg production is estimated as 142.77 billion numbers during 2023-24, which is a
compound annual growth of 6.8% over the past 10 years In 2014-15, the egg production was 78.48
 billion numbers. Poultry industry in India is relatively a new agricultural industry. Poultry in IFS
plays a pivotal role in fulfilling the ever-increasing demand for meat and eggs in the country.
Rearing poultry in a backyard system is an age-old practice. Backyard poultry is a means of
livelihood for large number of small and marginal farmers in India. Poultry farming is practiced
under a wide range of conditions viz.,
i) Extensive system (Free-range extensive and Backyard extensive systems),
ii) Semi-intensive system
iii) Intensive system.
Under free-range extensive system, the birds are not confined and can scavenge for food over a wide
area. Under backyard extensive systems, poultry are housed at night but allowed free- range during
the day. Semi-intensive system consists of a separate shelter for the birds during the night in which
water and some feed is provided.
(a) Chicken farming
Chicken farming includes (1) Broiler farming for meat and
(2) Layer farming for eggs.
Besides the nutritive value, eggs have many industrial uses in preparation of adhesives, printer inks,
shampoos, soap, varnishes, vaccines, efc. The eggshells are used as mineral-feed for animals and birds.
The feathers are used for making cushions, mattresses, pillows, efc.
Breeds:
Specific poultry stocks are available for egg and broiler production. A majority of the stocks used for
egg production are crosses involving the strains or inbred lines of white Leghorn.
To a limited extent, other breeds like Rhode Island Red, California Grey and Australop are used.
(b) Duck farming
The ducks occupy second place to chicken in population in the country. They are reared mainly for egg
and meat purposes. Marshy wetland areas are ideal for duck rearing. Suitable for mixed farming system
such as duck-cum-fish farming, duck farming with rice culture, etc. In duck- cum-fish farming, the
droppings of ducks serve as feed for the fishes and no other feed or manuring of the pond is necessary
for fishes (200-300 ducks/ha of water area). Under integrated duck farming with rice culture, the ducks
perform four essential functions viz., inter | tillage, weeding, insect control and manuring.
Duck production is mostly concentrated in the eastern states like Assam, Manipur, Tripura and West
Bengal followed by A.P, Bihar, J.K., Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and U.P.
Breeds: The important Indian breeds are Sylhet Mete and Nageswari, which are mostly found in the
Eastern region of the country. Khaki Campbell and Indian Runner are the most popular breeds for egg
laying.
(c) Guinea fowl farming
 Ranks 3rd after chicken and duck. It is well adapted to diverse agro-climatic conditions
prevailing in arid and semi-arid regions. marginal farmers and small-scale poultry enterprises
raised under free-range.
 States- Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of India.
 hardy, disease resistant, need low input and have unique ability to survive and thrive under sub-
optimal management and feeding conditions because of its foraging habit. They are highly
resistant to viral diseases and therefore, they are generally raised without any vaccination.
 Varieties: Lavender, Pearl and White
  (d) Quail farming

 Japanese quail is mostly reared in India for meat and eggs. Quails are fast growing, hardy and
can adapt to various environments. They are more resistant to diseases than
chickens.Theydo not require specially designed houses. Quails require less floor space, feed and
water in comparison to chickens and ducks and hence, less capital investment.

 (e) Turkey Farming

 Turkeys are mostly reared for meat purpose. Turkey meat contains very less fat as compared to
meat of other avian species. In India, turkey production is still in its initial stage.

 Since the turkey poults and hens are bigger in size, their cutups can be marketed in various
attractive packaging suited to the individual consumer. They are more resistant to disease than
chicken and therefore, rarely suffer from diseases. Turkeys grow very fast and can be reared
under semi-intensive system in the backyards.

 (f) Emu farming

 The emu is another latest addition to poultry species for commercial use. Emu meat contains low
amounts of fat and cholesterol. Emu oil is also considered to be highly medicinal. Emu birds are
practically immune to several diseases.

