A BRIEF HISTORY: -

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

(HAL) represents a cornerstone of
India's aerospace and defence
sectors, embodying the nation's
journey towards technological
self-sufficiency and strategic
autonomy. Established on
December 23, 1940, in Bangalore
by visionary industrialist
Walchand Hirachand, HAL was
initially conceived as Hindustan
Aircraft Limited. Its creation was driven by the pressing need to develop an indigenous aircraft
manufacturing capability in pre-independence India. This initiative received crucial support from the
Government of Mysore, which provided land and funding, as well as other Indian industrialists. The
onset of World War II accelerated HAL's development, as the company's facilities became essential for
the maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) of Allied aircraft operating in the region. Recognizing its
strategic significance, the British Indian government took control of the company in 1942, ensuring its
alignment with wartime needs.

Following the end of World War II, HAL transitioned from a focus on MRO activities to the manufacturing
of aircraft, thus laying the foundation for India's future in aerospace production. The 1960s were
transformative for HAL, beginning with its merger in 1964 with Aeronautics India Limited, another
government-owned entity. This merger formed the modern Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, marking
the start of a significant expansion phase. One of HAL’s early achievements in indigenous manufacturing
was the HF-24 Marut, India’s first jet fighter, which was designed by the renowned German aircraft
engineer Kurt Tank and produced in 1967. The Marut project showcased HAL's growing technical
capabilities and marked a milestone in India's defence manufacturing history, demonstrating the
country's ability to produce advanced military hardware domestically.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, HAL continued to expand its production capabilities through several
licensing agreements and technological collaborations. Notably, HAL began manufacturing the MiG-21
fighter jets under an agreement with the Soviet Union. This collaboration significantly boosted HAL's
expertise in jet aircraft production and maintenance. Additionally, HAL produced helicopters such as the
Alouette III and Lama under license from France, enhancing its capabilities in rotary-wing aircraft
manufacturing. These partnerships allowed HAL to build a robust technological base and diversify its
product portfolio, which included not only military aircraft but also civilian and transport aircraft.

A pivotal project for HAL was the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) program, initiated in 1984. This ambitious
program aimed to develop an indigenous multi-role supersonic fighter to replace the aging fleet of MiG-
21s. The development of the LCA, which eventually culminated in the Tejas aircraft, was a complex and
challenging endeavour. It required HAL to develop and integrate advanced technologies, including
composite materials, avionics, and fly-by-wire systems. Despite numerous technical and financial
hurdles, the successful induction of Tejas into the Indian Air Force (IAF) in the 2000s marked a significant
achievement for HAL and Indian aerospace engineering. The Tejas program not only enhanced India's
defence capabilities but also demonstrated the country's growing prowess in advanced aerospace
design and manufacturing.

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 MIG-21 SU-30 MKI
ALOUTTE III

In addition to its defence-related activities, HAL has played a crucial role in India’s space
program. The company has been a key supplier of components and systems to the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO), supporting various satellite launches and space missions.
HAL’s expertise in precision manufacturing and complex assemblies has been instrumental in
ISRO’s successes, including the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and the Chandrayan
lunar missions. By contributing critical technologies and components, HAL has helped position
India as a significant player in the global space arena.

HAL's modernization and expansion efforts continued into the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The
company has developed and produced a range of advanced aircraft and helicopters, including the HAL
Dhruv, an advanced light helicopter designed for both military and civilian applications, and the HAL
Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), specifically designed for high-altitude operations. These developments
reflect HAL’s ongoing commitment to innovation and its ability to meet the diverse needs of India’s
defence forces.

HAL’s journey is marked by several significant milestones and achievements. One of the early notable
projects was the licensed production of the HJT-16 Kiran jet trainer, which became the backbone of the
IAF's pilot training program. This was followed by the indigenous design and production of the HT-2,
India’s first basic trainer aircraft, which entered service in the 1950s. These early successes laid the
foundation for HAL’s future projects and established its reputation as a key player in the aerospace
sector.

The 1980s and 1990s saw HAL taking on more complex projects and expanding its technological base.
During this period, the company developed the Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH) Dhruv, which was
designed to meet the needs of both the Indian military and civilian operators. The Dhruv project was a
significant leap for HAL, showcasing its capability to design, develop, and produce advanced rotorcraft.
The helicopter has since been inducted into the Indian Armed Forces and has also found export
customers.

The development of the Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) was another landmark project for HAL. The
Tejas program was initiated to replace the aging MiG-21 fleet with a modern, multi-role supersonic
fighter. The development process involved extensive research and the integration of advanced
technologies, such as composite materials, advanced avionics, and fly-by-wire controls.

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DHRUV ALH (Advanced Light Weight Helicopter) Tejas Light Combat Aircraft HJT-16 Kiran Jet

In parallel with its efforts in manned aircraft, HAL has also been active in the development of unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) and drones. Recognizing the increasing importance of UAVs in modern warfare
and surveillance, HAL has developed a range of UAVs for various applications, including reconnaissance,
surveillance, and target acquisition. These UAVs have been designed to meet the specific needs of the
Indian Armed Forces and have been deployed in various operational scenarios.

Contribution: -
HAL’s contributions to India’s space program are equally noteworthy. The company has been a key
supplier of components and systems for ISRO’s satellite and launch vehicle programs. HAL’s expertise in
precision manufacturing and complex assemblies has been critical to the success of various ISRO
missions, including the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and the Chandrayaan lunar missions. By
providing high-quality components and systems, HAL has played a vital role in enhancing India’s
capabilities in space exploration and satellite technology.

In recent years, HAL has continued to modernize its facilities and expand its product range. The company
has undertaken the development and production of various advanced aircraft, helicopters, and UAVs,
as well as the upgrading of existing platforms to meet the evolving needs of the Indian Armed Forces.
HAL has also focused on enhancing its global presence through exports and international collaborations.
The company has entered into joint ventures and partnerships with leading global aerospace firms,
enabling it to leverage advanced technologies and access new markets.

Today, HAL stands as a symbol of India’s aerospace capabilities and self-reliance in defence technology.
With a legacy spanning over eight decades, the company has evolved from a wartime repair facility to a
leading aerospace manufacturer. HAL’s journey reflects India’s broader trajectory of technological
advancement and strategic autonomy.

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 PRINCIPLE OF JET PROPULSION
BRAYTRON CYCLE:
The Gas Turbine works on the principle of Brayton Thermodynamic Cycle. Using the turbine
engine station numbering system, we begin with the free stream conditions at station 0. In
rising flight intake air slows and enter into the compressor face at station 2. During the
movement of air in compressor, the gas is highly pressurized & static temperature is increased
to a high extent. Ideally, the compression is iso-entropic (showing transition from station 2-3
as a vertical line in the T-S diagram) in which the amount of gas does not change throughout
the process. The compressor does the work to pressurize the gas, obtaining from the output
work of the Gas Turbine. The combustion process occurs in the burner at a constant pressure
from the station 3 to 4 in which the Temperature rises to the peak limit. The hot exhaust from
the combustion chamber is then passed through the turbine rotor blades which produces the
ample amount of work from the station 4 to 5. The work produced by the Turbine is supplied
to the compressor via a common shaft. Then, the nozzle brings the flow iso-entropically back
to the free stream pressure from station 5 to 8. Externally, the flow conditions return to the
free stream conditions, which completes this cycle. The area under the T-S diagram is
proportional to the useful work and Thrust generated by the engine.

P-V diagram T-S diagram

R25 Engine:
The Tumansky R-25 Engine is the ultimate upgradation of
the Tumansky R-11 Engine used in MIG-21 Aircrafts. It is a
two spool Turbojet engine which has two rotating Shafts
operating at different speeds. The benefits of the use of
two spools over a one spool engine is that better matches
of various speeds of the blades according to the inlet
airflow.
This R-25 engine also come up with improvements with
new compressor having high overall compression ratio, variable two-stage afterburner, and
greater use of Titanium material. An unusual addition to R-25 engine was an emergency mode
thrust boost which increased the compressor speed to 106% of the actual speed and also
increased the afterburner fuel flow with the addition of the new second afterburner fuel
pump. Thrust is produced around 96.5 kilonewtons below an altitude around 2000 meters.
The time limit for its use is nearly about 1 minute for a training aircraft & 2 minutes for the
aircraft during any War times. This R-25 Engine has dimensions such as length of 4,615 mm
(181.7 in), diameter about of 1,191 mm (46.9 in) & dry weight of 1,212 kg (2,670 lb). It has

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various components connected for different areas of applications. It has two spool axial
compressor, different from centrifugal or radial compressors, allows to flow the air or fluid in
the direction parallel to airfoil direction by continuously pressurizing to the max limit. This
axial compressor has 5 High pressure & 3 Low pressure rotor blade stages. The fluid gains high
energy due to compression by the compressor rotor blades as it exerts high torque on it.
The cannular type of combustion chamber used in the engine in which discrete combustion
zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. This combustion chamber has
10 burners. The burners use ATF (Aviation Turbine Fuel) as a fuel and atmospheric gas & turns
into the combustible gas producing high Thermal energy. Following to the Combustion
Chamber, there are two stages of the Turbine blades such as 1 HP stage & 1 LP stage which
generate the power supply of the whole engine. Then, after all the stages of the Engines finally
the gas is exhausted from the nozzle at the backside maintaining a constant pressure
throughout the Process.

R-29B Engine:
This Engine is a twin spool axial flow turbojet
engine incorporating afterburner system and an
adjustable jet nozzle of convergent divergent type.
The engine is equipped with automatic fuel
regulation system, turbo-starter, anti-surge
system, temperature controller, constant speed
drive for AC generator and two speed drive for
hydraulic pump.

RD-33 Engine:
RD-33 engine is a Russian technology engine.
It is a fifth-generation engine, has 3 series such
as series 1, series 2, series 3. It is a turbo fan
engine. It is a bypass axial flow type with twin
spool axial compressor, annular combustion
chamber, two single stage turbine, afterburner
and variable area supersonic convergent
divergent nozzle engine.
It is fitted with MiG-29 fighter aircraft powered
by two interchangeable Kilmov RD33 engine. It
can produce max thrust of about 5040 kgf at
dry mode. It works under the principle of jet
propulsion. It is a bypass jet engine with low bypass ratio and a variable jet nozzle. It has a
bypass ratio of 0.45. This R-25 Engine has dimensions such as length of 4,229 mm (166.50 in),
diameter about of 1,040 mm (40.94 in) & dry weight of 1,055 kg (2,326 lb).
RD-33, Series 3 is meant for installation on aircraft MIG-29. The gas turbine engine of GTDE
(turbo-starter) is meant for Over speeding of high-pressure compressor rotor of engine during
start and driving of aircraft aggregates during operation of KCA (Aircraft Gear Box). The gas
turbine engine of GTDE is located on front wall of KCA casing. The engine operates in wide
envelope of altitudes and flight speeds.

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This engine has various components connected such as 4 low pressure stage, 9 high pressure
stage compressor blades for a continuous pressurization of the inlet air. It has annular type
Combustion chamber, do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a
continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus). These types of chambers tend to have very
uniform exit temperatures. Additionally, they also have the lowest pressure drop of the all
designs (on the order of 5%).

INVESTMENT CASTING
Introduction:-
Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a
refractory ceramic material. Once the ceramic coating material is dried and hardened, the
wax is melted out and it leaves an internal cavity inside the final product. Molten metal is
poured into the cavity of wax pattern. The metal solidifies within the ceramic cavity, cools,
and then the ceramic coating is removed from the metal casting. The result of this process is
a near-net precision metal component which can be used for a broad range of applications in
various industries.

Advantages of Investment Casting in Aerospace :-

• Manufacture Complex Geometry Parts:
Investment casting can produce parts with complex geometries, and can also
manufacture the internal channels, cavities and fine structures such as guide vanes,
turbine blades, structural elements and other complex structural components.

• Improved Surface Finish and Dimensional Accuracy

Parts produced by investment casting ensure excellent surface finish and dimensional
accuracy. This reduces the need for additional machining and improves the overall
aesthetics and functionality of aerospace components.

• Lightweight Design
A big advantage of castings is the transformation of expensive multi-component
manufacturing into single-piece castings, enabling lightweight designs of complex
parts. This integration eliminates complex assembly processes, reduces weight by
optimizing the structure and reducing assembly joints, improves part performance
and saves fuel consumption.

Applications of Investment Casting :-

Investment casting is widely used in the aerospace industry including aero engines, aerospace
devices, structural parts, generator components, etc. Investment casting is the preferred
production process for turbine blades primarily due to its capability to create intricate cooling
channels within the blades. These channels are vital for dissipating heat effectively, enabling
turbines to operate at higher temperatures while maintaining safety, efficiency, and
performance.

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• Engine Turbine Blades
Turbine blades for aero engines are one of the important applications of investment
casting. Investment casting enables the production of complex blade shapes and
internal cooling channels designed to improve cooling and mechanical performance
of the blade.

• Aero Engine Casing

Investment casting can produce complex casing structures, such as turbine nacelles
and combustor casings, to meet the performance requirements of aero engines.

• Gas Turbine Generator Components

Gas turbine generator components are one of the most important applications in
aviation. These components usually need to operate under high temperature, high
pressure and high-speed environment, and investment casting can provide superalloy
materials and complex internal cooling channels to meet their special working
requirements.

• Aerospace Structural Parts

Investment casting is also widely used in the manufacturing of aerospace structural
parts including aircraft fuselage parts, wing ribs, connectors and brackets, suspension
parts and other complex structural parts.

• Aerospace Structural Supports

Investment casting can also be used in the manufacture of aerospace structural
supports. These supports include frames, brackets and connectors, etc., which need
to have high strength, stiffness and durability to withstand the gravity and mechanical
stress of the spacecraft.

• Spacecraft Parts
In aerospace, investment casting is used to manufacture various parts for spacecraft.
Including rocket engine parts, propulsion system parts, attitude control devices, etc.

Process Flow in Investment Casting

1. Core making (ceramic core) 9. Melting and Pouring
2. Pattern making (urea/wax) 10. Knocking out of shell
3. Pattern assembly 11. Cutting of gating system
4. Shell assembly 12. Blasting
5. Vacuum ammonia drying 13. Core removal by Electro Hydro-
6. a. Eliquation (urea) shock Blasting
b. dewaxing(wax) 14. Fettling
7. Shell repairing 15. Inspection
8. Calcination

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Steps For Investment Casting :-
❖ Core Making:
In investment casting, a "core" is a pre-made form, typically made of materials like
sand, ceramic or wax used to create internal voids within a metal casting. These cores
are inserted into the mold cavity before pouring molten metal. Once the metal
solidifies, the core is removed leaving behind the desired internal features of the
casting. Generally, for manufacturing of blades ceramic core is used. It includes-
➢ Micro powder- electro corundum
Advantages of electro-corundum :
• High refractoriness. It can resistant to high temperatures up to 1900°C.
• High strength with Mohs hardness of 9.0.
• High density.
• Resistant to most acid and alkali.
• Chemical stability, so it won’t get eroded by molten steel.

➢ Titanium dioxide (Tio2)

• Lightweight Strength:
It exhibits the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metal, for
lightweight strength and durability.
• Corrosion Resistance:
When exposed to oxygen, titanium reacts, creating a thin layer of
titanium oxide on the surface of the metal. This layer protects the
titanium surface from corrosion and rust that could affect other metals
such as steel and aluminium.
• Durability:
Titanium is extremely durable, so it is more resistant to wear and tear,
and enhances the service life of equipment in which it is used.
• Temperature Resistance:
Titanium has an extremely high melting point, and exhibits minimal
creep when exposed to temperature fluctuations. This makes it
particularly valuable for aerospace and industrial components that
require exposure to extreme temperatures.
➢ Plasticizer – a) Paraffin
b)Polythene
c) Biz wax
Biz wax was used to form patterns necessary for the casting process. Paraffin
wax is used to affect the rheological properties, the injection temperature and
fluidity of the investment casting wax material.
➢ Pure alumina
Aluminium investment casting enables faster casting of parts with complex
geometries. And aluminium castings feature tighter dimensional tolerances,
greater alloy flexibility, and excellent surface finish.

The near-net shape products produced by this method require less machining and processing
than traditional casting methods because they emerge from the mold in near-net shape.

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 ❖ Core Preparation
Core mass is poured in injecting machine with the preparation of die to make grey
core. Raw materials for core are-
Filler 100gms, Disthene silimanite for core(Coarse 80%+ fine 20%)
Hydrolysate 28cc, Ethyl silicate 40= 1litre, Rectified spirit=100ml, HCL=7.5 ml,
Water=79 ml, Acetic acid=0.4 ml
Alkali, Caustic soda= 1.2 to 1.3ml
Lubricants
Core press mould
Chaplet- it is added projection on the core which holds and supports core in
the shell in proper position. It is made up of the same base metal of casting.

Flow diagram of casting

Procedure :-
Clean the press mould by rectified spirit. Heat the concave part of the press mould to
apply very little lubricant(Vaseline+ puffin) over it. Apply lubricant it on the convex
part also.
Set the chaplet and clamp the press mould in the injection press without disturbing
the chaplet. Place wax paper over injection hole and make small hole on the paper
and keep the cylinder over the paper.
Take specified quantity of hydrolysed ethyl silicate in a rubber container, add specific
quantity of NaOH solution and mix vigorously and uniformly.
Inject the mass (filler+ hydrolysate+ alkali) into the press mould under specified
pressure and keep under pressure for the specified time period.
Unclamp and open the press mould . keep one half(concave part) with core on the
heater and burn the rectified spirit( for proper bakingz0 in the core completing
keeping weight on the core.
Remove the core and cool to room temperature. dress the core and dip in the
stiffener(hydrolysed ethyl silicate=70%) till the bubbling disappears. Dry the core in air
for 15-20 mins and then kept in oven at 60–80-degree Celsius for 30 mins. Cool to

9
 room temperature. Repair by the paste of sillimanite and stiffener mixtures. Store the
core in the oven at 60-80 degree Celsius.

