A LEVEL

12 Motion in a circle
Kinematics of uniform circular motion
Radian measurement
You are familiar with the use of degrees to measure angles, with a complete circle
equal to 360°. There is no real reason why a circle is split into 360° – it probably
arises from the approximate number of days it takes for the Earth to orbit the Sun
(Figure 12.1).
Earth Sun

360° KEY TERMS

▲ Figure 12.1 One radian is the angle
subtended at the centre
It is much more convenient to use radians. of a circle by an arc
of equal length to the
arc length
angle (in radians) = radius of the circle
radius (Figure 12.2).
For a complete circle, the circumference = 2πr, where r is the radius. Hence, the
angle subtended by a complete circle is:
Arc
length
2πr
360° = = 2π radians θ
r
r
This can be expressed as:
2π
1° = rad
360
Or: ▲ Figure 12.2 When arc
360 length = r, θ = 1 radian
1 rad = = 57.3°
2π

WORKED EXAMPLE
a Convert the following angles to radians:
i 180°     ii 60°
b Convert the following angles to degrees:
π
i rad      ii 2π rad
4 3
Answer
2π 2π π
a i 180° = 180 × rad = π rad   ii 60° = 60 × rad = rad
360 360 3
π π 360 2π 2π 360
b i rad = × = 45°      ii rad = × = 120°
4 4 2π 3 3 2π

NOW TEST YOURSELF

1 Convert the following angles to degrees:
π 5π
a rad b 3π rad c rad
6 3
2 Convert the following angles to radians:
a 10° b 48° c 630°

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 Angular displacement and angular speed
Consider a particle moving at constant speed (v) round a circle. The change in angle
from a particular reference point is called the angular displacement (θ) (Figure 12.3). KEY TERMS
Angular displacement
B is the change in angle
(measured in radians)
of an object as it rotates
round a circle.
∆θ
A Angular speed is the
r
change in angular
displacement per unit
time:
Dq
w = Dt
▲ Figure 12.3

As the particle moves round the circle, the angular displacement increases at a steady
rate. The rate of change in angular displacement is called the angular speed (ω).

Comparison with translational motion

Many of the concepts we met in kinematics at AS Level have their equivalent in
circular motion. This is shown in Table 12.1.
▼ Table 12.1

Translational motion Circular motion

Quantity Unit Relationship Quantity Unit Relationship
Displacement (s) m Angular rad
displacement (θ)
Velocity (v) m s−1 Δs Angular speed (ω) rad s−1 Δθ
v= ω=
Δt Δt

Useful equations
Look at Figure 12.3. One way of finding the angular speed (ω) of an object is to
measure the time for one complete circuit of the object round a circular track. The
time taken is the time period of the revolution (T) and the angular displacement is
2π radians (360°). Therefore:
2π
ω=
T
Again, refer to Figure 12.3. From this we see that:
Dq
ω=
Dt
But:
AB
Dq =
r
Therefore:
AB
ω=
rDt
AB distance travelled
= =v
Dt time taken
Thus:
v
ω=
r
Or, rearranging the formula:
v = ωr

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 12 Motion in a circle

WORKED EXAMPLE
A car is travelling round a circular bend of radius 24 m at a constant speed of
15 m s–1. Calculate the angular speed of the car.

Answer
v 15
ω= = = 0.625 ≈ 6.3 rad s−1
r 24

NOW TEST YOURSELF

3 An athlete in the ‘throwing the hammer’ event 5 A girl ties a rubber bung to a string. She swings
whirls a heavy iron ball around his head in the string so that the bung moves in a circular
a circular path with a radius of 1.2 m. The path. The radius of the circular path is 80 cm
time taken for the ball to make one complete and the angular speed of the bung is 4π/3 rad s−1.
revolution is 0.80 s. Calculate the angular speed Calculate the speed at which the bung moves.
of the ball.
4 A toy train goes round a circular track. It makes
two complete revolutions in 16 s. Calculate the
angular speed of the train.

Centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

Constant speed, constant acceleration
You have seen how an object can move at constant speed round a circle, but what
is meant when it is said that the object has a constant acceleration? To understand
this, you must remember the definition of acceleration: the change in velocity per
unit time. Velocity, unlike speed, is a vector and so a change in direction is an
acceleration (Figure 12.4).
(a) (b)
v2
∆v

v1 v2 v1

▲ Figure 12.4

» Consider a particle moving round a circle, as in Figure 12.4(a).

» At time t it has a velocity of v1.
» After a short interval of time, Δt, it has the velocity v2 – the same magnitude,
but the direction has changed.
» Figure 12.4(b) shows the change of velocity Δv (refer back to vector addition, p. 13).
» You can see that this is towards the centre of the circle. STUDY TIP
» The acceleration is Δv/Δt. Use tracing paper to
» As the object moves round the circle, the direction of its velocity is continuously copy Figure 12.4(b).
changing. Move the tracing paper
» However, the direction of the change is always towards the centre of the circle. so that v1 rests on v1 on
» Thus, the particle has an acceleration of constant magnitude but whose direction Figure 12.4(a).
is always towards the centre of the circle. You should be able
» Such an acceleration is called a centripetal acceleration. to see that Δv points
» The magnitude of the acceleration a is given by: towards the centre of
the circle.
v2
a= = ω2 r
r
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 Centripetal force and acceleration
» An object travelling round a circle at constant speed is not in equilibrium.
» From Newton’s laws, you will remember that for an object to accelerate, a STUDY TIP
resultant force must act on it. It is often thought that
» The force must be in the same direction as the acceleration. an object rotating round
a circle at constant
» Hence, the force is always at right angles to the velocity of the object, towards
speed is in equilibrium
the centre of the circle (a centripetal force). – just remember that it
» Such a force has no effect on the magnitude of the velocity; it simply changes its continuously changes
direction. direction, hence there
is always force on it.
Using the relationship F = ma (where F = force and m = mass of the object), we can If that force is removed,
see that the force can be calculated from: the object will no longer
mv2 move in a circle but in a
F = r = mω 2r straight line at a tangent
to the original circle.

REVISION ACTIVITY
You should be able to develop many equations from more fundamental
equations. Some of these fundamental equations are given at the beginning of
the examination paper. Others you must learn by heart. It is a good idea to write
out these equations on a piece of card and stick the card on a wall at home to
learn them by heart.
‘Must learn’ equations:
Dq v2
ω = a= = ω2 r
Dt r
v mv2
ω = F = r = mω 2r
r

Figure 12.5(a) shows a rubber bung being whirled round on a string. The string is
under tension.
(a) (b)
f F

Fsin ϕ
T
Tsin ϕ f

▲ Figure 12.5

The centripetal force is the component of the tension in the horizontal direction (Tsin ϕ).
mv2
F= = Tsin ϕ
r
In Figure 12.5(b), the uplift on the aeroplane is perpendicular to the wings.
When the aeroplane banks there is a horizontal component to this, which provides a
centripetal force (Fsin ϕ) and the plane moves along the arc of a circle.
mv2
= Fsin f
r

STUDY TIP
Whenever an object moves at constant speed in a circle, Example 2: The force when a satellite orbits around Mars
there is a force towards the centre of the circle, known is supplied by the gravitational force between Mars and
as a centripetal force. What provides this force varies the satellite.
according to the situation.
Example 3: The force when a car goes round a level
Example 1: The force when a ball attached to an elastic circular track is supplied by friction between the car’s
cord is spun round in a circle is supplied by the tension in tyres and the road.
the cord.