5. PIGGERY:
Pigs are maintained for the production of pork. Pig farming is adapted to both diversified and
intensive agriculture. Pigs convert inedible feeds, forages, certain grain byproducts into valuable
nutritious meat. The faeces of pigs are useful in maintaining soil fertility. Pig raising fits very well
with integrated farming system. The reproduction interval of pig is short and pigs give birth to
many off springs at a time. Small sum invested in pig rearing can bring very good returns in a short
time.
Breeds: White Yorkshire, Barkshire, Poland china, Duroc Hampshire, Chester white Yorkshire is
the most extensively used exotic breed in India. It is a prolific breed having good growth rate and
feed conversion ability.
6. AQUACULTURE/FISHERIES :
Farm ponds serve multiple benefits like domestic water requirements, supplementary irrigation
and pisciculture. Clay soils have higher water retention capacity and hence are best suited for fish
rearing. The depth of the pond should be 1.5 - 2.0 m. Pond-water should have appropriate
proportion of nutrients and slightly alkaline pH. Soil of the pond should be tested for N and P
content. If the nutrient content is less, fertilizers can be added. Organic manures such as FYM and
poultry droppings may also be applied to promote the growth of phyto and zooplanktons.
Species of fish are:
(1) Catla (Catla catla) is the fast-growing fish. It consumes lot of vegetation and decomposing
higher plants. It is mainly a surface and column feeder.
(2) Rohu (Labeo rohita) is a column feeder and feeds on growing fish. It consumes lot of
vegetation and decomposing higher plants. It is mainly column and surface feeder.
 (3) Calbasu (Labeo calbasu) is a bottom feeder on detritus. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) is also a
bottom feeder, taking detritus to large extent, diatoms, filamentous and other algae and higher
plants. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is a bottom feeder and omnivorous.
(4) Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) is mainly a surface and phytoplankton-feeder and
also feeds on micro-plants.
7. SERICULTURE:
Sericulture is defined as the practice of combining mulberry cultivation, silkworm rearing and silk
reeling. India occupies second position among silk producing countries in the world, next to China.
Sericulture is labour intensive in all its phases, including off-farm activities such as twisting,
dyeing, weaving, and printing. It has considerable socio-economic importance in India largely due
to its suitability for small and marginal farm-holdings by generating employment and requiring low
investment.
There are three primary steps in production of mulberry silk.
1. Moriculture
2. Silkworm rearing
3. Silk reeling
(1) Moriculture: it refers to the cultivation of mulberry plants, whose leaves are used as silkworm
feed.
(2) Silkworm rearing:
 Silkworm rearing process begins with the laying of eggs by the female silk moth.
 The hatched larvae are transferred to feeding beds prepared on a rearing tray by spreading
chopped mulberry leaves onto it.
 The life cycle of mulberry silkworm completes in 45-55 days, consists of stages egg (9-10 days),
larva (24-28 days), pupa (8-10 days) and moth (3-4 days).
 The larvae undergo four times moulting during the larval period. The silkworm larvae initially
have a good appetite. Late age worms are voracious feeder. Feeding, bed cleaning, maintenance
of temperature and humidity, care during moulting and maintenance of hygiene are important
aspects of silkworm rearing.
 After reaching maturity, the larvae begin searching for hospitable places to begin their pupation.
These mature larvae now wrap themselves in a cocoon by secreting saliva from salivary glands.
This saliva solidifies and becomes silk when it comes in contact with air.
3) Silk reeling:
Inside the cocoons, the larvae undergo metamorphosis and turn into pupae. First, the pupae
inside the cocoon are killed by boiling the cocoon and exposing it to steam and dry heat. This
process is called stifling. Now, the silk filaments are removed from the dead cocoon via a
process called reeling.
Types of silk worm
I. Mulberry silk worm — Bombyx mori
II. Eri silk worm — Philosamia ricini
III. Tassar silk worm — Antheraea mylitta
IV. Muga silk worm