Pattern Making :-
Pattern is the exact replica of casting with some allowances. This casting takes the exact shape
of the pattern. In investment casting the wax and urea are used as pattern material, which are
lost after forming the mould by dewaxing process respectively. This gives a higher accuracy,
good surface quality as damage on removal of pattern is avoided during this process.
❖ Urea Pattern
Mass is taken to the electrical furnace and melted at 120°C. Lubricant (rectified spirit-
80% + castor oil -20%) is applied on the press mould. Mass is poured into the mould
keeping at 60-80°C temperature (overheating of pattern is not allowed). After
formation of crust of thickness 4.5mm at the in-gate portion on solidification, the extra
molten mass is removed. After 4 mins the full hardened pattern is taken out by
dismantling the press mould. It is then repaired and assembled with same pattern
mass & then stored with silica gel. As urea is hydroscopic in nature so it is very sensitive
towards moisture content. Therefore, the pattern making is generally carried out in
A/C room where the temp is maintained from 10-23°C.
➢ Lost Wax Pattern Method
In this process wax pattern is made from a die which is called master pattern. Then
this wax pattern is fixed with wax gating system. It is ceramic coated by dipping in
slurry & silica sand. This coating is done for 6 or 7 times. Then the mould is dried by
ammonia gas (Vacuum Ammonia Drying). It is then heated in a boiler autoclave with
a steam pressure(7-8 kg/cm²) so that the wax is melted out (Dewaxing process) from
the mould leaving a cavity having all the details of original pattern. This final mould
cavity is known as shell. Then it is taken to moulding section. To Improve resistivity of
mould, it is then heated up to 1000°C for 4-10 hrs called as calcination of mould cavity.
Advantages of urea pattern over lost-wax pattern
▪ Surface finish of high order.
▪ Closed tolerance limit
▪ High dimensional accuracy as shrinkage is comparatively less.
▪ Two ways for removal of shell (dissolved in water and can be melted out).
Limitation of urea pattern
▪ Arrangement of A/C room, storage in silica gel is essential to control temperature
and humidity.

Assembly Of Pattern :-
Inspection Of Pattern
The surface of the pattern is checked for the presence of cavities, blow holes, cracks, foreign
Inclusions, cracks on roots, peeling off from the core along the trailing edge of pattern. These
are repaired with a mass of composition ceresin 67-80% and technical Vaseline 20%. It is
permitted to store pattern with silica gel for not more than 24hrs. In this process the pattern
is assembled with gating systems having pouring cup, risers, runners, sprue, ingate etc.

Procedure

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 ▪ The working portion of press mould is lubricated with the lubricant (rectified spirit
80% +castor oil 20%)
▪ The press mould is assembled and the molten mass is poured at temperature 105-
110°C. Inspected and accepted patterns are accurately immersed in the mass to a
depth of 5-6mm of riser in the fixture and held it till solidification.
▪ The press mould is dismantled and the assembly is taken out.
Repairing of Assembly
During the assembly process a situation may rise in which joint surface of the pattern and
gating system do not undergo proper matching. Hence to recover from such trouble repairing
work is done. The repairing has the following composition:-
▪ 1. Compound mass-80%
▪ 2. MC 20 oil-5%
▪ 3. Petroleum jelly-15%
First of all, the compound mass(softer than paraffin wax) and petroleum jelly is mixed
thoroughly and the mixture is heated up to 90°C. Then to mixture MC20 oil is added and the
repairing mass is prepared.

Shell Making :-
Electro-corundum Shell
Raw materials are as follows:-
• Hydrolysed ethyl silicate 40(ethyl silicate 40 = 1000ml + rectified spirit= 1200ml + HCL = 7.5ml
+ distilled water = 90ml)
• Filler material- Fine disthene siliminate (concentrated)
•Stuccoing Material-Electro corundum for first coat grade N20 For subsequent coat grade N50
Ethyl silicate: produces a gel after reacting with water which acts as binding agent. Spirit: ethyl
silicate is not suitable in water; to make It soluble spirit is used as solvent. HCL: used as a
catalyst for accelerating the reaction between water and C₂(H3)4SiO2 to produce silica gel.

Preparation of slurry
Hydrolysed ethyl silicate 40 = 51.47litres + Disthene siliminate = 50kg. Above two materials
are mixed and stirred for a period of 30-40 minutes and then hold it for 8 hrs.

Coating
The blocks are dipped twice in the ceramic slurry prepared & the blocks are coated with a
uniform layer of electro-corundum sand. For 1st layer N20 grade and for subsequent layer
N40/NSO grade is used.

Vacuum Ammonia Drying :-

The coated layer of shell is held for 15-20 mins in air. Then dried in vacuum ammonia (25 mm
Hg) for 30-40 mins.

Dip coating:-

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This coat is given to avoid swelling on shell which are caused when the ammonia gas tries to
come out of shell in ammonia drying process. After giving required coat, dip in the slurry of
viscosity as follows:- 10-25 sec (for turbine blade) 15-20 sec (for NGV).

Eliquation / Dewaxing :-
Dewaxing is the process of removal of pattern map from the shell. For urea pattern eliquation
process is done in which shell is dipped in hot water bath so as to dissolve the urea in water;
hence urea pattern gets removed from the shell. Dewaxing process is done in a boiler
autoclave(steam pressure = 7-8kg/cm²) for 10-15mins at 95-100°C.

Shell Repairing :-
After dewaxing process the shell is dried in air for 2hrs. Then broken parts, washing holes are
repaired by the mass (Disthene siliminate 50% + Electro-corundum N20 grade 50% + sodium
silicate as per requirement). Repair of thickness of mass 5 to 8 mm is applied on washing holes.
Repair of thickness of mass 3 to 5 mm is applied on cracks. After repairing the shell, it is dried
in air for about 45 min.

Soaking and covering of shell :-

Soaking is required to clean the dust & other impurities inside the shell. Soaking is done in
vacuum. After soaking shell is covered by paper to avoid dust particle to go inside of shell
while moulding.

Calcination :-
Before calcination the shell is kept inside of chamber furnace at 130-150°C for 2hrs. Then it is
taken out to the calcination chamber(Vacuum Induction Heating Furnace) where it is kept at
980±10°C in the absence of atmospheric air for time ranging from 4 to 25hrs as per the
technology.
Reason
• Temperature shock reduction.
• To give strength to the shell.
• To avoid chilling effect.
• To avoid defects due to gas in the casting as a result of temperature difference.

Melting And Pouring :-

High frequency vacuum Induction furnace is used to melt the metal alloys and pouring.

1) Melting:-
a) Open induction melting-Here slag is given to avoid direct contact with the
atmospheric air to molten metal alloy. The furnace is started by feeding charging
material (master alloy + scrap). Here flux (CaO + MgO) is used to avoid surface
oxidation and heat loss. Pouring is done with crucible & slags are removed. Generally
stainless steel & grey cast Iron alloys are casted here.
b) Vacuum induction melting-in this process melting is done without atmospheric
contact in a vacuum chamber to avoid oxidation.
Vacuum Is created by the following pumps:
• Rotary pump(attached with booster pump)
• Diffusion pump (attached with backing pump)

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In vacuum Induction furnace there are 3 chambers:-
• Charging chamber-Here 80% scrap & 20% fresh pure alloy Is fed.
• Melting chamber -Here up to 1600°C is generated which is sufficient enough to melt
the charged alloy. This high temperature is generated by the principle of induction due
to magnetic flux of Cu coils with hollow shape. The Cu coils act as primary coils over
which there are pipe lines for water circulation during heating. Coil is wound with thick
insulations to avoid contact. The feed material in the crucible (25 kg capacity) itself
acts as secondary coil. EMF is induced which produces heat & melts the charge.
• Moulding chamber- There is a shell heater on which shell are kept at around 1000°C.

2) Pouring :-
Pouring of metal is a controlled and continuous process. The metal should be poured at a
uniform rate until the mould, gates, riser etc are filled up. Proper temperature is
maintained (1540 ± 10°C) with the help of pyrometer. Casting is allowed to be cooled for
15- 20hrs for solidification. As slag is always present in the molten metal alloy, it shouldn't
be allowed to enter into the mould to avoid formation of slag pockets in the casting. The
poured mould cavities faces are always covered with asbestos sheets to prevent quick
cooling for better uniform grain structure casting.

Knocking Out of Shell :-

By this process ceramic shell from the solidified casting is removed manually or mechanically.

Cutting Of Gating System :-

In this process gating system like gates, risers are cut by abrasive wheels and the desired
casting part is separated.

Blasting :-
This process is done to remove surface scaling oxides from the casting & to clean the surface.
Sand & slot are used as blasting particles with the compressed air (~5kgf/cm²) in blaster
machine.

Core Removal by Electro Hydro-shock Blasting :-

The cores are removed from the casting by shock treatment with (Electro Hydro-Shock
Vibrator). This machine creates pulses in water by the help of immersed electrodes, the water
softens the ceramic core which breaks on the application of vibration & comes out of casting.

Fettling :-
Miscible polishing/cleaning operation to get the desired shape & size to the very closed &
permissible tolerance by very small amount to get the desired process with the help of
grinding/abrasive wheels & use of emery paper.

Defects In Casting :-
Common defects found in casting are as follows:-
• Porosity
• Shrinkage
• Core shift
• Blow holes
• Crack

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 • Swelling
• Dimension defect

SINGLE CRYSTAL TURBINE BLADES

Gas turbines, as with all areas of power production, are highly

dependent on thermal efficiency to effectively produce power. There
are several ways in industry to increase the thermal efficiency of a gas
turbine power cycle. These methods of increasing efficiency are almost
always limited by the metallurgical properties of the turbine
components. The thermal efficiency of gas turbine can be greatly
increased with components that are able to withstand higher working
Diagram of Brayton cycle
temperatures. The use of single crystal superalloy turbine blades allows
for this to be possible. The single crystal turbine blades are able to operate at a higher working
temperature than crystalline turbine blade and thus are able to increase the thermal efficiency
of the gas turbine cycle.

GAS TURBINE CYCLES:-

Gas turbine power plant consists of a turbine that is connected to a compressor with a
combustion chamber in between. Atmospheric air is drawn into the compressor and
subsequently compressed and enters the combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber
air is mixed with a fuel and combusted. This increases the temperature of the air while
remaining at a constant pressure. The air now enters the turbine where expansion takes place
while producing useful output work. The higher the inlet air temperature is the greater
amount of useful work that is produced from the turbine.

Increasing Efficiency
This thermodynamic cycle is referred to as the Brayton Cycle. The efficiency of gas turbines is
given by the equation

Equation 1: Thermal efficiency of Brayton Cycle

Equation 1a: Thermal efficiency of Brayton Cycle in terms of pressure ratio

Brayton Cycles are often represented by temperature-entropy, or TS, diagrams. These
diagrams show the states of the air at each point of the Brayton cycle. An example of a typical
TS diagram is show in figure 1 below.

Figure 1b Increased max

Figure 1 TS diagram of Brayton Cycle temperature and pressure ratio
Figure 1a Increased pressure ratio

14
Figure 1a it can be seen that an increase in the relative pressure ratio will in fact increase the
thermal efficiency due to a decrease in the amount of heat added to the system. This is limited
by the maximum temperature of the cycle which occurs at the turbine inlet. This limit causes
a decrease in the overall work output of the cycle as the pressure ratio increase. To produce
the same amount of output work at an increased relative pressure ratio, an increase in mass
flow rate is needed which requires larger more expensive equipment. There are many
applications where a smaller turbine engine is needed, such as in vehicles.

The thermal efficiency can be increased while also increasing the level of output work by
increasing the temperature of the air at the inlet of the turbine. There are many applications
where a decrease in net work produced is unacceptable. An increase in the maximum
temperature of the cycle increases both efficiency and the total amount of work produced.

The increase in temperature also allows for a greater increase in the pressure ratio to further
improve efficiency while maintaining a high level of work output. This is displayed in figure 1b
above. Metallurgical properties limit how high the inlet temperature of the turbine can
operate at. Many methods are used to allow for turbine blades to perform under higher
temperature conditions. The development of the single crystal turbine blade made of a nickel
based super alloy allows for higher operating temperatures to be obtained.

Advantages:
Single crystal turbine blades have the mechanical advantage of being able to operate at a
much higher temperature than crystalline turbine blades. Given the ability to increase turbine
efficiency with higher temperatures, the development of these blades is very beneficial. The
turbine blades are able to operate at these high temperatures due to the single crystal
structure and the composition of the nickel-based superalloy.

Creep is a common cause of failure in turbine blades and is in fact the life limiting factor. When
temperatures of a material under high stress are raised to a critical point, the creep rate
quickly increases. The single crystal structure has the ability to withstand creep at higher
temperatures than crystalline turbine blades due to the lack of grain boundaries present.
Grain boundaries are an area of the microstructure where many defects and failure
mechanisms start which leads to creep occurring. The lack of these grain boundaries inhibits
creep from occurring in this way. Creep will still occur in single crystal turbine blades but due
to different mechanisms that occur at higher temperatures. The single crystal turbine blade
does not have grain boundaries along directions of axial stress which crystalline turbine
blades do. This also works to increases the creep strength.

Nickel based superalloy :-

There have been several superalloys that have been used in attempting to create a single
crystal turbine blade that is able to withstand the highest operating temperatures possible.
The composition of each element added is constantly being tested to allow for this
optimization. An example of a superalloy used for the purpose of single crystal turbine blades
is CMSX6. The composition of this super alloy is shown in the table below.

Table 1: Composition of CMSX-6 superalloy

15
Within the single crystal of the superalloy, there are two phases present, a gamma matrix and
a gamma prime precipitate. The presence of the gamma prime phase increases the
mechanical strength of the turbine blade by preventing dislocation motion. The gamma prime
phase has the unusual property of increasing strength as temperature increases. This is true
up to 973 degrees Celsius. This increase in strength cause by an increased in temperature
results in the superalloy being able to operate under higher temperatures.

The lack of grain boundaries in the turbine blade allows for the superalloy being used to
reduce the presence of elements that are usually used to strengthen grain boundaries, such
as carbon and boron. These elements reduce the creep strength and the melting temperature
of the alloy when found in more significant compositions. Without the need for significant
concentrations of these elements, the single crystal turbine blade is able to maintain its
strength and use at higher temperatures.

Manufacturing Process and Crystal Growth:-

There are several different manufacturing methods that are used in practice to create single
crystal turbine blades. The manufacturing methods all use the idea of directional
solidification, or autonomous direction solidification, where the direction of solidification is
controlled. A common method is the Bridgman method to grow single crystals. In this method
a casting furnace is used for crystal growth.

In this process, a mould must first be made of the blade. Molten wax is injected into a metallic
mould of the desired turbine blade and left to set and take the form of the turbine blade. The
wax model is then used to create a ceramic mould to use for production of the single crystal
turbine blades. When the ceramic mould is created, it is heated to raise the strength of the
mould. Once the mould is sufficient for use, the wax is melted out from the inside of the
mould. The mould is now filled with the molten form of the nickel-based superalloy. The
molten superalloy contained within the mould is placed in some type casting furnace, often a
vacuum induction melting furnace, which uses Bridgman techniques.

Crystal Growth in Bridgman Furnace

The furnace is set up with an area of high temperature which is above the melting
temperature, controlled by heaters, and low temperature below the melting zone, with a
gradient zone where the solid-liquid interface occurs. The superalloy is initially entirely within
the high temperature zone in molten form. The superalloy is then lowered extremely slowly,
at rates of about a few inches per hour, so that the solid liquid interface rises slowly up the
mould. The superalloy solidifies from the base up. The slow rate of solidification causes grains
to grow as dendrites in the direction in which the mould is pulled from the furnace.

The dendrites form only as columns in the one direction because of the effect of
constitutional undercooling. As the solid begins to form, a varying solute concentration is
found just ahead of the solid-liquid interface. The variance in solute throughout the liquid
causes a change in the equilibrium solidification temperature. At this point the temperature
of the liquid is lower than the equilibrium solidification temperature causing an undercooling
effect. Undercooling causes heat to be transferred from solid protrusions to the liquid
promoting dendritic growth.

16
 The rate at which dendrites grow is directly related to the amount of undercooling present.
Dendrites that are aligned at an angle have to grow faster to keep up with the dendrites taking
a more direct, vertical direction. To grow faster, a greater amount of undercooling is needed
which means these angled dendrites grow further back from the solid-liquid
interface. Eventually the more favourable vertical dendrites overtake the angled dendrites
that are further back.

To remove grain boundaries from the turbine blade, a grain selector is attached to the bottom
of the wax mould. The grain selector is a spiral shaped tube that is not much larger than a
single dendrite grain. As the vertical dendrites grow at the base of the mould, only one
dendrite will be able to fit through the spiral and eventually into the turbine blade mould.
Thus, once the solidification is complete, the turbine blade is created entirely from one grain
and becomes a single crystal turbine blade.