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 12 Motion in a circle

NOW TEST YOURSELF

6 Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the toy train in question 4 (p. 117)
and the centripetal force on it. The diameter of the track is 1.2 m and the
mass of the train is 0.45 kg.
7 A car of mass 800 kg goes round a bend at a speed of 15 m s−1. The path of
the car can be considered to be an arc of a circle of radius 25 m. Calculate:
a the angular speed of the car
b the centripetal force on the car

WORKED EXAMPLE STUDY TIP

Figure 12.6 shows a racing car rounding a bend of radius 120 m on a banked The car is clearly not
track travelling at 32 m s−1. a point object but
modelling it as one
a Calculate the angle ϕ if there is no tendency for the car to move either up or
simplifies the problem.
down the track. You may treat the car as a point object. The normal reaction
b Suggest and explain what would happen if the car’s speed was reduced. is, in reality, shared
R cos φ at each of the four
R
wheels. The wheels
on the outside of the
curve travel in a larger
R sin φ
circle than those on
the inside of the circle,
φ further complicating
the picture. Engineers
W = mg and scientists often
use simplified models,
▲ Figure 12.6 which they then develop
to solve more complex
Answer problems.
a R is the normal reaction force.
Resolving vertically:
Rcos f = mg
Resolving horizontally:
mv2
Rsin f =
r
Dividing the two equations: REVISION
sin f mv2/r ACTIVITY
=
cos f mg
v2 322 A racing car hits
tan f = = = 0.871 a patch of oil as it
gr 9.81 × 120
f = 41° enters a bend.
b The car would tend to slip down the slope as the required centripetal force Explain why the car
would be less. In practice, frictional forces would probably mean that it slides off the road
would continue in a circle of the same radius. into the gravel trap.

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt to: » understand that centripetal acceleration
» define the radian causes circular motion with a constant
» express angular displacement in radians angular speed
» understand and use the concept of angular » recall and use a = ω2r
speed » recall and use a = v 2 /r
» recall and use the formulae ω = 2π/T and » recall and use F = mω2r
v = ωr » recall and use F = mv 2 /r
» understand that a force of constant magnitude
that is always perpendicular to the direction of
motion causes centripetal acceleration

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 A LEVEL

13 Gravitational fields
Gravitational field
A gravitational field is a region around an object that has mass, in which another
object with mass experiences a force.
» A gravitational field is an example of a field of force.
» Fields of force can be represented by lines of force.
» A line of gravitational force shows the direction of the force an object placed at
a point in the field experiences.
» The closer the lines of force in a field diagram, the stronger the field.

Gravitational field strength

Any object near the Earth’s surface is attracted towards the Earth with a force that is
dependent on the mass of the object. Similarly, an object near the Moon is attracted KEY TERMS
towards the Moon’s surface, but the force is smaller. The reason for this is that the The gravitational
gravitational field strength is greater near the Earth than it is near the Moon. field strength at a
point is defined as the
gravitational force on an object = mass of the object × gravitational field strength gravitational force
per unit mass at that
In symbols: point. The units of
F = mg gravitational field
strength are N kg−1.
You might remember g as the acceleration due to gravity or acceleration of free fall
(p. 27), but if you compare the formulae F = ma and F = mg, you can see that the
acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational field strength are the same thing.
The lines of force in Figure 13.1 are extremely near to being parallel and they are
all equal distances apart. This shows that the gravitational field strength near the
Earth’s surface is (very nearly) uniform.

▲ Figure 13.1
m1 F F m2

Gravitational force between point masses r

It is not just large objects that attract each other – all masses have a gravitational
field. This means that they attract other masses (Figure 13.2). ▲ Figure 13.2

Two point masses of mass m1 and m2 separated by a distance r will attract each
other with the magnitude of the force given by the formula:
mm
F = G 12 2
r
» G is a constant known as the universal gravitational constant. Its value is
6.67 × 10 −11 N m2 kg−2.
» This is known as Newton’s law of gravitation.