Improvements on the Method:-

The problem with the Bridgman method is that a complex, expensive casting furnace is
needed to produce the desired product. Another manufacturing method has been created
that takes away the need for the sample to be slowly pulled out of the furnace. This simplifies
and speeds up the process making it more cost efficient. The mechanical properties are also
improved as the solidification is more rapid causing a reduction in the amount of segregation
amongst the sample. This process uses a mould made of Al203 ceramic, which is coated with
a layer that inhibits nucleation from occurring.

The sample is set up so there is controlled heating keeping it molten all the way through with
a water-cooled chill plate set at the base of the sample. The spiral grain selector is used in the
same way in this method. The heating is turned off and as the furnace cools down,
solidification begins. The layer of the mould delays nucleation from occurring until a
substantial amount of undercooling is produced. At this point nucleation begins at the base
of the sample and dendrites form in the same way. A single dendrite passes through the grain
selector and the single crystal turbine blade is produced. The controlled heating and amount
of chilling at the base can be varied to optimize mechanical properties.

17
 FORGING
Forging is a manufacturing process where metal is shaped by localized compressive forces
exerted manually or with power. It involves heating the metal to a specific temperature
followed by applying pressure to shape it into desired forms. Forging is known for producing
strong and durable parts with improved mechanical properties due to the grain structure
refinement and absence of porosity. It is widely used in automotive, aerospace, and
manufacturing industries for producing high-strength components.
In aerospace industry such as HAL, the forge department is crucial for producing high-
strength, reliable components such as high and low compressor blades various jet-engines like
RD-33, R-25, AL31FP, BMU and other engine components. This process is essential for creating
customized, high-performance parts that withstand extreme conditions, contributing to the
safety, high efficiency, and reliability of aircraft and spacecraft.

Types Of Forging Processes :-

Various types of forging processes are as follows –

• Open Die Drop Forging • Roll Forging

• Closed Die Drop Forging • Upset Forging
• Press Forging • Precision forging
• Drop Forging • Isothermal Forging
• Induction Forging • Multidirectional Forging
• Envelope Forging • Hammer Forging

Out of these processes, certain forging processes performed in forge shop are –

❖ Drop Forging :-
Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then "dropped" into
the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There are two types of
drop forging: open-die drop forging and impression-die (or closed-die) drop forging.
As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully
enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does.
❖ Open Die Drop Forging :-
It is also known as Free forging. It is a fundamental and
versatile forging technique used to produce large, custom-
shaped metal parts with excellent mechanical properties. In
open-die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms the
workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil.

Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies do
not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except were
contacted by the dies. The operator therefore needs to
orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. 2T Free Forge Hammer
The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially

18
 shaped surface for specialized operations. It may also orient the grain to increase
strength in the required direction.
❖ Closed Die Drop Forging :-
It is also called “Impression-die forging”. The metal is placed in
a die resembling the Mold, which is attached to an anvil.
Usually, the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then
dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill
the die cavities. Depending on the size and complexity of the
part, the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick
succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, 3T Stamping Hammer
forming what is referred to as "flash". The flash cools more
rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the metal in the
die, so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to
completely fill the die cavity. After forging, the flash is removed.
❖ Press Forging :-
Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs
from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The press forging
operation can be done either cold or hot condition. The main advantage of press
forging is that by controlling the compression rate of the press forging operation, the
internal strain can be controlled. Thus, it results in uniform grain structure throughout
the product.

❖ Isothermal Forging :-
Isothermal forging is a process by which the
materials and the die are heated to the same
temperature. Adiabatic heating is used to assist in
the deformation of the material, meaning the
strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is
commonly used for forging aluminium , which has
a lower forging temperature than steels.
Forging temperatures for aluminum are around
430 °C (806 °F), while steels and super alloys can
be 930 to 1,260 °C (1,710 to 2,300 °F). The higher Isothermal Hydraulic Press
degree of ductility was observed mainly due to the
increment in the volume fraction of finer grains which were oriented in the basal slip
as the weaker pyramidal texture were obtained during multi-step isothermal forging.

19
 Hydraulic Presses are used for these processes. It is of two based on the type of
heating procedure which are as follows.
Resistance Isotherm Forging Induction Isotherm Forging
Heating Method: Employs electrical Heating Method: Utilizes
resistance heating where the workpiece electromagnetic induction to generate
and dies are heated by passing an heat within the metal workpiece and
electric current through them. The dies. Induction heating involves placing
material's inherent electrical resistance the workpiece in a rapidly alternating
generates heat. magnetic field, causing it to heat up due
to electrical resistance.

Temperature Control: Provides

Temperature Control: While also precise and rapid heating, allowing for
effective in maintaining uniform quick adjustments and uniform
temperatures, it may be slower to adjust temperature maintenance throughout
compared to induction heating, as the the process.
heating rate depends on the electrical
resistance of the material. Efficiency: Typically, more energy-
efficient and faster than resistance
Efficiency: Can be less energy-efficient heating due to direct heating of the
than induction heating, particularly for material without intermediate heat
materials with low electrical resistance. transfer mechanisms.

Applications: Suitable for applications Applications: Well-suited for high-

where precise control over temperature volume production and parts requiring
is needed, but the heating rate is less rapid and precise temperature control.
critical.
Equipment: Requires induction coils
Equipment: Involves using electrodes and power supplies capable of
or resistance heaters in contact with the generating the necessary
workpiece and/or dies. electromagnetic fields.

❖ Precision Forging :-
Precision forging is a specialized forging process designed to produce components
with high dimensional accuracy and excellent surface finish. Thus, it produces
components to its near net shape and doesn’t need any further machining operation.
This process is particularly beneficial for creating complex shapes and critical parts
with stringent tolerances. Manufacturing critical parts like turbine blades, compressor
blades are performed using this process.
❖ Electro-upsetting :-
Electric upsetting is a highly efficient pre-shaping forging process used to create
components with specific end shapes. By utilizing localized heating induced by passing
high electricity and controlled deformation, it produces high-quality parts with
enhanced mechanical properties. Upset forging is usually done in special high-speed
machines called crank presses. The machines are usually set up to work in the

20
 horizontal plane but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic
press. The standard upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple
cavities. The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from one cavity to the
next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally
against the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every
cycle, then a finished part will be produced with every cycle.

Various types of equipment used in in forge shop are as follows-

Hammers Crank Press
• 0.63T • 1000 TP
• 1600 TP
• 1.00T
• 2500 TP
• 2.00T
• 4000 TP
• 3.00T • 1000 TCP

FF Hammers Screw Press

• 150 Kgs • 1600 TP
• 1300 TP
• 250 Kgs
• 1000 TP
• 750 Kgs • 400 TP and 500 TP
• 2000 Kgs

Horizontal Upsetters Hydraulic Press & Extrusion Press

• 400 T • 630T (2 nos)
• 250 TP Extrusion Press
• 800 T

Apart from these different types of hammers and presses, there are trimming presses and
heating furnaces present near every hammer and press. Also, there are machines for sand
blasting, shot blasting and pickling operations.

❖ Trimming Press :-
After forging of a component (except in precision
forging), the extra material from the component called as
“flash” comes out to the outer edges of the job piece.
Thus, this flush is needed to be removed. This operation
of removing extra material from outer edges of the job
piece is known as trimming. This process ensures that the
final product meets the desired dimensions. Various
trimming presses are present with different hammering
powers.
110 T Trimming Press

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 ❖ Heat Furnaces :-
Heat furnaces are used during hot forging process. These furnaces are used for heating
the billets to its recrystallisation temperature before deformation into desired shape
by forging. It is done because it gives high ductility of material during deformation,
refined and uniform grain structure, increased grain strength and increased surface
qualities.

Areas or Section Under Forge Shop are as follows-

01-SHOP 601-SHOP DIE SHOP (07)

➢ Crank Press Section ➢ Isothermal Forging ➢ CNC Milling Section
➢ Hammer Forging Section ➢ Wire-cut EDM
Section ➢ Precision Forging Section
➢ Free Forging Section Section ➢ Grinding Section
➢ Upsetting Section ➢ Extrusion Forging ➢ Conventional
➢ Pickling Section Section Machining
➢ Heat Treatment ➢ Screw Press Forging ➢ Element Bending for
Section Section Furnace and Salt Bath
➢ Cutting Section ➢ Electro-Upsetting ➢ Die Finishing
➢ Turning Section Forging Section
➢ Forging Finishing ➢ POMKL Checking
Section Section

Different Types of Forming Machines :-

There are 4 basic types of forging machines. They are as follows-
I. Drop Hammer
II. Screw Press
III. Crank Press
IV. Hydraulic Press

22
 Machine Type Load Rating(F/KN) Available Energy Ratio of
per Blow(W/KJ) w:f/m×10^3
Drop Hammer 12250 1.6 1.3
Screw Press 12250 8.0 604
Crank Press 12250 20 16
Hydraulic Press 12250 250 200

Forge Shop Operations :-

Various operations are performed in the forge shop for producing compressor blades required
for different engines. High and low compressor blades of RD-33 engine is one of them. The
consequent operations are given below in the chronological order.

1. Die Preparation
Different types of dies are prepared by CNC and NC
milling. Dies are made of different dimensions and
different shapes according to shape and size of
different stages of compressor blades. There are 9
stages of high compressor blade and 4 stages of low
compressor blades. Thus 13 different types of dyes are
prepared using CNC milling operation. These dies
should be made up of material that can withstand the
stresses of the forging process and has good wear
resistance. Thus, carbide is used as the material.

2. Billet Cutting
Raw materials are in the form of cylindrical rods of different materials. And the
compressor blades are typically made from high-temperature superalloys like
titanium alloy. These cylindrical rods are cut into small pieces of required size called
billets. This cutting operation is performed on various types of cutter machine such as
horizontal band saw machine, etc.

3. Facing, Turning & Deburring Operations

After billet cutting, deburring operation is done on the lathe machine to eliminate the
sharp edges of the billet. Then, the obtained billet is of generally of greater size than
required. Thus, the billet is then performed facing and plane turning operation on the
lathe machine to reduce its size into requires dimensions and also to remove the outer
oxide layer of the billet.

4. Electro-Upsetting
In this process, a certain part of the blade is heated by passing excess amount of
electricity and then applied horizontal pressure such that the required area gets
controlled deformation having greater cross-sectional area at specified places.

23
5. Dressing of Defects
After the process of electro-upsetting, different types of defects arise on the surface
of the workpiece due to addition of heat and application of forces at a specific
position. Defects like surface cracks, porosity, etc comes out on the surface. In order
to eliminate these types of defects grinding and polishing operations are performed.

6. Forging
The job piece is heated to its recrystallisation temperature inside the heat furnace and
then forged 2 to 3 times using its die to give a pre-shape of the blade. This is known
as Pre-forging process. This process helps in getting the uniform grain flow inside the
material. Thus, it results in greater strength of the blade. Then job piece is then forged
after heating again to recrystallisation temperature to get the final product.

7. Trimming
After forging, flashes are produced on the outer edges of job piece. Thus, to remove
the flashes trimming operation is executed. The job piece is placed on the trimming
press having a die in the upper arm and the lower part is hollow. Thus, the hammer
blows out to push the blade. Hence the flashes are left out and the blade comes out
from the bottom of the machine.

8. Coining
After forging, there might occur such that the shape of the blade may be slightly
deformed. So, to reform the shape of the blade and to make it straight, we use a
process called coining.

9. Grinding
To make the surface clean and smooth, grinding operation is performed. Pneumatic
grinders with different size and shapes of grinding wheels are used for this purpose.

10.Pickling
The surface of the blade contains rough material deposition even after grinding. Thus,
to make the make the surface clean and smooth three types of surface cleaning
operations are performed. These are sand blasting, shot blasting and hydro-sand
blasting. In sand blasting, the blades are put in a mixture and silica sand is poured into
it. Mixing with a certain rpm within occurs such that the impurities from the surface is
removed due to bombardment of sand balls with the surface impurities.

11.Heat Treatment
The blade is then sent for the heat treatment process to increase its material
properties such as strength, hardness, grain structure, etc. Heat treatment also helps
in releasing the internal stress of the workpiece.

12.Free Tree Rooting

The end of the blade is made dovetail root with the help of wire-cut EDM machine.
This dovetail root is made to lock and fix the blades in the compressor rotor shaft. In

24
 the wire-cut EDM machine, the material is cut by a thin copper wire in which high
amount of current is passed through it. Due to high amount of current passing through
the wire, it produces heat at the specified place and accounts in the cutting the
material. This cutting technique produces high accurate products.

Raw Materials for Forging :-

For preparation of die used in hammers and presses, carbide is used. It is because it
has higher strength and it can bear relatively more wear and tear conditions as
compared to that of the tungsten and nickel-based superalloys. For low compressor
blades used in RD-33 engine, titanium-based superalloy is used as the raw material
which deals with normal or cold air. And for high compressor blades of RD-33 engine,
nickel-based superalloy is used which deals with the highly compressed hot air. Some
size and weight of different materials for different forging process are listed as below-
Size & Weight of Forgings
Aluminium Alloy
Forging Weight(Kg) Size(mm)
Die Forging 8.0 370×150×50
Free Forging 28.2 503×223×93

Titanium Alloy
Die Forging 3.3 124×110×100
Free Forging 9.2 150×135×100

Alloy Steels
Die Forging 13.4 124×110×100
20 Φ150×415
Free Forging 65.0 310×210×130

Nickel Alloy
Die Forging 2.3 166×125×25
Free Forging 14.0 130×110×110

25
 GEAR MECHANISM
Brief description of gears :-
The aviation industry is known for its constant pursuit of innovation and advanced
engineering solutions. Aircraft are equipped with numerous complex systems and
components to enable safe and efficient travel through the air. One such crucial component
is gears and gearboxes. Gears play a vital role in the aviation industry and have a significant
impact on the performance, safety, and durability of aircraft. In this blog post, we will explore
why gears and gearboxes are important in the aviation industry.
1. Power Transmission:
Aircraft require effective transmission of power to propel and control their
movement. Gears and gearboxes are integral in this power transmission process. They
play a key role in transmitting power from the engines to various systems, such as the
propellers or jet engines. Gears allow the engines to transfer rotational motion to
generate thrust, enabling the aircraft to accelerate, climb, and manoeuvre. Gearboxes
help in controlling the speed and torque of the engines, ensuring optimal performance
and fuel efficiency.
2. Reduction of Rotational Speed:
In aviation, engines typically operate at very high rotational speeds, while other
aircraft systems require lower speeds for optimal functioning. Gears and gearboxes
are used to reduce the rotational speed of the engines and transmit it to different
components, such as generators, hydraulic pumps, or flight control systems. By
reducing the rotational speed, gears and gearboxes enable these systems to operate
efficiently and safely within their designed parameters.
3. Mechanical Advantage and Force Multiplication:
Gears are renowned for their ability to provide mechanical advantage and force
multiplication. In the aviation industry, this is particularly important for flight control
systems. By utilizing gears and gearboxes, the pilot’s input can be translated into
precise and amplified movement of control surfaces such as ailerons, elevators, and
rudders. This allows for responsive and accurate control of the aircraft during various
flight phases, including take-off, landing, and manoeuvring.
4. Load Distribution and Durability:
Aircraft engines generate immense power and torque, which can place significant
stress on various components. Gears and gearboxes aid in distributing the load and
reducing stress on critical parts, improving overall durability and longevity. They help
balance the forces acting on the engines and enable the aircraft to withstand high-
stress conditions, such as during rapid acceleration or sudden changes in flight
trajectory.
5. Backup and Redundancy:
Reliability and redundancy are paramount in aviation to ensure the safety of
passengers and crew. Gears and gearboxes play a crucial role in providing backup

26
 systems. In the event of a failure in the primary gear system, redundant gear sets or
gearboxes can be engaged to maintain the functionality of essential systems. This
redundancy ensures that even in the face of mechanical issues, the aircraft can
continue to operate safely until maintenance or repairs can be performed.
Gears and gearboxes are indispensable components in the aviation industry. From power
transmission and force multiplication to load distribution and redundancy, they play a vital
role in ensuring safe and efficient aircraft operations. The continuous advancements in gear
technology contribute to the overall improvement in aircraft performance, reliability, and
passenger safety in the dynamic world of aviation.

Aircraft Gear Manufacturing :-

An aircraft is probably one of the most demanding industrial products in terms of technical
performance. Raising a lump of metal into the air against the pull of gravity requires reducing
the weight of every single component. However, these components must also be durable, as
device malfunction or component failure can lead directly to an accident. Gears are not
exempt from this threat.
Aircraft carry a variety of large and small gearboxes with approximately one thousand gear
wheels distributing the high-speed rotational movement generated by aircraft engines to
mechanisms located throughout the airframe. Each of these gears has been engineered to
improve its toughness and weight. Gear weight can be reduced by creating smaller and
thinner gears, but the thinner the gear, the less durable it becomes. Exposing parts under-
engineered for strength to excessive force can cause deformation. Contact surfaces must be
hard enough to resist deformation, but manufacturing an entire gear wheel from hard
material risks brittleness and potential gear tooth fracture. This problem is overcome using a
treatment technology called carburizing, which hardens the contact surfaces of meshing gear
teeth by adding carbon to the surface layer via a quenching and tempering process. This
otherwise retains the mechanical qualities of steel, preserving the toughness needed to
absorb shock loads.
Finding steel of sufficient hardness that readily absorbs carbon and making improvements to
the surface hardening process are the most important challenges facing the development of
gears for aircraft. The heating and cooling performed during tempering and quenching also
distort the shape of gear teeth that must be dimensionally accurate to exert forces according
to design. For this reason, the shape of each tooth must be corrected by polishing them one
by one after the carburizing process. The labour involved in producing gears for aircraft
resembles the efforts of a skilled artisan.

1. Fixed Gear :-
As the name implies, fixed landing gear is that which is permanently attached to the
aircraft. It always remains extended and exposed, both when the aircraft is on the
ground and while it’s in the air. Fixed landing gear tends to be both simple and easy
to maintain. It’s commonly installed on small aircraft and often consists of two wheels
that extend out on angled axles from the front-centre portion of the fuselage.
Pontoons are also characterized as a fixed style of landing gear.
While fixed landing gear is simple, easy to maintain, and a cost-effective solution, it does have
some notable drawbacks. For instance, the fixed nature of the landing gear creates constant
drag, which can restrict aerodynamics and also reduce fuel efficiency.

27
 2. Retractable Gear :-
Retractable landing gear is popular on commercial airliners and aircraft that typically
fly at fast speeds and high altitudes. As the name implies, retractable landing gear is
landing equipment that either folds or stows inside of the plane while it is in the air.
Perhaps the biggest benefit of retractable landing gear is that it can reduce an
airplane’s drag, improve its aerodynamics, and increase its overall cruising speed and
glide distance. This type of landing gear tends to be operated either electronically,
manually, or hydraulically.
More advanced mechanisms are necessary with retractable landing gear. The makeup
tends to involve a series of gear actuators, gear extensions, pumps, and gear switch.
Retractable landing gear does tend to add some weight to the aircraft, which is why it
tends to be installed on commercial airliners or larger planes that can adequately
handle it and commit to maintaining it. It tends to be more complex and more
expensive than the other types of landing gear on this list.

3. Tricycle Gear :-
Tricycle landing gear is the most common type as it pertains to general aviation
airplanes, which tend to be small or medium-sized. In fact, just about every general
aviation aircraft that’s been designed and manufactured within the past decade has
likely been outfitted with tricycle landing gear. Tricycle landing gear consists of two
main wheels that are located under the fuselage. A third wheel is typically located
near the front, or nose, of the aircraft.
Though tricycle gear tends to be a bit heavier than other types of landing gear, it offers
many advantages for the smaller aircraft that it comes equipped on. For instance, it
makes steering easier. It also makes take offs and landings more stable and easier to
perform and it reduces the risk of ground loop. Tricycle gear tends to be fixed and
fairings are also commonly installed over each wheel, which helps improve
aerodynamics and improve overall speed.
Tricycle gear may also be retractable. Common retractable tricycle gear designs often
involve the two wheels retracting either into the fuselage or underneath the wings,
while the front wheel may retract into the nose. Retractable tricycle gear can further
help eliminate drag and improve aerodynamics.

4. Tailwheel Gear :-
Tailwheel landing gear used to be the most popular type of landing gear on small
aircraft, but has been largely replaced by the tricycle setup. Tailwheel landing gear is
described by a three-wheel setup – two large wheels located under the front-central
part of the fuselage and a single, smaller wheel located near the back, or tail, of the
aircraft. It was a popular landing gear configuration in the early days of aircraft design
and manufacturing, specifically the period from the 1920s through the 1950s. This
type of landing gear is still used today, albeit sparingly.

Some of its benefits include:

• It’s simple to implement.

28
 • The two front tires make it easy for aircraft to land on various types of terrain. For this
reason, the tailwheel setup is still commonly used on bush planes that tend to take off
and land on grass or unpaved runways.
• It’s an ideal setup for soft-field operations.
However, the tailwheel setup also came with many disadvantages that were eventually
corrected as aircraft design and engineering progressed over time.
Some of the key disadvantages of tailwheel landing gear include:
• Safety issues: Since landing has to be done with the two front wheels and the rear
tailwheel, it can be difficult for pilots to see the ground. This was corrected with the
tricycle landing gear where the rear wheel was moved to the front of the plane.
• Aircraft can nose over during take offs and landings if too much of the brake is applied.
• The aircraft is more susceptible to tilting or wings coming into contact with the ground
during landing.
• It’s more difficult to manoeuvre aircraft during taxing.

Process Manufacturing of Gears:-

➢ Casting (Optional):
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a
mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is known as casting, which is ejected or broken out of the
mold to complete the process. If the raw material is not available in cylindrical form,
raw material (cast iron) gathered will be casted in the form of a cylinder.
➢ Sawing:
Sawing is a process wherein a narrow slit is cut into the work piece by a tool consisting
of a series of narrowly spaced teeth, called a saw blade. Sawing is used to cut off is
used to separate work parts into two or more pieces or to cut-off unwanted parts.
Typically, the materials used for the making of saw are High Speed Steel (HSS), Carbon
Steel, High-speed Edge, and Tungsten Carbide tipped blades.
Carbon Steel was chosen as the material for the saw blades because of its general
utility for a small lot and low cost. The raw material brought from the suppliers will be
cut in the specified number of parts i.e. 100 parts, and sizes with the help of sawing
machine. The thickness of the stock after sawing would be 15mm.
➢ Turning:
Turning is a cutting operation in which a single point
cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a cylinder. Turning operation is
performed on a machine tool called Lathe. Various
types of turning operations can be performed such as
Facing, Contour turning, Chamfering, and Threading.
Conventional turning will be applied to the parts, in
which the tool is fed longitudinally at a certain depth of
cut to reduce the diameter of the stock. The outer
diameter of the stock after turning would be 60mm.
➢ Pocket Milling

29
 Milling is a machining operation in which the workpiece is fed past a rotating tool with
multiple Cu cutting tool is called singers types of in face milling, the cutter axis is
perpendicular to the surfacing axis is parallel to the surface. Pocket milling is a type of
andre poteste surfaces Pocket milling will be used to create shallow circle thickness of
5mm.

➢ Drilling:
Drilling is an operation used to create round
holes in work pieces. Cutting tool for drilling
operation is called a drill bit and machining
tool is called a drill press. Drill bit comes in
various sizes in order to create holes of
different sizes. Two types of drilling holes
exist i.e. Through holes and Blind holes.
Through holes are the ones in which drill
exists opposite side of the work piece
whereas blind holes are the ones in which the
drill doesn't exit the opposite side of the work
piece. In this project, after pocket milling
drilling operation will be used to cut 8 holes
of 6mm, 8 holes of 15mm and 1 hole of 12mm
in the centre.
➢ HOBBING
Hobbing is a machining process for gear cutting,
cutting splines, and cutting sprockets on a hobbing
machine. It is a special type of milling machine. The
teeth or splines of the gear are progressively cut
into the material by a series of cuts made by a
cutting tool called a hob. It is the most widely used
gear cutting process for creating spur and helical
gears.
If a spur gear is being produced, then the hob is
angled equal to the hells angle of the hob, if a helical gear is being produced then the
angle must be increased by the same amount as the helix angle of the helical gear.
Compared to other gear forming processes, hobbing is quick, inexpensive and quite
accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. After drilling,
hobbing operation will be applied to the stock to generate spur gears with a vertical
length of 6mm.

30
 ➢ Gear Broaching:
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called broach. There are
two types of broaching: linear and rotary. Broaching can be used to generate external
as well as Internal gears. In this project we will use gear broaching process to generate
internal gear with 34 teeth in the work pieces after the hobbing process.

KCA GEAR BOX,TURBO-STARTER,TURBO-

GENERATOR
INTRODUCTION:-
The gas generator is a crucial component of the KCA turbo-starter engine used in the Su-30
aircraft. It is responsible for producing the high-pressure, high-temperature gases necessary
to drive the turbine, which in turn provides the mechanical power needed to start the main
engines. Let's explore the workings of the gas generator in detail.

Components of the KCA Turbo-starter Engine :-

➢ Gas Generator:
➢ Compressor: Draws in ambient air, compresses it to a higher pressure.
➢ Combustion Chamber: Where the compressed air is mixed with fuel and
ignited to produce high-temperature, high-pressure gases.
➢ Turbine: Extracts energy from the hot gases produced in the combustion
chamber, driving the compressor and generating mechanical power.

➢ Gearbox:
➢ Transfers the mechanical power from the turbine to the main engines,
ensuring they reach the necessary speed for start-up.

➢ Starter Motor:
➢ An auxiliary motor used to initiate the rotation of the gas generator’s
compressor during the starting sequence.

➢ Ignition System:
➢ Provides the spark needed to ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion
chamber.

31
 ➢ Control System:
➢ Manages the entire start-up sequence, ensuring that fuel flow, ignition, and
turbine speed are accurately controlled.

Working Principle of the Turbo-starter Engine :-

➢ Initial Activation:
➢ The engine start sequence is initiated by the pilot, which sends electrical power
to the starter motor. This motor begins to rotate the compressor of the gas
generator.
➢ Spool-Up:
➢ As the compressor spins up, it draws in ambient air and compresses it. The
increased pressure and temperature of the air prepare it for efficient
combustion.
➢ Fuel Injection and Ignition:
➢ When the compressor reaches a sufficient speed, fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber. An igniter provides a spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture,
starting the combustion process.
➢ Gas Generation:
➢ The combustion process generates high-pressure, high-temperature gases.
These gases expand rapidly and flow through the turbine.
➢ Turbine Operation:
➢ The turbine extracts energy from the expanding gases, converting it into
mechanical power. This power drives the compressor (to sustain the gas
generation process) and the gearbox.
➢ Engine Start:
➢ The gearbox transfers mechanical power from the turbine to the aircraft’s
main engines, causing them to spin up to the required speed for self-sustained
operation. This includes reaching the necessary RPM for air compression and
fuel ignition in the main engines.
➢ Disengagement:
➢ Once the main engines are operating independently and have reached a stable
state, the turbo-starter engine disengages. The main engines continue to run
on their own, without further assistance from the starter.

Advantages of the Turbo-starter System :-

➢ Autonomous Operation:
➢ Unlike ground-based start systems, the onboard turbo-starter allows the Su-
30 to start its engines without external support. This is critical for rapid
deployment and operational readiness.

➢ Quick and Efficient Starts:

➢ The turbo-starter provides a fast and reliable means to bring the main engines
to operational status, essential for military operations requiring quick response
times.

32
 ➢ Compact Design:
➢ The KCA starter is designed to be compact and lightweight, minimizing its
impact on the overall weight and balance of the aircraft.
➢ Reliability:
➢ Built to endure the harsh conditions of military aviation, the turbo-starter
ensures reliable engine starts under various environmental conditions.

Integration with Su-30 Systems

➢ Engine Control Unit (ECU):
➢ The ECU governs the start-up sequence, monitoring parameters such as
turbine speed, fuel flow, and temperature. It ensures that each step of the
start-up process occurs in the correct order and within safe operational limits.
➢ Safety Mechanisms:
➢ The control system includes safety features to prevent over-speeding,
overheating, and other potential failures. If any parameter deviates from the
norm, the system can abort the start sequence to prevent damage.
➢ Operational Feedback:
➢ The turbo-starter system provides real-time feedback to the pilot and ground
crew, indicating the status of the start sequence and any potential issues.

Operational Context
➢ Combat Readiness:
➢ The ability to start engines quickly and reliably is crucial for the Su-30, allowing
it to be deployed rapidly in response to threats.
➢ Remote Operations:
➢ The autonomous nature of the turbo-starter enables the aircraft to operate
from remote or undeveloped airfields where ground-based start equipment
may not be available.
➢ Maintenance and Durability:
➢ The KCA starter is designed for ease of maintenance and long-term durability,
ensuring that it can perform reliably over many start cycles with minimal
downtime.
In summary, the KCA turbo-starter engine used in the Su-30 is a sophisticated and vital
component that ensures the high-performance fighter aircraft can start its main engines
efficiently and reliably. Its integration with the aircraft's systems and its robust design makes
it an essential element for the Su-30’s operational effectiveness.

How the gas generator works in KCA turbo starter engine :-

The gas generator is a crucial component of the KCA turbo-starter engine used in the Su-30
aircraft. It is responsible for producing the high-pressure, high-temperature gases necessary to
drive the turbine, which in turn provides the mechanical power needed to start the main engines.
Let's explore the workings of the gas generator in detail.

Components of the Gas Generator

➢ Compressor:

33
 ➢ Function: The compressor draws in ambient air, compresses it, and delivers it
to the combustion chamber at a higher pressure.
➢ Types: Typically, axial or centrifugal compressors are used. In many turbo-
starters, a centrifugal compressor is common due to its efficiency and compact
design.

➢ Combustion Chamber:
➢ Function: This is where the compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited to
produce high-temperature, high-pressure combustion gases.
➢ Design: The combustion chamber is designed to ensure efficient mixing of fuel
and air, and to allow stable combustion over a wide range of operating
conditions.

➢ Turbine:
➢ Function: The turbine is driven by the hot gases produced in the combustion
chamber. It extracts energy from these gases to drive the compressor and the
gearbox.
➢ Configuration: Often consists of one or more stages, with each stage having a
set of rotating blades (rotor) and stationary vanes (stator).

Working Principle of the Gas Generator :-

➢ Air Intake and Compression:

➢ Initial Air Intake: Ambient air enters the compressor through an intake.
➢ Compression Process: The compressor, powered by the turbine, compresses
the incoming air. The compression process increases the air pressure and
temperature.

➢ Fuel Injection and Mixing:

➢ Fuel Delivery: Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber through fuel
nozzles. The fuel delivery system ensures the precise amount of fuel is injected
based on the engine's requirements.
➢ Air-Fuel Mixing: The high-pressure air from the compressor mixes with the
injected fuel in the combustion chamber. Efficient mixing is crucial for stable
and complete combustion.

➢ Ignition and Combustion:

➢ Ignition: An igniter (spark plug or similar device) provides the initial spark to
ignite the fuel-air mixture. Once combustion starts, the high temperature in
the chamber ensures continuous combustion.
➢ Combustion Process: The fuel-air mixture burns rapidly, producing high-
temperature, high-pressure combustion gases. The combustion process
converts the chemical energy of the fuel into thermal energy.

➢ Energy Extraction:

34
 ➢ Hot Gas Flow: The high-pressure, high-temperature gases expand and flow
through the turbine.
➢ Turbine Operation: The turbine extracts energy from the expanding gases.
This energy is used to drive the compressor and the gearbox. The turbine
blades convert the thermal energy of the gases into mechanical energy.

➢ Exhaust:
➢ Exhaust Gases: After passing through the turbine, the gases are expelled at
lower pressure and temperature. These gases are then directed through the
exhaust system.

Role of the Gas Generator in the KCA Turbo-starter:-

The gas generator's primary role in the KCA turbo-starter engine is to produce the necessary
high-energy gases to drive the turbine. The turbine, in turn, provides the mechanical power
needed to:
➢ Drive the compressor, ensuring a continuous supply of compressed air for the
combustion process.
➢ Power the gearbox, which transmits mechanical energy to the main engines of
the Su-30, initiating their start sequence.

Efficiency and Control :-

➢ Control Systems:
➢ Engine Control Unit (ECU): The ECU manages the operation of the gas
generator, controlling fuel flow, ignition timing, and compressor speed. It
ensures optimal performance and efficiency.
➢ Safety Features: The control system monitors critical parameters such as
pressure, temperature, and rotational speed. It includes safety mechanisms to
prevent over-speeding, over-temperature, and other potential hazards.

➢ Efficiency:
➢ Combustion Efficiency: The design of the combustion chamber and the fuel
injection system ensures efficient combustion, maximizing the energy
extracted from the fuel.
➢ Thermodynamic Efficiency: The compressor and turbine are designed to
operate efficiently over a wide range of conditions, ensuring the gas generator
delivers consistent performance.

TURBO STARTER ENGINE

35
How Does KCA Gearbox Works :-
The gearbox in the KCA turbo-starter engine used in the Su-30 is a critical component that
ensures the transfer of mechanical power from the turbine to the main engines. Its primary
function is to manage and modulate the power generated by the turbo-starter so that it can
effectively start the aircraft's main engines. Let's dive into the detailed workings of the KCA
gearbox and its integration with the Su-30's engines.

Components of the KCA Gearbox :-

➢ Input Shaft:
➢ Receives mechanical power from the turbine of the turbo-starter engine.

➢ Gear Train:
➢ A series of gears that reduce or adjust the rotational speed and torque from
the input shaft to the output shaft.
➢ Includes spur gears, helical gears, or a combination of both to achieve the
desired gear reduction and smooth power transmission.

➢ Output Shaft:
➢ Transmits the adjusted mechanical power to the main engines’ accessory drive
or starter mechanism.

➢ Clutches and Couplings:

➢ Engage and disengage the gearbox from the main engines as needed. This
allows for the decoupling of the turbo-starter once the main engines are self-
sustaining.

➢ Lubrication System:
➢ Ensures that all moving parts within the gearbox are properly lubricated to
minimize wear and friction, thereby extending the lifespan of the gearbox
components.

➢ Control Mechanisms:
➢ Regulate the operation of the gearbox, including the engagement and
disengagement processes. This is typically managed by the aircraft's engine
control unit (ECU).

Working Principle of the KCA Gearbox :-

➢ Power Transfer:
➢ The turbine in the turbo-starter generates mechanical power by converting the
energy from high-pressure, high-temperature gases produced by the gas
generator.
➢ This mechanical power is delivered to the input shaft of the gearbox.

➢ Speed Reduction and Torque Adjustment:

36
 ➢ The gear train within the gearbox reduces the high rotational speed of the
input shaft to a lower speed that is suitable for the main engines.
➢ This process involves increasing the torque to ensure sufficient force is
available to turn the main engines’ shafts.