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 13 Gravitational fields

NOW TEST YOURSELF

1 Two point masses, each of magnitude 5.0 kg, are placed 15 cm apart.
Calculate the force on each object.

Objects of finite size

» It is slightly more complex with objects of finite size.
» All the mass of any object can be considered to act at a single point, which is
called the centre of mass.
» For a uniform sphere, the centre of mass is at the centre of the sphere. The Earth,
the Sun, the Moon and other planets may be considered to be uniform spheres.
» This simplifies the maths and, in effect, the object is treated as a point mass.
» However, you must be careful to remember to measure any distances between
objects as the distance between their centres of mass, not between their
surfaces.

WORKED EXAMPLE
Two spheres of radius 0.50 cm and masses 150 g and 350 g are placed so that
their centres are 4.8 cm apart.
a Calculate the force on the 150 g sphere.
b Write down the force on the 350 g sphere.

Answer
a 350 g = 0.35 kg, 150 g = 0.15 kg, 4.8 cm = 0.048 m STUDY TIP
m m This shows how small
F=G 1 2
r2 the gravitational
0.35 × 0.15 attraction between two
= 6.67 × 10 −11 × small objects is. It is
0.0482
= 1.5 × 10−9 N only when we consider
planet-sized objects
b In accordance with Newton’s third law, the force on the 350 g mass will also that the forces become
be 1.5 × 10 –9 N but in the opposite direction. significant.

NOW TEST YOURSELF

2 Calculate the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon.
(a)
(mass of the Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, mass of the Moon = 7.3 × 1022 kg,
separation of the Earth and Moon = 3.8 × 108 m)

Gravitational field of a point mass

(b)
» The gravitational field strength has already been defined as the gravitational
force per unit mass at that point.
» In earlier work, you only considered gravitational fields on large objects such as
the Earth and other planets, and then only near their surfaces. Centre
of mass
» Under these circumstances, the field may be considered uniform.
» However, the gravitational field of a point mass is radial (Figure 13.3a).
▲ Figure 13.3 The
» This is also true for any object of finite size, as long as we are outside the object gravitational field
itself. of (a) a point mass
» In the case of an object of finite size, the radial field is centred on the centre of and (b) an object of
mass of the object (Figure 13.3b). finite size

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 You can see from Figure 13.3 that the lines of gravitational force get further apart
as the distance from the centre of mass increases. This shows that the field strength
decreases with increasing distance from the object.
Consider the equation for the magnitude of the gravitational force between two
objects and the definition of gravitational field strength:
F
F = G Mm and g =
r 2 m

GM
g=
r2
The equation shows an inverse square relationship (Figure 13.4). This means if the
distance from the mass is doubled, the field decreases by a factor of 4 (22).
g

r
▲ Figure 13.4 The gravitational field near a spherical object

WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the gravitational field strength at the surface of Mars.
(radius of Mars = 3.4 × 103 km, mass of Mars = 6.4 × 1023 kg, G = 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2)

Answer
3.4 × 103 km = 3.4 × 106 m
Mm F
F = G 2 and g =
r m

GM (6.67 × 10−11 ) × (6.4 × 1023 )

g= = = –3.7 N kg−1
r2 (3.4 × 106 )2
The magnitude of the gravitational field strength is 3.7 N kg−1 towards the centre
of Mars.

Orbital mechanics
Figure 13.5 shows a satellite travelling in a circular orbit around the Earth.
The gravitational pull on the satellite provides the centripetal force to keep v
the satellite in orbit.
Centripetal force:
mg
mv2 Mm
F= =G 2
r r
Cancelling m and r:
GM
v2 =
r
which can be rewritten as: ▲ Figure 13.5

GM
ω
v == √ r 3

This can also be expressed in terms of angular speed, ω:

v = ωr

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 13 Gravitational fields

Therefore:
GM
ω=
√ r3

You can see that the angular speed, and hence the frequency and the period for one
orbit, are dependent on the orbital radius.
The relation between the period T for one orbit and the angular speed ω is:
2π
T=
ω
and between the frequency f and the period it is:
1
f=
T