➢ Engagement with Main Engines:

➢ The adjusted mechanical power is transmitted via the output shaft to the main
engines.
➢ Clutches and couplings within the gearbox ensure that the power is smoothly
transferred, allowing the main engines to spool up to the necessary RPM for
start-up.

➢ Main Engine Start-Up:

➢ As the main engines receive power from the gearbox, they begin to rotate,
compressing air and initiating their own fuel combustion process.
➢ Once the main engines reach a self-sustaining speed, they can continue to
operate independently.

➢ Disengagement:
➢ After the main engines are running independently, the control mechanisms
disengage the gearbox from the main engines.
➢ The turbo-starter is then powered down or returned to a standby state until
needed again.

Integration with RD-33 Systems :-

➢ Engine Control Unit (ECU):

➢ The ECU orchestrates the entire start-up sequence, including the operation of
the gearbox.
➢ It ensures that the gearbox engages and disengages at the appropriate times,
monitors the speed and torque, and manages the lubrication system.

➢ Safety and Monitoring:

➢ The gearbox is equipped with sensors and monitoring systems to detect issues
such as overheating, excessive wear, or misalignment.
➢ These systems alert the pilot and ground crew to potential problems, ensuring
timely maintenance and preventing failures during critical operations.

Advantages of the KCA Gearbox :-

➢ Efficient Power Transmission:
➢ The gearbox efficiently transfers power from the turbo-starter to the main
engines, ensuring a quick and reliable start.

➢ Durability and Reliability:

37
 ➢ Built to withstand the demanding operational environment of a military
aircraft, the gearbox is robust and reliable, ensuring long-term performance
with minimal maintenance.

➢ Smooth Operation:
➢ The inclusion of clutches and couplings ensures that the engagement and
disengagement of the gearbox are smooth, minimizing stress on the main
engines and other components.

➢ Autonomous Capability:
➢ By integrating with the aircraft's control systems, the gearbox allows for
autonomous engine starts without the need for external support equipment,
enhancing operational flexibility.

KCA gearbox TURBO JET ENGINE

KDA ENGINE :-
The KDA engine, a term generally associated with the main engines of the SU-30, is started
using the KCA turbo-starter. The KCA turbo-starter is essentially a small gas turbine engine that
provides the necessary mechanical power to initiate the operation of the KDA engines. Here’s
a detailed explanation of how the KDA engine is started using the KCA turbo-starter:

Components Involved :
1. KCA Turbo-starter:
• A small gas turbine engine that generates mechanical power to start the main
engines.
• Components include a compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, gearbox,
and various control systems.

2. KDA Engine:
• The main engine(s) of the Su-30, typically a turbofan engine.
• Components include an intake, fan, compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine, and exhaust.

3. Gearbox:
• Connects the turbo-starter to the main engines.
• Transfers mechanical power from the turbo-starter to the main engines.

38
 4. Engine Control Unit (ECU):
• Manages the start-up sequence and monitors engine parameters.
Working Principle :-

I. Initiation:
• The pilot initiates the start sequence, sending an electrical signal to activate
the KCA turbo-starter.

II. Turbo-starter Spool-Up:

• The starter motor within the KCA begins to spin, driving the compressor.
• The compressor draws in ambient air, compressing it and sending it to the
combustion chamber.

III. Fuel Injection and Ignition:

• Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber of the KCA turbostarter.
• An igniter sparks, igniting the fuel-air mixture and starting the combustion
process.

IV. Gas Generation:

• The combustion process generates high-pressure, high-temperature gases.
• These gases expand and pass through the turbine, generating mechanical
power.

V. Power Transmission:
• The turbine drives the gearbox, which reduces the speed and increases the
torque of the mechanical power.
• The mechanical power is transmitted from the gearbox to the KDA engine's
starter mechanism.

VI. Main Engine Spool-Up:

• The mechanical power from the gearbox causes the main engine's compressor
and turbine to begin rotating.
• As the KDA engine spools up, its own compressor starts drawing in and
compressing air.

VII. Fuel Injection and Ignition in the KDA Engine:

• When the KDA engine reaches a sufficient speed, fuel is injected into its
combustion chamber.
• An igniter sparks, igniting the fuel-air mixture and starting the combustion
process in the main engine.

VIII. Self-Sustained Operation:

• The KDA engine continues to accelerate and eventually reaches a self-
sustaining speed where it can maintain operation without assistance from the
turbo-starter.
• The main engine’s compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine operate in a
continuous cycle, generating thrust.
39
 IX. Disengagement:
• Once the KDA engine is running independently, the KCA turbo-starter
disengages.
• The gearbox decouples the turbo-starter from the main engine, and the turbo-
starter is powered down or placed in standby mode.

Integration and Control :-

1. ECU Management:
• The Engine Control Unit (ECU) manages the entire start-up process, ensuring
that each step occurs in the correct sequence.
• It monitors parameters such as rotational speed, fuel flow, temperature, and
pressure to ensure safe and efficient operation.

2. Safety Mechanisms:
• The ECU includes safety mechanisms to prevent over-speeding, over-
temperature, and other potential malfunctions.
• If any parameter deviates from normal limits, the ECU can abort the start
sequence to prevent damage.

Operational Context :-
1. Rapid Deployment:
• The use of the KCA turbo-starter allows for rapid engine start-up, essential for
combat readiness and quick deployment.

2. Autonomous Operation:
• The system is designed to start the main engines without the need for external
ground support, enhancing operational flexibility and autonomy.

3. Reliability:
• The robust design of the KCA turbo-starter and its integration with the KDA
engines ensure reliable operation under various conditions.

Summery :-
The KCA turbo-starter in the Su-30 works by providing the initial mechanical power needed
to start the KDA main engines. It achieves this through a sequence of steps involving air
compression, fuel combustion, and power transmission via a gearbox. The entire process is
carefully managed by the aircraft's ECU to ensure a smooth and reliable start-up. This system
enables the Su-30 to achieve quick, autonomous engine starts, critical for its operational
effectiveness.

Functioning of KDA :-
Once the KDA engine receives mechanical power from the KCA turbo-starter via the gearbox,
it undergoes a sequence of operations to transition from an inert state to fully operational.
The KDA engine, being a turbofan or turbojet engine, follows a well-defined process to

40
achieve self-sustaining operation and generate thrust. Here’s an elaboration on how the KDA
engine works after receiving power from the KCA gearbox:

Components of the KDA Engine :-

1. Intake: Draws ambient air into the engine
2. Fan (for turbofan engines): Increases the mass of air entering the engine, some of
which bypasses the core to provide additional thrust.
3. Compressor: Compresses the incoming air to a high pressure.
4. Combustion Chamber: Mixes the compressed air with fuel and ignites the mixture
to produce high-pressure, high-temperature gases.
5. Turbine: Extracts energy from the hot gases to drive the compressor and the fan.
6. Exhaust: Expels the gases at high velocity to produce thrust.

Operational Steps After Receiving Power :-

1. Initial Spool-Up:
• The mechanical power transmitted from the KCA gearbox causes the KDA
engine’s compressor and turbine to begin rotating.
• This initial rotation is necessary to draw air into the engine and begin the
compression process.

2. Air Compression:
• As the compressor rotates, it draws in ambient air through the intake.
• The air passes through multiple stages of the compressor, each stage further
increasing the pressure and temperature of the air.

3. Fuel Injection and Ignition:

• When the compressor reaches a sufficient speed and the pressure of the
compressed air is adequate, fuel is injected into the combustion chamber.
• An igniter provides a spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture, starting the
combustion process.

4. Combustion:
• The combustion chamber mixes the compressed air with fuel and ignites the
mixture.
• The resulting combustion produces high-pressure, high-temperature gases.

5. Turbine Operation:
• The high-energy gases from the combustion chamber expand rapidly and pass
through the turbine.
• The turbine blades extract energy from the gases, which drives the compressor
(and, in the case of a turbofan, the fan) via a shaft.

6. Acceleration to Self-Sustaining Speed:

• The turbine’s extraction of energy allows the compressor to continue
increasing its speed, drawing in more air and compressing it further.

41
 • The engine continues to accelerate until it reaches a self-sustaining speed
where it no longer requires assistance from the KCA turbo-starter.

7. Disengagement of KCA Turbo-starter:

• Once the KDA engine reaches a stable operational speed and can sustain the
combustion process independently, the KCA turbo-starter disengages.
• The gearbox decouples, stopping the transmission of power from the turbo-
starter to the main engine.

8. Steady-State Operation:
• The KDA engine now operates independently. The continuous process of air
intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust generates a sustained thrust.
• The engine control unit (ECU) manages fuel flow, air intake, and other
parameters to maintain optimal performance.

ELECTROPLATING PROCESS

Electroplating bath
Electroplating is an essential technique in the aerospace industry, utilized to apply a thin metal
layer onto a substrate. This process enhances the strength, durability, and corrosion resistance
of components. This technique is achieved through hydrolysis, where an electric current
promotes the reduction of dissolved metal cations, resulting in a coherent metal coating on
the electrode.
After the manufacturing of the Blades & other components of the Engine from the various
shops, are brought to the electroplating shop for the enhancing its properties. The
electroplating shop is divided to various sections, such as Coating, painting & Rubber section.
Electroplating procedure can be done by the following processes such as Pickling, Coating etc.

42
Pickling is a metal surface treatment used to remove impurities, such as stains, inorganic
contaminants, and rust or scale from ferrous metals, copper, precious metals and aluminum
alloys. Generally, Material surface often contains some impurities or foreign atoms at the
surface that may affect usage of the product. Surface treatment methods are very necessary
for applying the coating in a very effective way on the surface.
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a halocarbon with the formula C2HCl3, commonly used as an
industrial degreasing solvent. It is a clear, colorless, non-flammable, volatile liquid with a
chloroform-like pleasant mild smell and sweet taste. It has been widely used in degreasing
and cleaning actions since the 1920s because of its low cost, low flammability, low toxicity and
high effectivity as a solvent. The materials to be cleaned are kept inside the hot bath at the
vapor state containing the Trichloroethylene at a temperature of nearly 200℃ for about 2
hours. Then after the hot degreasing surface treatment the material is cooled in the fresh
water bath at a temperature 25℃. The fresh water is continuously supplied to the container
through pipes to prevent any type of the chemical reaction with other elements which may
affect the surface.
A solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is usually used to re-move the
rust of carbon steel and oxide layer from its surface. Hydrochloric acid compared to other
acids that have been used, for example, nitric acid and phosphoric acid, is safer for the
environment, since it does not release effluents containing nitrogen and phosphorus which
can cause eutrophication problems in freshwater bodies. The oxidation layer composed of
different types of iron oxides (Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and FeO) reacts with hydro-chloric acid to form
ferrous chloride through reactions.
Fe2O3 + Fe + 6HCl → 3 FeCl2 + 3H2O (1)
Fe3O4 + Fe + 8HCl → 4 FeCl2 + 4 H2O (2)
FeO + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2O (3)
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2 (4)
Hydrogen in solution, can act as a reducer to dissolve and reduce Fe3O4 into Fe2O3 in the
pickling solution. However, the hydrogen formed adsorbed on the base surface can penetrate
the metal layer, which can weaken the binding forces of the layer and reduce the deformation
capacity of the metal.

Decopperisation:
Decopperisation in the aerospace industry refers to the removal of copper and copper alloys
from metal surfaces. Decopperising agents such as Na2Cr2O7, (NH4)2S2O8 are used to react
with the copper or its alloys and detach from the surface forming copper solution. Sodium
dichromate (Na2Cr2O7) is primarily used in combination with Hydrosulphuric acid(H2SO4).
This solution is very effective for dissolving, oxidizing with copper & removing the layer from
the surface.

Nickel-strike:
Nickel-strike is suitable for galvanic and electroless treatment. It etches the surface of the
workpiece, dissolves the contained chromium and creates a base layer of nickel in the course
of this reaction. This micro-thin nickel layer now forms a reliably strong adhesive base for

43
further coatings. Already nickel-plated objects that are exposed to air over a longer period of
time lose the typical properties of the coating. These are then so-called passivated nickel
layers, which a dip in Nickel-Strike reactivates the properties of the base material.

Nickel plating:
Nickel electroplating is a widely used method for depositing a layer of nickel onto a substrate,
typically metal, to enhance its appearance, improve corrosion resistance, increase wear
resistance, and improve other surface properties. The substrate is submerged in an electrolyte
solution containing nickel salts, such as nickel sulfate (NiSO4), nickel chloride (NiCl2), and boric
acid (H3BO3), which acts as a buffer. The substrate acts as the cathode in the solution. The
nickel anode is dissolved into the electrolyte to form nickel ions (Ni2+). Just like in
electrodeposition processes, the ions travel through the solution and deposit on the cathode
forming a nickel layer on the surface of the material. After Ni plating, the substrate is rinsed
in the fresh water thoroughly to remove any residual plating solution. The plated substrate is
dried to prevent any water spots or oxidation.

Silver strike:
Silver strike in electroplating refers to a preliminary plating process where a thin layer of silver
is deposited onto a substrate before the main silver plating. The silver strike bath typically
contains a low concentration of silver ions, along with other chemicals to help promote good
adhesion. Common ingredients include silver cyanide (AgCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN),
although non-cyanide baths are also available.

Silver Plating:
Silver Plating is a method of depositing the silver layer onto the material for enhancing its
properties such as corrosion resistance, better appearance and other properties. The
substrate, now with a thin layer of silver from the strike process, undergoes the main silver
plating. The substrate now is dipped into solution containing high concentrations of Ag+ ions
acting as a buffer for flowing of the ions through it. The substrate acts as a cathode & Ag is
used as a anode. By passing electric current through the medium, the Ag+ ions deposit onto
the substrate forming a silver layer. Then the material is rinsed in the fresh water solution for
removing the effects of the chemical reagents on it.

Oxide phosphating:
Oxide phosphating (phosphate conversion coating) is a chemical process that creates a
protective layer of metal-phosphate crystals on the surface of metal substrates. It enhances
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and adhesion of subsequent coatings. This process is
usually used for plating of the gears used in the aerospace industry. The substrate is immersed
in a phosphating solution, typically containing phosphoric acid and metal ions (zinc,
manganese, or iron) depending upon applications. Manganese Phosphate procedure is Known
for its excellent wear resistance and lubricity. It is often used in applications where reducing
friction and wear is critical, such as in engine components and gears.

Anodizing:

44
Anodizing is an electrochemical process used to increase the thickness of the natural oxide
layer on the surface of metal parts, most commonly aluminum. This oxide layer enhances the
metal's corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and aesthetic appearance. The metal surface is
thoroughly cleaned to remove any contaminants such as grease, oil, and dirt by dipping in the
alkaline solution. The metal part is immersed in an electrolyte solution, typically sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), although other acids like chromic acid (Cr2O3) or phosphoric acid(H3PO4) can also
be used for specific applications.
A direct current (DC) is applied to the anode and cathode, causing oxygen ions from the
electrolyte to migrate towards the anode (the metal part), where they react with the metal to
form a thicker oxide layer. The porous nature of the anodized layer must be sealed to enhance
corrosion resistance and lock in any dyes. Sealing is typically done by immersing the anodized
part in hot deionized water, steam, or a sealing solution, which hydrates the oxide layer and
closes the pores.

Electropolishing:
Electropolishing, also known as electrochemical polishing, is a surface finishing process that
removes a thin layer of material from a metal workpiece to improve its surface finish, remove
burrs, and enhance corrosion resistance. This process is the reverse of electroplating and is
used to smooth and polish metal surfaces, resulting in a bright, smooth, and clean finish. The
workpiece is immersed in an electrolytic bath containing a solution of acids such as mixtures
of sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid. This process is used for polishing the small parts like nuts,
bolts etc.

Waxing:
Waxing in the context of electroplating refers to using wax as a resist to protect certain areas
of a metal surface from being plated. Wax can create intricate patterns or designs on the metal
surface by selectively protecting certain areas from the plating solution. The thickness of the
wax coating is controlled to ensure it provides effective masking without being too thick or
uneven. The wax-coated workpiece is immersed in the electroplating bath. The exposed areas
receive the plating, while the wax-covered areas are protected.

45
 HEAT TREATMENT

Heat treatment is process of heating or cooling to its extreme temperature to achieve the
desired properties of the material. It is a controlled process in which materials impart some
properties such as hardening, wear resistance etc. due to the alternation of the
microstructures.

Normalizing:
Normalizing process is a heat treatment process for making material softer but does not
produce the uniform material properties as produced with an annealing process. The purpose
of the normalizing is to relieve the internal stresses, refine the grain structure, and to improve
the machinability.

Quenching:
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a workpiece in water, oil or air to obtain certain material
properties. A type of heat treatment, quenching prevents undesired low-temperature
processes, such as phase transformations, from occurring. Quenching can reduce the crystal
grain size of both metallic and plastic materials, increasing their hardness.

Tempering:
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of iron-based
alloys Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness,
and is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the critical point for a certain
period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air. The exact temperature determines the
amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the specific composition of the alloy and
on the desired properties in the finished product.

Ageing:
Ageing is a process used to increase strength by producing precipitates of the alloying material
within the metal structure. Solution treatment is the heating of an alloy to a suitable
temperature, holding it at that temperature long enough to cause one or more constituents

46
to enter into a solid solution and then cooling it rapidly enough to hold these constituents in
solution. Subsequent precipitation heat treatments allow controlled release of these
constituents either naturally (at room temperature) or artificially (at higher temperatures).