WORKED EXAMPLE
The International Space Station (ISS) orbits 400 km above the Earth’s surface.
Calculate:
a the period of the orbit
b the speed of the ISS
(mass of Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of Earth = 6.4 × 10 3 km)

Answer
a orbital radius of the ISS = Earth’s radius + height of the ISS above the surface
= (6.4 × 103 + 400) = 6.8 × 103 km = 6.8 × 106 m
GM (6.67 × 10−11)× (6.0 × 1024)
ω= = = 1.13 × 10−3 rad s−1
√ r 3
√ (6.8 × 106)3
2π 2π
T= = = 5.57 × 103 s = 1.5 h
w 1.13 × 10−3
b v = ωr
orbital radius = 6.8 × 103 km
v = (1.13 × 10−3) × (6.8 × 103) = 7.7 km s−1

Geostationary orbits
» A satellite orbits the Earth directly above the equator.
» If the satellite orbits in the same direction as the Earth spins and has an
orbital period of 24 hours, it will remain over the same point above the Earth’s
surface.
» This type of orbit is used for communication satellites (Figure 13.6).
Rotation of the Earth

Satellite

▲ Figure 13.6 A satellite in geostationary orbit above the Earth

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 WORKED EXAMPLE
Calculate the height above the Earth that a satellite must be placed for it to
orbit in a geostationary manner.
(mass of Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of Earth = 6.4 × 106 m)

Answer
time period required for a geostationary orbit is 24 h = 86 400 s
2π
ω=
T
GM
ω=
√ r3

2π GM
So =
T √ r3
And:
GMT 2 (6.67 × 10−11) × (6.0 × 1024) × 86 4002
r3 = = = 7.57 × 1022
(2π)2 4π2
3
r = √7.57 × 1022 = 4.23 × 107

This is the radius of the satellite’s orbit. The radius of the Earth is 6.4 × 106 m,
so the height of the satellite above the Earth’s surface is:
(42.3 × 106) − (6.4 × 106) = 3.59 × 107 m ≈ 3.6 × 107 m

NOW TEST YOURSELF

3 During the Moon landings in the 1970s, the command module orbited the
Moon at an orbital height of 130 km above the surface of the moon. (mass of
the Moon = 7.3 × 1022 kg, the radius of the Moon = 1.740 × 103 km) Calculate:
a the period of the orbit
b the speed at which the satellite moved relative to the Moon’s surface

Gravitational potential
Gravitational potential energy at a point
From earlier work (see p. 47), you will be familiar with the idea that the gain in
gravitational potential energy of an object when it is lifted through a height Δh is
given by the formula:
ΔEp = mgΔh
» This formula only works if the gravitational force is constant, which is only true
if the field is uniform.
» If the field is non-uniform, it is approximately true for very small changes in
height, so a series of tiny changes can be added to give the total change in
gravitational potential energy.
» Physicists define the point at which an object has zero gravitational potential
energy as infinity.
» This means that the gravitational potential energy at an infinite distance from
any object is zero.
» This is a little difficult to start with; we know that an object loses gravitational
potential energy as it approaches the Earth or other large object.
» Thus, it has less than zero gravitational potential energy as it approaches an object.
» Put another way, it has negative gravitational potential energy when it is near
another object such as the Earth.
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 13 Gravitational fields

Gravitational potential
» By considering the gravitational potential energy of a unit mass, we can assign
each point in space a specific gravitational potential (f). KEY TERMS
» Figure 13.7 shows that the gravitational potential at the surface of the object is The gravitational
negative, and how the potential increases towards zero as we move away from potential at a point is
the work done per unit
the object.
mass in bringing a small
test mass from infinity
φ
r to that point.
The units of
gravitational potential
are J kg−1.