Nitriding:
Nitriding is a heat treatment process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create
a case-hardened surface. This process can be done by 3 methods such as gas nitriding, salt
bath nitriding, and plasma nitriding. In gas nitriding method, the heated material is exposed
to nitrogen rich NH3 gas in a chamber. When the ammonia gas comes in contact with the
heated material surface, it dissociates into the nitrogen & hydrogen gas. The nitrogen gas
diffuses to the heated metal surface forming a nitride layer. The thickness and phase
constitution of the resulting nitriding layers can be selected and the process optimized for the
particular properties required.

Carburizing:
Carburizing is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon while the metal
is heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide.
The intent is to make the metal harder and more wear resistant. Depending on the amount of
time and temperature, the affected area can vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times
and higher temperatures typically increase the depth of carbon diffusion. The gears are
manufactured by the dual hardening process in which the inside core material have HRC 32-
35 & outside teeth of high carbon steel having HRC nearly about 65.

BLADE PROCESSING
The blades after being processed from forge and foundry shop comes to blade shop for further
processing. Various types of blades used in engine coming for processing in blade shop are
follows-

• Low pressure inlet guide vanes

• Low pressure compressor stator blades(4 stages)
• Low pressure compressor rotor blades(4 stages)
• High pressure inlet guide vanes
• High pressure compressor stator blades(9 stages)
• High pressure compressor rotor blades(9 stages)
• High pressure nozzle inlet guide vanes
• High pressure turbine blades
• Low pressure nozzle inlet guide vanes
• Low pressure turbine blades

Special Operations Performed on Blade :-

Various types of machining operations are performed on various types of blades. These are as
follows-
1) 5 Axis CNC Profile Milling
✓ HPC Stator Blades

47
 ✓ LPC Stator Blades
✓ HPC Rotor Blades
✓ LPC Rotor Blades
✓ Low Pressure Inlet Guide Vanes
✓ Flaps
2) Cold Rolling
✓ HPC Stator Blades
✓ HPC Rotor Blades
3) Surface Griding & Creep Feed Grinding
✓ HPT Rotor Blades
✓ LPT Rotor Blades
4) Surface Grinding & EDM
✓ High Pressure Nozzle Guide Vanes
✓ Low Pressure Nozzle Guide Vanes

Brief Descriptions on Special Operations :-

5 Axis CNC Profile Milling
5-axis machining is the process of moving a product or
cutting tool along five separate axes at the same time
using a CNC machine. This permits the machining of
extremely complicated components, which is why 5-
axis is particularly popular in aerospace applications. On
a 5-axis machining centre, the cutting tool travels across
the X, Y, and Z linear axes while rotating on the A and B
axes to approach the workpiece from any angle. The
aerofoil profile of compressor blades are machined in
one step-up in conventional copy milling operation, followed by copy grinding. In this
process the blade is held at root /platform using an adapter and is supported at the
centre. Part programme is run for subject blade using latest software like RCS, Turbo
soft plus etc, to achieve the final dimension of blade. After the process, only minor
polishing/buffing operation is required to achieve the final blade profile condition.
Cold Rolling
Cold rolling is a process by which the sheet metal or strip stock is introduced between
rollers and then compressed and squeezed. The amount of strain introduced
determines the hardness and other material properties of the finished product. After
performing the initial machining on the root portion of the blades, the blades are cold
rolled between 2 rollers of machine at room temperature to increase the surface area
by about 1.5 times. The fatigue strength of the blade gets increased by cold rolling
process. After performing the aerofoil profile, the elongated tip and the side portion
of the blade are trimmed to required dimensions.
The blades are held at the dovetail root portion in an adapter & clamped rigidly. A set
of inserts (with hardness HRC 60-62) having preformed profiles are fitted on the rollers
made of die steel. The blades are pushed along its length in between the set of the
rollers on which the inserts are mounted. Mixture of rectified spirit (50%) & castor oil
(50%) is used as coolant/lubrication in the process. The profile of cold rolled blade is

48
checked in a special optical mechanical device called 'POMKOL' If the desired profile
is not achieved, then the blade is subjected to repeated cold rolling.
Surface Grinding & Creep Feed Grinding
The process is used for machining of roots & shroud portion of the low pressure and
high-pressure turbine blades.
Machining is carried out by the creeping action of the crushed grinding wheel onto the
job in one pass, in this case the roots and shroud portion of turbine blades. The total
depth of grinding is very high whereas the feed is kept very low. Diamond crushers are
used for forming grinding wheels to required size and shape.

Horizontal Surface Grinding Creed Feeding Grinding Operation

Polishing & Buffing

Polishing is the process of smoothing a surface using abrasive materials. It typically
involves multiple stages, using progressively finer abrasives to remove surface
imperfections and scratches. Thus, blades after grinding operation undergo polishing
to make the surface smooth and clean. Medium grit abrasives are used to smooth out
the surface further, reducing the depth of any remaining scratches from the rough
polishing stage. Then fine grit abrasives are used to remove minor scratches and to
start bringing out the shine.
This is done using fine polishing tools in a pneumatic grinder machine. Very fine
abrasives or polishing compounds are used to achieve a high-gloss finish. This stage
involves using specific polishing compounds designed for the material being polished.
After polishing buffing is done to bring more surface finish to the surface blades.
Buffing is the process of refining and enhancing the polished surface to achieve a high-
gloss finish. It often involves the use of a soft cloth wheel and buffing compounds.

Polishing of workpiece
Buffing Operation

49
 SHEET METAL FORMATION
Sheet metal pieces are simply formed into thin and flat sheets. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.
Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or
leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. The metal sheets are then
can be easily deformed into various outer and inner casings as well as various flame tubes.
The advantages of metal sheets are it provides high strength, good dimensional accuracy, good
surface finish, relatively low cost, economical mass production for large quantities.

Sheet Metalworking Terminology:-

▪ Punch-and-Die - tooling to perform cutting, bending, and drawing.
▪ Stamping press machine tool that performs most sheet metal operations
▪ Stampings - sheet metal products.

Sheet Metal Forming Processes:-

Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and lower forces than bulk forming. This
process involves the use of various techniques to shape and manipulate the metal into desired
forms without removing any material. The main categories of sheet metal forming are-
▪ Bending
▪ Deep Drawing
▪ Blanking & Punching
▪ Stamping

➢ Bending
Bending is defined as the straining of the sheet metal around a straight edge. It
involves deforming the metal along a straight axis to create an angle or curve. And the
tools and equipment used are press brakes, bending dies, and rollers. Various types of
bending process are air bending, bottoming(coining), wipe bending, roll bending, V-
bending, etc.

➢ Deep Drawing

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 Deep drawing is a widely used sheet metal forming process that involves the
transformation of flat sheet metal into a hollow shape with a depth greater than its
diameter. It involves pulling a sheet metal blank into a die cavity using a punch to
create a hollow or cup-shaped part. The tools used for this process are punches and
dies, hydraulic presses, etc.

➢ Blanking and punching

Blanking and punching are similar sheet metal cutting operations that involve cutting
the sheet metal along a closed outline. If the part that is cut out is the desired product
from a sheet of metal , then the operation is called blanking and the product is called
blank. If the part cut out from the metal sheet after press is a waste product and the
remaining sheet of metal is the required product, then this operation is called
punching.

➢ Stamping
Stamping is a cold-forming process that uses dies and stamping presses to transform
flat sheet metal into different shapes. Different types of stamping operations are
blanking, piercing, coining, punching, bending, forming, drawing, etc. In this process,
metal sheet is placed inside a press fitted with die and are cut into appropriate size.

The stamping process is extensively used in the aerospace industry due to its ability to
produce high-precision, high-strength, and lightweight components. Stamped parts
are used in engines for heat shields, brackets, and other components that require
precision and durability. Components of exhaust systems, such as clamps and flanges,

51
 are often produced through stamping due to the need for high heat resistance and
precision.

Equipment:-
➢ Mechanical Press
The working principle of a mechanical press involves converting the rotational motion
of the flywheel into linear motion through a crankshaft or eccentric mechanism.
Mechanical presses are a cornerstone of modern manufacturing, offering speed,
precision, and versatility across various industries. Understanding their components,

working principles, and applications is essential for optimizing their use in production
processes.
➢ Hydraulic Press
A hydraulic press is a machine that uses a hydraulic cylinder to
generate a compressive force. It is widely used in manufacturing
processes to form, shape, and cut materials such as metals,
plastics, and composites. The hydraulic press operates based on
Pascal's principle, which states that pressure applied to a
confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.
Manufacturing of Metal Honeycomb Structures :-
A honeycomb structure has light weight and high resistance to bending forces, used for aircraft
and aerospace components. There are two methods of manufacturing honeycomb materials.
They are Expansion process and Corrugation process.

52
Equipment for Sheet-metal Forming :-
Press selection for sheet metal forming operations depends on:
1. Type of forming operation
2. Size and shape of workpieces
3. Number of slides
4. Maximum force required
5. Type of mechanical, hydraulic, and computer controls
6. Features for changing dies
The manufacturing of combustion chambers, outer and inner casings, flame tubes, and other
essential components of an aeroengine involves intricate sheet metal formation processes.
This begins with the selection of high-strength, heat-resistant alloys, typically nickel-based
superalloys, which are essential for withstanding the extreme temperatures and stresses
encountered during operation. The metal sheets are initially cut into precise shapes using
laser cutting or water jet techniques to ensure accuracy and minimize material waste.
These cut sheets undergo the above-mentioned processes to form the desired component.
Finally, the components are subjected to rigorous quality control checks, including non-
destructive testing methods like ultrasonic inspection and X-ray imaging, to detect any
potential flaws. The assembly of these meticulously crafted parts results in a high-
performance combustion system, capable of delivering the efficiency and reliability
demanded in modern aeroengines.

Welding Technology :-
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by
causing coalescence. This is typically done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler
material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint.
Welding can be performed using various energy sources, including a gas flame, an electric arc,
a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. Various types of metal sheets are welded
to together to increase the strength and machinability. Welding is also required for joining
sheets to form inner and outer casings. Various types of welding techniques are used for
different materials. Type of welding to be performed depends on the type of material , its
size, thickness, melting points and other various factors. Some of the welding techniques used
are as follows-

I. Arc Welding: It is a popular and versatile welding process that uses an electric arc
to create the heat necessary to melt and join metals. The arc is formed between an
electrode and the workpiece, producing temperatures high enough to melt the base
metal and, if used, a filler material. Arc welding is also of following types-
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW): It is one of the most widely
used arc welding processes. It involves the
use of a consumable electrode coated with
flux to lay the weld. An electric current is
used to form an arc between the electrode
and the metals to be joined. The process is
relatively simple but requires a skilled
operator to produce high-quality welds.

53
 • Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW/MIG): It is a widely used welding
process that involves the use of a continuous solid wire electrode fed through
a welding gun, which is shielded by an inert or semi-inert gas. This process is
known for its efficiency, ease of use, and versatility.
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW/TIG): It is a highly precise
welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld. An inert gas, typically argon or helium, is used to shield the weld
area from atmospheric contamination. TIG welding is known for its ability to
produce high-quality, clean welds on a wide range of metals.

II. Gas Welding: Gas Welding, also known as oxy-fuel welding, is a welding process
that uses a flame produced by the combustion of a fuel gas (typically acetylene) and
oxygen to melt and join metals. This versatile and relatively simple welding method
has been widely used in various industries for decades, particularly in situations
where precision and control are essential.
III. Resistance Welding: Resistance welding is a group of welding processes that
generate heat through the resistance to electric current flow at the interface of the
welding surfaces. The primary advantage of resistance welding is its ability to produce
high-quality welds rapidly without the need for additional filler materials.
• Spot Welding: Spot welding, a subset of resistance welding, is a process
used to join two or more metal sheets together by applying pressure and heat
from an electric current to the weld area. The process is named "spot welding"
because it typically welds discrete spots along the overlapping areas of the
workpieces. It is widely used in industries where sheet metal needs to be
joined quickly and reliably, such as in automotive manufacturing.

54
 • Seam Welding: It is a type of resistance welding process that produces a
continuous, leak-tight weld along the joint by using rotating wheel-shaped
electrodes. The process is similar to spot welding but is used for making
continuous seams, making it ideal for applications where a hermetic seal is necessary,
such as in the manufacturing of fuel tanks, radiators, and other containers.

From the precision and control of TIG welding to the speed and efficiency of spot and seam
welding, each method brings unique advantages that enhance the fabrication and assembly
of metal components.

AGGREGATES
Techno Generator:
Techno generator, often referred to as the "starter generator," in an aero engine is a critical
component that serves dual purposes: starting the engine and generating electrical power
once the engine is running. Initially, when the aircraft engine is off, the starter generator acts
as a starter motor. It uses electrical power from the aircraft's battery to turn the engine's
compressor, initiating the start-up process. Once the engine reaches a self-sustaining speed,
the starter generator switches roles to become an electrical generator. It then supplies power
to the aircraft's electrical systems, including avionics, lighting, and other essential
components.

Thermocouple:
There are 12 no. of thermocouple fitted at starting of bypass duct radially. We know that above
500°C is measured by thermocouple. At mixture this are fitted to measure the exhaust gas
temperature, which comes out from the main combustion chamber. It is fitted over the
mixture casing. All thermocouple connection is going to this unit and from this unit the signal
goes to LGU.

Compensating Cable Harness:

It is the connector between thermocouple junction and LGU.

Rotational Speed Sensor:

There are 6 no. of rotational speed used in the engine. 3 no. of indicator and 3 no. of gearbox
indicate the N2 rpm (HPCR) to LGU.

Ionization Flame Detector:

55
For sensing flame in the afterburner giving the signal to the pickup signal phase AC less than
150V and the value of ionization current in the circuit of the pickup is 5200 mA.
There are 2 ionization flame detector fitted over adjustable nozzle gear box. When flame was
obtained in after burner combustion chamber, this unit indicates to the elbow, which fitted in
the bypass duct. The bypass air comes through the hole and goes to the 2 ionization detectors
for cooling purpose.

Flame Position Indicator:

It was attached with the spring unit. Through this unit the LGU knows the flap position.

Oil Lever Indicator:

It was over oil tank. This unit indicates the oil level to LGU. The capacity of the oil tank is 1
liters.

Surge Warning Switch:

It is fitted near after burner radiator. This unit was connected with the annuciator transducer.
When the engine was surged it gets sensed through annuciator transducer and indicates to
the LGU to take necessary action.

Vibration sensor:
It is fitted near right NAK cylinder. It indicates the vibration of the engine to the LGU.

Temperature bulb:
There are two temperature bulb used in the engine. One is fitted in the fuel filter to know the
fuel temperature and this unit indicates it to the LGU. The other one is fitted in the main
radiator to know the oil temperature and this unit indicates to the LGU.

Sludge indicator:
It is fitted with air separator. It is also called "Chip Detector". This indicates the impurities of
the lubricating oil to the LGU.

Fire Warning Sensor:

It is fitted at the end of bypass duct. If fire was found outside the engine, this unit indicates to
the LGU.

ELECTRIC ITEMS
LGU (Light Governing Unit):
The LGU control all the panels. This unit gets senses from all sensor items and takes necessary
steps. This unit was so arranged that riot can take action itself. To control hydro-mechanical
unit of engine control system as preset program and provide corrective action, passes
the discrete command to the aircraft electrical channel L.G.U actuates the following EMVS,
EM 1,2,4,5,6,7,9 and 12. The input information in the form of electrical signal from the pickup

56
for measuring the parameters of engine The L.G.U forms the electrical control instruction and
sends them into the engine circuiting.

Channels Of Bpr-88:
❖ N2-Limiting Channel
❖ T4-Limiting Channel.
❖ N1-limiting Channel.
❖ N1-Regulating Channel.
❖ RPM Regulating Channel.
❖ A/B Rating starting logic channel (KRF).
❖ Anti surge protection channel (APZ).
❖ Preservation Channel.
Power supply> (27+10%) DC. Current supply >= 3A(Maximum) time of continuous operation
of 5 Hours with subsequent intervals of 1 hours (Maximum). Overhaul period of unit is 1050
hr. for duration of 12 years including 1years of storage in store room.

Annuciator Transducer:
It is attached with surge warning switch. It indicates to surge warning switch when engine was
surge.

Feedback Transductor:
It is attached with RSF. When the EMV-9 was operated, this unit indicates the percentage of
the value position to the LGU.

Differential Pressure Transducer:

It is fitted fuel flow shut-down and cut-off valve. It indicates the pressure differences between
inlet fuel pressure and outlet pressure to the LGU. This is known as pressure loss in fuel filter.

Electromagnetic Valve:
These EMV are used in the engine for automatic control by LGU. The EMV-1 and EMV-9 are
percentage regulation while others are fully closed or open.

Metered Flow Relights Actuator (EM-6):

LGU energizes EM-6 when N2 is 80% to produce intermitted HOT STREAKS to light up after-
burner. Open operation cycle of EM-6 is successive 0.55 for 0.5 sec. interval between
successive 5.

Starting Control Actuator (EM-8):

It is used for the purpose for readjustment of acceleration control valve during relight of
engine at altitude above 6km for low flow rate.

Engine Inlet Air Pressure Transmitter:

57
It measures the inlet air pressure of compressor casing assembly and giving the signal to BRP-
88.

Air Pressure Transmitter:

Front casing for reducing air pressure to engine and sending to BPR-88. This signal along with
the signal from P-77 Temperature Probe is processed in BPR-88 for reoperation of AIS-Channel
and circulates hot air to the nozzle bullet. The engine anti-icing is of a hot air type. The LP
struts and noise. bullet is heated with hot air of taken from the combustion chamber

Jet Nozzle Control Actuator:

When this EMV receive the single from LGU, it reset the turbine pressure ratio to bring the
actual valve of N1 by changing the area nozzle. It is also use to maintain present ratio N2/N1
in accordance with the program. Also used for limiting Nrehe1 at maximum at.

Throttle Control Level Position Limit Switch Pump:

A micro-switch linked up mechanically with the throttle control lever of NP pump when
throttle is in idle position is closed and provides operation for all circuit for ground start, relight
flight and engine preservation. When the lever is set to max position get closed and control
program N1 is changed to N1 max in LGU.

Variable Guide Valve Micro switch:

It is used for limiting movement of variable compressor stator vanes.

RSF59 A:
When the throttle control is set to reheat position the switch sends the single reheat on to the
LUG by sending a pressure of 9+.2kgf for across the 2 and 3 afterburner manifold system.

Ionization Coils:
By-pass duct casing to convert power source voltage into High Tension Voltage to spark plug
for sparking. The break down voltage is 1200 volt.

Chip Detector:
Engine Gear Box Unit. It indicates the presence of slounge in hub voltage to build up 2-3KV
and discharge it to terminals of spark plugs.

Temperature Speed Probe(N1):

Engine casing (Front Bearing Housing) for measuring and signaling LP Rotor speed to BPR- 88.
The speed probe is based on the principle of stroboscopic. For measuring and transmitting fan
rotor speed signal to PNK (ground tester). For measuring and transmitting for rotor speed
signal to BPR-88.

HP Rotor Speed:
Near Gear Box senses and transmitting HP Rotor speed to BPR-88 and PNK (ground tester).

58
Speed Governor Fuel Flow Actuator:
To bring N2(actual) to N2(designed valve). LGU send the signal to the EMV which change fuel
to the main combustion chamber through metering valve of NR pump. Also used for
limiting T4 and N1.

FUEL SECTION
Engine fuel systems comprise of one fuel pumps, one reheat pump, 24 duplex main burners
and jet pipe reheat burners. The engine provided with two ignition systems, main combustion
chambers and ignition system and after burner ignition systems. The jet fuel nozzle is
connected by 12 hydraulic jacks, which are operated by ATF as hydraulic fluid.

Throttle Pressure Nozzle:

It is placed at the bottom of two pressure gauge pipe. It senses the P4 pressure and send it to
the RSF and after fuel flow divider.

Booster Pump:
It is fitted with inlet spacer. It sucks the fuel from the aircraft fuel tank and sends to main fuel
pump, afterburner fuel pump and jet nozzle plunger pump.

Main fuel pump:

It is fitted within gear box near fuel filter. It supplies the fuel to the main combustion chamber.

Afterburner fuel pump:

It is placed over jet nozzle plunger pump. It supplies the fuel to the afterburner combustion
chamber.

Jet nozzle plunger pump:

It is fitted with gear-box near right NAK cylinder. The pump is used to operate the hydraulic
cylinder of adjustable nozzle box, which causes the flap to close and open.

Jet nozzle and reheat controller:

It is located on the upper half of the bypass duct rear casing.
It has mainly two functions:
• It is used for regulation of the jet nozzle throat area as per the power requirement of
the engine.
• The reheat system comes into action when extra power is required. Reheat
engagement starts after 72 deg of throttle position. The reheat regular part of RSF
controls the fuel supply to the afterburner combustion chamber.

Fuel flow shut-down and cut-off valve:

• It is fitted with main fuel pump.

59
 • When the aircraft fire the missile, at that time the aircraft comes to a static condition
for a fraction of time: because of the reaction of the missile. But the rotor rotates at
higher speed so vacuum is created in front casing. So, less air is going to the
combustion chamber, so at the time it will be necessary to stop the fuel supply to the
combustion chamber which is drawn by the equipment.

Hydraulic cylinder:
• It is installed in compressor bearing housing.
• It is designed to change the incidence of the variable inlet guide vanes and stator
blades of three initial stages compressor.

Main fuel flow divider:

• It is situated near the scavenging pump.
• It is designed to change the incidence of VIGV and stator blades of three initial stages
of compressor. It divides the fuel supply and sends to primary and main manifold of
main combustion chamber.

Afterburner fuel flow divider:

• It is situated near thermocouple junction
• It divides the fuel supply sends to 1st, 2nd & 3rd spray bar manifold of afterburner
combustion chamber

After burner light up metering unit:

• It is situated near afterburner fuel flow divider.
• It ignites the air-fuel mixture in afterburner diffuser through HOT STREAK method.

SMALL PARTS SECTION

Ignition torch:
There are two ignition torches fitted in the combustion chamber spark plug bush and it ignites
the air fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.

Fuel tank:
• It is mounted on outer casing.
• It is designed to clean the fuel, deliver it into the engine fuel system.

Drain tank:
There are 2 drain tanks used in the engine. One fitted in the front casing called as small drain
tank and another was fitted near the main fuel flow divider. There are several drainage pipes
in the engines: they are attached to the fuel line and oil line. If the fuel or oil spill over the
engines fire may catch. So, to protect the engine from fire the drain pipe is used to collect the
drainage oil or fuel.

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Rear cable harness, left cable harness, front cable harness, front cable harness. There 3 items
are fitted at rear, middle left and in front of the engines. These 3 are the junction of all sensor
items, from these items- connection go to the LGU.

Oxygen NRV (Non-Return Valve):

A pipe lines connects the two Ignition torch known as oxygen pipe line. In between was fitted.
At high altitude there is less amount of air in atmosphere. If at high altitude, the combustion
suddenly stopped, at the time pilot to ignite again.
But there was less amount of air in the atmosphere so problem may create in ignition so
oxygen was supplied to the ignition torch through oxygen NRV from aircraft oxygen cylinder.
When burning was started the fire may come through the oxygen pipe line and go to the
cylinder and burst it resulting in destruction of aircraft so oxygen NRV was fitted to avoid this
problem.

Safety valve:
Attach with the jet nozzle plunger pump. The jet nozzle plunger pumps pumping the AFT at
high pressure through RST to hydraulic cylinders. The RSF control the pressure as per the
requirements. So as per requirement the AFT goes to the hydraulic cylinders and others by
passed through safety valves.

COMPRESSOR MANUFACTURING UNIT

Compressor shop is one of the most important departments for manufacturing unit of
aeroengine. MC is referred to as manufacturing compressor. MC is related with manufacturing
details parts & Sub-assemblies required for the compressor module of different variants of
aero-engine.

Details, Manufacturing in Compressor Shop:-

• Compressor Disc • Distance Ring Casting
• Compressor Casing • Locking Ring
• Central Bearing Housing • Internal Ring
• Driver Casing • Small Parts
• Ring Holder
Sub-Assemblies :-

• Compressor casing with blades(front LP & HP)

• Central bearing housing
• LPCR
• HPCR
• Distance unit

All the components are manufactured inside the compressor shop. After completion of these
parts partly assembled, they are sent to turbine shop, where some parts are assembled partly.
Then it proceeds to another shop one by one until it reaches the assembling operation.

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 • Blade and Vane Production:
The shop manufactures blades and vanes that make up the stages of the compressor.
These components need to be produced with high precision to ensure efficient air
compression.
• Disk and Drum Fabrication:
Compressor disks and drums that hold the blades and vanes in place are also
manufactured in the compressor shop.
• Casing Production:
The outer casing that houses the compressor components is produced, ensuring it can
withstand high pressures and temperatures.
RD-33 engine compressor is a twin axial spool and has 13 stages of compressors. Out of 13
stages of compressor, 4 stages are low pressure compressors with variable inlet guide and
other 9 stages are high compressors with variable guide vanes. The LPCR is attached to the
inlet guide vane, which guides the inlet air towards the HPCR with compression. There is an
intermediate casing present between low pressure compressor and high-pressure
compressor. It is main load bearing component of an engine. Its function is to channelize 70%
of the compressed air from LPCR directly to the diffuser and allow 30% of the compressed air
to HPCR. The HPCR again compresses the 30% of air in the ratio of 27:1 and directs it to the
combustion chamber, where the combustion takes place.

TURBINE MANUFACTURING UNIT

The function of the turbine is to drive the compressor and accessories by extracting pressure
and kinetic energy from high temperature gases coming from the combustion chamber. Based
on the flow of gases on the gas turbine it is classified in to the following types:
(a) axial flow turbine
(b) radial flow turbine
In axial flow turbine gas enters and leaves axially, whereas in radial flow turbine gas enters
along the radius and leaves axially and vice versa. The axial flow turbine consists of two main
elements consisting of two sets of stationary vanes and one or more turbine rotors. In
stationary vanes the pressure energy is converted in to mechanical energy with rotary blades.

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The nozzle vanes are either cast or forged. Some vanes are made hollow to cool them with
the bleed air.

Working And Construction of The Turbine :-

Construction of the Turbine:
The basic components of the turbine are :
• NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
• TURBINE DISC
• TURBINE BLADE
The rotating assembly is carried on the ball and roller bearings. The turbine shaft may be
common to compressor shaft or maybe connected to it by self-aligning coupling.

❖ Nozzle Guide Vanes

These are of aero foil shape. Since the nozzle guide vanes are
subjected to high thermal stresses and gas loads, they are
usually hollow & can be cooled by passing the compressor
bleed air through them.

❖ Turbine disc
These are machine forged & have the provisions for attaching
the turbine blades. Fir tree shaped slots are cut into them at the
regular intervals & blades are inserted into these slots. This Fir
tree shape prevents any fluttering of the blades while the engine
flies at a high altitude.

❖ Turbine blades
The turbine blades are of an aero-foil shape although, unlike the
compressor, there is usually no attempt to make the profiles
follow a particularly class of aero-foil. The aim to provide the
passage between adjacent blades, which gives a steady
acceleration of the flow up to throat, where the area is least
resulting high velocity enough thrust producing high degree of
reaction.
The fixed cross-sectional area depends on the permitted stresses
applied to it & the size of any holes, which may be required for
cooling purposes etc. High efficiency demands thing trailing edges
to the section. But a compromise has to be made so as to prevent
any cracking due to temperature changes during the starting &
stopping of the engine.
The method of attaching the blades to the turbine disc is of
considerable importance since the stresses in the discs around

63
the fixing or in the blade root has an important bearing on the limiting speed. The design of
blade is suppressed by the "fir tree fixing" which is now used in majority of gas turbine
engines.
This type of fixing involves very accurate machining to ensure that the loading is shared by all
the serrations when the turbine is stationary and is stiffened in the root by centrifugal loading
when the turbine is rotating. To reduce the loss of efficiency due to gas leakage across the
blade tips, a shroud is often fitted. This is formed by forging the small segment at the tip of
each blade and fitted to the disc segments from a peripheral ring around the blade tips.
In case of ducted fan engine when the fan is aft mounted, the blades forming the fan are
pressed as an additional thermal problem. This is due to the fact that the outer portion of the
blades operates in a duct through which passes a cool air stream, while the inner portion
operates on the normal gas stream to extract the energy for accelerating the fan air flow.

Working of the Turbine Section:

The turbine has task of providing the power to drive the compressor and accessories. It does
this by extracting energy from the combustion chamber gases and expanding them to a lower
pressure and temperature. To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several
stages, each employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and row of moving blades.
MIG engine have two stages. So, it is two spool engines.
The shape of the blade is such that the turbine functions partly under impulse and partly
under reaction condition that is to say the turbine blade experiences an impulse force due to
initial impact of gas on the at the blades and a reaction force resulting from the expansion and
acceleration of gas through the blade passage.

Energy Transfer from Combustion Gases to the Turbines:

The turbine depends for its operations on the transfer of energy between the combustion
gases and turbine. This is never 100% due to thermodynamic and mechanical losses. When
the gas is expanded by combustion process it forces its way into the nozzles of the turbine
where due to their convergent shape it is accelerated to about speed of sound. At the same
time, it is given a spin or whirl in the direction of rotation of turbine blades. On impact with
blades and during the subsequent reaction through blades, energy is absorbed causing the
turbine to rotate at high speed and so providing the power applied to the turbine shaft and
compressor.
The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governed by the rate of gas flow and
the energy change of gas between inlet and outlet of turbine blades. Thus, the energy is
absorbed efficiently. The whirl will be removed from the gas stream so that the flow at exit
from the turbine will be substantially straightened out to give an axial flow into the exhaust
system. It is seen that the nozzles and blades of turbines are twisted, the blades having a
stagger angle greater at the root. The reason for the twist is to make the gas flow from the
combustion chamber to do equal work at all positions along the length of the blade and to
ensure that flow enters the exhaust system with a uniform axial velocity. To do this certain
exchange in velocity, pressure and temperature occur through the turbine as shown in the
figure. A typical three stage turbine would suffer a 3.5% loss due to aero dynamic losses in the

64
turbine blades and a further 4.5% loss would be in the nozzle guide vane, gas leakage over
rotor blades and exhaust system losses. This results in an overall efficiency of 92%.

1st Stage nozzle box: It acts as a stator of

turbine. They are convex shaped airfoils, direct the
airflow onto the turbine blades while at the same
time converting pressure energy into kinetic
energy. Gases coming from the combustion
chamber pass through the nozzle guide vanes,
where because of their convergent shape they
accelerate. Here, the temperature of the gas
decreases from 1600℃ to 1530℃ which will be
suitable for turbine blades. The guide vanes are
provided with perforated holes for blade cooling.

High pressure turbine rotor

(HPTR):
The HPTR is a single stage turbine blade of the axial flow type. These
rotor blades are made up of nickel-based alloys which are capable of
heat resistant. There are 84 blades present on its Rotor disc. The HPTR
blades is having a typical aero-foil shape with small holes drilled by
EDM and these holes are Interconnected with disc so that there is cold
compressed air flow transfer between the compressor and turbine
through bleed air system. The HPCR and HPTR are coupled to the HP
shaft, which has the maximum RPM of 15,500.

Deflector:
The Deflector has integral radial ribs on the face, which form a
centrifugal Impeller designed to enhance the pressure of air
supplied for cooling the blades, and two circulars with machined
knife edges to form labyrinth seals.

2nd Stage nozzle box:

In 2nd stage nozzle box, pipes are connected to the compressor for
drawing cool air for cooling. It has honeycomb structure for
preventing the wearing out of tip the rotor blades.

Low pressure turbine rotor (LPTR):

The fan turbine is of a single stage and axial flow type consists
of 94 blades on its rotor base. The LPCR and LPTR are coupled
to the LP shaft and which has the maximum RPM of 1100. It also
provides with air cooling.

VIBRODRILLING
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Description Of the Process:
Vibro-drilling process is intended for drilling of holes by special
drills allowing feed of lubricate cooling liquid in zone of
machining through existing channel in drills. Vibro-drilling
head consists of vibrator, spindle, valve, cam and reducer.nm
Peculiarity of designing of Vibro-drilling head is in drive of
spindle (tool) and drive of vibrator implemented from same
electrical source, which strictly ensures required number of
vibrations for rotation of drill.

Sequence of operation:
➢ Open the case of machine.
➢ Examine the integrity of the jig bushes and rigidity Vibro-drilling Machine
of their fastening.
➢ Examine the mounting surface of jig for the absence of hollows, dents and chips.
➢ Clean the mounting surface thoroughly from chips and dirt with a hairbrush and wipe
with a clean napkin.
➢ Mount the part in jig with the clamp carefully by a clear bush not allowing dents,
hollows on the mounting surface of part and jig, by coinciding 2 marks on the external
diameter of the disk with marks on the jig.
➢ Fix the part with the fixing arm along the pattern groove marked with 2 marks and
fastens the part.
➢ Close the casing of machine.

BROACHING
The process is used for making the dovetail slots on 4 stages of LP
compressor discs and tree slots on both HP & LP turbine discs of
RD-33 engine. The slots are meant for holding compressor &
turbine rotor blades onto the discs. The broaching operation is
carried out on an axis CNC broaching machine having facility to set
different broaching parameters through part programming. The 16
Ton broaching machine with 7500 mm stroke length is capable of
broaching each slot in a single pass.

Brief of Machining Process:

Broaching is carried out on a special coupon block and
on a dummy disc before carrying out broaching
operation on the actual disc. After ensuring the dimensional accuracy of the broaching
parameters on coupon, and correctness of the technological geometry of the slot profile on
the dummy disc, broaching is carried out on the actual disc. Surface finish and dimensions and
geometrical parameters of the broached slot are checked and ensured as per technology

MICRO SHOT PENNING

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Sequence of operation:
➢ Mount the fixture on the rotating head of the
device.
➢ Mount the part on fixture with face and
clamp.
➢ Start the exhaust Ventilation and rotation of
parts and feed compressed air for
transporting the micro balls from working
chamber to batcher bunker.
➢ Start the rotor shot blaster and carry out
hardening of surfaces from the side by Micro Shot peening
reverse rotation of shot blaster after 16 min.
➢ Remove the part from the fixture and blow with compressed air.
➢ Wipe with cotton napkin dipped in benzene.
➢ Inspection

ASSEMBLY OF RD-33 ENGINE

Air Intake /Inlet Guide Vane-

The air intake system of the RD-33 engine, used in aircraft like the MiG-29, is designed to
ensure efficient air delivery across various flight conditions, including subsonic, transonic, and
supersonic speeds. It features variable geometry components, such as adjustable ramps or
shock cones, which modify their shape to optimize air compression and flow into the engine.
At high speeds, these components create controlled shock waves to decelerate the incoming
air to subsonic speeds before it enters the compressor, maintaining optimal pressure and flow.
The intake ducts are carefully designed to minimize turbulence and distribute air evenly to the
engine, while boundary layer management prevents slower-moving air from disrupting
performance. Integrated sensors and control systems adjust the intake geometry in real-time
based on flight conditions, ensuring a steady and uniform air supply to the engine, thereby
maximizing efficiency and preventing issues like compressor stalls. This sophisticated system
enables the RD-33 engine to perform reliably during various phases of flight, from take-off and
low-speed manoeuvres to high-speed supersonic flight and aggressive aerial manoeuvres.