▲ Figure 13.7 The gravitational potential near an object of radius R

Solving problems
A careful study of the potential curve shows it to be of the form f ∝ 1/r.
The formula for calculating the gravitational potential at a point is:
GM
f=−
r
where r is the distance from the centre of mass of the object.

WORKED EXAMPLE
If an object is fired from the Earth’s surface with sufficient speed, it can escape
from the Earth’s gravitational field.
a Calculate the potential at the Earth’s surface.
b State and explain the minimum energy an object of unit mass would need to
be given to escape from the Earth’s gravitational field.
c Calculate the minimum speed at which the object must be fired to escape.
(Mass of Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of Earth = 6.4 × 106 m)

Answer
GM (−6.67 × 10−11) × (6.0 × 1024)
a f=− =− = −6.25 × 107 J kg−1
r 6.4 × 106
b 6.25 × 107 J, the energy required to reach infinity, zero potential energy
c Ek = ½mv2
which leads to:
2Ek 2 × (6.25 × 107)
v= = = 1.1 × 104 m s−1
√m √ 1

NOW TEST YOURSELF

4 Why was infinity chosen as the zero of potential, rather than the surface of
the Earth?
Hint: think on the very large scale rather than on the smaller scale.
5 Calculate the gravitational potential at the Moon’s surface.
(mass of the Moon = 7.3 × 1022 kg, radius of the Moon = 1.74 × 106 m)
6 Use your answer to question 5 to calculate the escape velocity from the
Moon’s surface.

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 Gravitational potential energy
From the definition of gravitational gravitational potential, it follows that the
gravitational potential energy of two isolated point masses is given by the equation:
GMm
Ep =−
r
Very often we consider a small mass, such as a spacecraft or meteorite, near a much
larger mass, such as a planet. In those circumstances, we often think of the small
mass as having a gravitational potential energy given by the formula Ep = −GMm/r
and forget that the planet also has the same magnitude of gravitational potential
energy due to the small object.

NOW TEST YOURSELF

7 a Estimate your gravitational potential energy when you are standing on
the Earth’s surface.
b Write down the Earth’s gravitational potential energy due to your
presence. Hint: the answer is not zero – why not?
(mass of the Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, radius of the Earth = 6.4 × 106 m)

REVISION ACTIVITIES
STUDY TIP
Use the internet to find the orbital period of the International Space Station. Question 7 does not
Use the information to find the height above the Earth at which it orbits. satisfactorily fulfil the
Check this figure from another internet source. criteria for two isolated
spherical masses for
‘Must learn’ equations: a variety of reasons.
GM −GM However, we can use
g= ϕ= this as a model to give a
r2 r
good estimate as to your
Gm1m2 −m1m2 gravitational potential
F= Ep = r energy.
r2

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt: » to analyse circular orbits in gravitational
» that a gravitational field is an example of a fields by relating the gravitational force to the
field of force centripetal acceleration it causes
» that gravitational field strength is defined as » to understand that a satellite in a geostationary
the force per unit mass orbit remains at the same point above the
» to represent a gravitational field by means of Earth’s surface, with an orbital period of
field lines 24 hours, orbiting from west to east directly
» to understand that for a point outside a sphere, above the Earth’s equator
the mass of the sphere may be considered to » to understand why g is approximately constant
be a point mass at its centre for small changes in height near the Earth’s
» to recall and use Newton’s law of gravitation surface
F = Gm1m2 /r 2 for the force between two point » to define gravitational potential at a point as the
masses work done per unit mass in bringing a small
» to derive, from Newton’s law of gravitation test mass from infinity to the point
and the definition of gravitational field, the » to use ϕ = −GM/r for the gravitational
equation g = Gm/r 2 for the gravitational field potential in the field for a point mass
strength due to a point mass » to understand how the concept of gravitational
» to recall and use g = Gm/r 2 potential leads to the gravitational potential
energy of two masses and use Ep = −Gm1m2 /r

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