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The inlet guide vanes are made of titanium. It is following installed parts:
I. Low pressure compressor support
II. Oil scavenging pump
III. cone
The inlet Gear vanes consist of:
I. Outer rings
II. Hub
III. Struts

Compressor Bearing Housing :-

RD-33 engine compressor is an axial 2 spools and 13 stage compressors. The compressor
consists of:
• 4 stages, low pressure compressor with variable inlet guide vanes.
• 9 stages, high pressure compressor with 3 variable guide vanes.
• LPCR compress air in the ration 3:1.
• 2 spool is used as it is good for surge control and to increase the stall limit.
• After LPCR 70% of the air is by passed and 30% compressed air goes to HPCR then
Compressed at 21:1 ratio and this by-passed air meet after the turbine (afterburner).
So that fresh air is available for combustion and act as a film layer for cooling.
• Intermediate casing
Main load carrying assembly of engine provides support for fan and gas generator rotor.

It consists of:
• Fan bearing support
• Gas generator front bearing support
• Internal drive
• Air flow driver
• Inner shell
• 10 Struts
Low Pressure Compressor :-
In RD-33 engine, the low-pressure compressor is an axial type with 4 stages. The low-pressure
compressor rotor front is attached to the inlet guide vanes hub. The air -mass flow rate sucked
by the intake system is 77kg/cm². The front support consists of:
• Roller bearing housing
• Roller bearing

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 • Oil seal unit
• Cones and labyrinth seal
• The low-pressure compressor rotor moves the oil scavenge pump.

Intermediate Casing :-
The intermediate casing is main load bearing component of the engine structure which is lies
between LPCR and HPCR. In the intermediate casing the air supplied from the low-pressure
compressor is divided into 2 flows:
• Bypass duct flow
• Main duct flow
The flowing is installed in intermediate casing:
• Low pressure compressor rotor rear support
• High pressure compressor rotor front support
• Central bevel gearing.
The casing consists of rim and support ring They is connected with10 struts. The spacer ring
is welded to struts. The bypass ratio of RD-33 engine is 0.45 .

Central Drive (Internal Drive):-

It is designed to transmit of from HPCR to engine accessory gear box to oil scavenge pump
block. Oil for lubrication is supplied by pipe and passage in internal drive to respective oil jet
and orifice.

High Pressure Compressor :-

The HPCR is an axial flow type consisting 9 stages with variable incident guide vanes of the
first two starter compressor stages. These variable guide vanes are used to perform the action
of flow regulation and the amount of flow to be entered in the subsequent stage. The first two
stator compressor stages. These variable guide vanes are used to perform the action of flow
regulation and the flow to be entered in the subsequent stage. The first two stator are variable
compressor incident guide vanes, the last one acts as a guiding apparatus and the remaining
starter are split rings. High-pressure compressor the air supplied to the engine main duct. It
has a special coating on the outer surface in separation of HPCR i.e. 20B coating (soft material),
used to protect outer casing and blade during blade expansion.
• The pressure ratio obtained in the HPCR is 1:21.
• The pressure at the of HPCR is 33.5kg/cm².

Stator :-
High pressure compressor stator includes:
• Inlet guide vanes and 1st stage stator with 30 angles.
• 2nd and 3rd stage stator 15 and 10 angle.
• Rear casing.

69
Variable guide vanes act as an air flow separator and prevent surge. The inlet guide vanes
variables, with 2 supports. The 1" and 2nd stage variable guide vanes are cantilever. The 1st
and 2nd stage inlet guide vanes are deflected by hydraulic cylinder through drive wings and
lever system. Guide vanes from 3rd and 8th stage are fixed on the outer ring; 7th stage guide
vanes are slots for the air bleed: for aircrafts, for anti-icing system, for pressurizing system of
engine support oil seals. High pressure compressor outlet guide vanes are attached to
combustion chamber carrying with outer ring flange.

Rotor :-
• Compressor rotor is coupled by rigid shaft provided with radial and slide gear like teeth
to high pressure turbine rotor there by forming a ga generator rotor mounted on two
bearing.
• High pressure rotor is a drum and disc structure axial dove tail groove provided to
receive the rotor blades.
• Hole in disc server to supply air for cooling engine bearing support pressurization oil
seal antechamber.
• The HPCR shaft connected to HP turbine rotor wheel through a circular row of
serration or gear-like teeth.

Combustion Chamber :-
The combustion chamber is of annular, straight
flow type with 24 sp and 24 duplex, swirl type
fuel manifold. Fuel manifolds are located the
combustion chamber .30% of air which is called
the primary f used for cooling purpose. A big
annular type flame holder is provided centre of
the centre of the combustion chamber.

Flame Tube :-
Consist of:
• Swirler shield outer fairing, inner section, and outer section, two outer and inner
corrugated 24 main type swirlers.

70
 • Inner and outer section are provided with series of large holes for delivery of primary
of admit air flow in order to prevent carbon formation on tip of fuel nozzle. Inner and
outer rows of slots are made in joints to from a cooling air blanket along the flame
tube wall.
• 24 hollow streamline struts are used to by-pass air from the compressor chamber
behind the labyrinth air seal into engine by-pass duct.
• Fuel manifold to feed fuel to nozzle large slots are used for mounting ignition ferrules.

Operation :-
Air passing from compressor into the annular combustion chamber diffuses wherein certain
deceleration of compressed air flow take place. Air flow divide by fuel manifold and flame
tube outer fairing into two parts:
• 1. Primary flow through inner annular duct.
• 2. Secondary flow from outer annular duct.
Some primary air passes through 24 burners in flame tube. Fuel sprayed by fuel nozzles ignites
and burn up the swirl air flow. From annular passages, the compressed air passes through the
bleed/dilution holes in outer and the inner section into combustion chamber to ensure
complete and steady combustion fuel-air mixture and through the hole’s mixes in the outer
section and inner section gradually diluting the combustion product and forming desired
temperature field at entry of turbine. The flame tube inner walls are cooled by the secondary
air stream entering inside the flame tube through outer and inner rows of cooling slot.

Afterburner (Re-Heater) :-
The main purpose of afterburner is to provide thrust boost/thrust augmentation during take-
off and manoeuvring. The afterburner is common for both core and bypass flows, which are
mixed upstream of a flame holder. It is attached to the bypass duct outer casing. The
afterburner consists of:-
• Mixer
• Flame holder
• Main fuel manifold
• fuel manifold
• Ionization flame detector
• R.S.F(jet nozzle and reheat controller)
• Afterburner fuel control unit
• Afterburner fuel control unit
• Temperature sensitive probe
• Afterburner emergency cut off valve

Adjustable Jet Nozzle :-

An adjustable jet nozzle is of convergent-divergent type. The convergent of divergent nozzle
ensures variation of the throat and exit area in function of powder setting to have complete
expansion of gas consists of-
• Driving and driven flap(both in subsonic and supersonic jet nozzle)
• Outer and inner flap.
• Synchronizing system of jet nozzle(subsonic and supersonic system)
• Feedback mechanism and jet nozzle control system and pipe.

71
 • External-12 outer flap and 12 inter flap attach by screw. Disengagement is prevented
by hooks and lips.
• Jet nozzle flow path is formed by a
• 24 smaller flaps (subsonic section)
• 24 large flaps (supersonic section)
• Purpose of synchronizing system of subsonic and supersonic system of jet nozzle is to
make the nozzle flaps under any operation condition move in agreement so that the
required variable flow path of jet nozzle is obtained.

Operation :-
Pressure in hydraulic cylinders varies; hydraulic cylinder rods start moving and thus change
the diameter of hydraulic actuating ring of the system controlling the operation of smaller
drive flaps. An increase in hydraulic actuating ring diameter results in setting the smaller
driving flaps apart that is in an increase of the jet nozzle critical diameter. Simultaneously, the
diameter of jet nozzle varies under the effect of pressure differential acting on outer and larger
driving flap. The synchronizing system affords uniform displacement of the flaps.
The maximum operation and minimum closing of large driving and driven flap are limited
stops in the 2nd row hinges of synchronizing system. The reduction of jet nozzle diameter is
limited by rollers installed on 1st row hinge mounts on the system.

TESTING OF ENGINE
After assembling of the engine as well as after overhauling of the engine, it is sent to the test
house for testing of the each and every engine component and its efficiency. Testing is
generally done in two steps i.e. Test-1 and Test-2. These processes are as follows-

Activities During Testing

• Unpacking and preparation of engine on static trolley for mounting.
• Mounting of engine, hand cranking, filament of angular drive and alignment with
technological KCA-2 on test stand.
• Fitment of measurement and pressure tapping connections.
• Calibration of throttle lever and BPR-88 tuning.

72
 • Ensuring fuel and oil purity class.
• Oil filling and pressurization, bleeding, of fuel system.
• De-preservation crank of engine.
• PTDK crank of engine followed by dry crank.

Starting & 1st Part

• It involves engine starting, checking for fuel and oil leaks (if any), checking qualities of
assembly, running in at engine, monitoring vibrations, checking operation of J/N,
checking characteristics of IGV.
• After 1st part hot oil is drained and all fuel and oil filters are checked for cleanliness
and leak proofness.
• Removal of additional oil filtration lines.
• Checking of 1st stage fan blade.
• Serviceability of chip detectors are checked.

Continuation of 1st Part & Running

• It involves checking characteristics of TDK, setting of idle rating, running in of engine,
setting of IGV, operation of J/N.
• Monitoring & checking of emergency pumping system.
• Monitoring of oil consumption.
• Monitoring of Acceleration with KCA load.

2nd Part(Regulation of Engine)

• Adjusting max rating, checking BPR limitation channels, turbine press ratio checks,
hydraulic governor max rpm, for press ratio checks, minimum nozzle position,
maximum rating performance, functioning of anti-icing system, acceleration &
deceleration checks.
• Pre-reheat simulations and regulation of minimum and full reheat and performance
check.
• Oscillography of transient parameters, IGV actuation, jet nozzle operation, hot streak
characteristics, anti-surge channel check, operation of KSO.

3rd Part (High Altitude Air Relight)

• Preparation of engine for high altitude simulation
= setting of primary manifolds at 6 & 12 km altitude with vacuum
= high altitude hot start

4th Part (GDS)

• Preparation of engine with installation of interception in front of engine.
• Engine performance check up to max rating and acceleration checks and vibration
checks.
• If everything is found satisfactory, then engine is ready for acceptance check.

73
Acceptance Run
• Engine offered to external inspecting agency.
• Engine performance (both stable & transient) is checked.
• If all found satisfactory, engine is accepted for exploitation.

Hot Test for Engine

• Preparation of engine for heat test.
• Ensuring cleanliness for air path.
• Absence of foreign object in and around the engine, metallic structure, inside the test
cell is ensured.
• Cleaning of metallic structure, telescopic duct with cloth.
• Preparation of auxiliary engine systems and bypass duct.
• BRP tuning for hot test.
• Carrying out hot test with inlet air temperature of 170 degrees Celsius by running the
auxiliary engine.
• Fixing of T3 limit of RD-33 engine.
• Final tuning of BPR.
• After acceptance run and hot test, oil samples are collected for analysis. Engine is
prepared for last run/ leak check run. All filter elements are cleaned, all measurements
points are removed, blanked & locked.
• Calibration of jet nozzle with standard discs.
• In last run, engine is checked for external fuel/oil leak in running condition.
• After completion → Preservation → Engine dismounted → Packed in movement
trolley → Dispatched.
Thus, after passing these two tests procedure successfully , the engine is ready for use in the
aircraft.

OVERHAULLING OF THE ENGINE

Disassembly:
After the run of the Engine comes up the 1st
stage of the Overhauling Process i.e.
Disassembling. This procedure can be done
in the Vertical or Horizontal Position. To
disassemble the aero engine in the Vertical
Position a Floor-fixture stand or Ram-top
fixture & Horizontal Position a special
turnover stand is used for holding the
engine.

Disassembling of the engine

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Cleaning:
The cleaning agents used during overhaul range from organic solvents to acid and other
chemical cleaners, and extend to electrolytic cleaning solutions.
Organic solvents include kerosene for washing, trichloroethane for degreasing and paint
stripping solutions which can generally be used on majority of components for carbon and
paint removal. The more restricted and sometimes rigidly controlled acid and other chemical
cleaners are used for corrosion, heat scale and carbon removal from certain components. To
give the highest degree of cleanliness to achieve the integrity of inspection that is considered
necessary on certain major rotating parts, such as turbine discs, electrolytic cleaning solutions
are often used.
Aircraft which operate at high altitudes can become contaminated with radio-active particles
held in the atmosphere, this radio-activity is retained in dirt and carbon deposits in the engine.
If contamination is suspected the radio-activity level of engine must be determined to ensure
the limitations agreed by the health authorities are not exceeded. Evidence of contamination
will entail additional cleaning in a designated region, separate from the overhaul area, to
safeguard the health of personnel in workshop. Arrangements have to make with the health
authorities for disposal of the waste radio-active cleaning material.

Inspection:
After cleaning, and prior to inspection, the surfaces of some parts, e.g. turbines discs, are
etched. This process removes a small amount of material from the surface of the part, leaving
an even matt finish which reveals surface defects that cannot normally be seen with the naked
eye. The metal removal is normally achieved either by an electrolytic process in which the part
forms the anode or by immersing the part for a short time in special acid bath. Both methods
must be carefully controlled to avoid the removal of too much material.
After the components have been cleaned they are visually inspected and when necessary,
dimensionally inspected to establish general condition and then subjected to crank inspection.
This may include binocular and magnetic or penetrate inspection techniques, used either
alone or consecutively, depending on the components being inspected and the degree of
inspection considered necessary.

Repair:
To ensure that costs are maintained at lowest possible level, a wide variety of techniques are
used to repair engine parts to make them suitable for further service. Welding, the fitting of
interference sleeves or liners, machining and electro-plating are some of techniques
employed during repairing.
The welding techniques detailed in are extensively used and range from welding of cracks by
inert gas welding to the renewing of sections of flame tubes and jet pipes by electric resistance
welding.
On some materials now being used for gas turbine parts, different techniques may have to be
employed. An example of this is the high strength titanium alloys which suffer from brittle
welds if they are allowed to become contaminated by oxygen during the cooling period.

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Balancing:
Due to the high rotational speeds, any unbalance in
the main rotating assembly of gas turbine engine is
capable of producing vibration and stresses which
increase as the square of the rotational speed.
Therefore, very accurate balancing of rotating
assembly is necessary.
The two main methods of measuring and correcting
the unbalance are single plane (static) balancing and
two plane (dynamic) balancing. With single plane, the
unbalance is only in one plane i.e. centrally through
the component at 90 degrees to the axis. This is
appropriate for components such as individual
compressor or turbine discs. Balancing Machine
For compressor and/or turbine rotor assemblies
possessing appreciable axial length, unbalance may be present at many positions along the
axis. In general, it is not possible to correct this combination of distributed unbalance in a
single plane. However, if two correction planes are chosen, usually at axially opposed ends of
the assembly, it is always possible to find a combination of two unbalance weights which are
equivalent for the unbalances present in assembled rotor, hence two planes balancing.

Assembling:
The engine can be built in the vertical or horizontal position, using the ram or stand.
Assembling of engine, sub-assemblies or modules is done in separate areas, thus minimizing
the build time on the build rams or stands. During assembling, inspection checks are made.
These checks can establish dimensions to enable axial and radial clearances to be calculated
and adjustments to be made, or they can ascertain that vital fitting operations have been
correctly effected. Dimensional checks are affected during disassembly to establish datum
which must be replaced on subsequent re-assembly. To ensure that the nuts, bolts and
setscrews throughout the engine and its accessories are uniformly tight controlled torque
loading is determined by the thread diameter and the differing coefficients of friction allied
with thread finish i.e. silver or cadmium plating and the lubricant used.

Testing:
On completion of assembly, every production
and/or overhauled engine must be tested in a
'sea-level' test cell in which the engine is run at
ambient temperature and pressure conditions,
the resultant performance figures being
corrected to International Standard Atmosphere
(I.S.A) sea-level conditions.
To ensure that the engine performance meets
that guaranteed to the customer and the
Testing of the Engine

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requirements of the government licensing and purchasing authorities, each engine is tested
to an acceptance test schedule.

Preparing for storage/dispatch:

The preparation of the engine/module for storage and/ or dispatch is of major importance,
since storage and transportation call for special treatment to preserve the engine. To resist
corrosion during storage, the fuel system is inhibited by special oil and all apertures are sealed
off. The external and internal surfaces of the engine are also protected by special inhibiting
powders or by paper impregnated with inhibiting powder and the engine is enclosed in a re-
usable bag or plastic sheeting into which a specific amount of desiccant is inserted. If
transportation by rail or sea is involved, the inhibited and bagged engine may be packed in a
wooden crate or metal case.

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