Cell Biology & Microscopy

🔬Specimens
1. Using a Microscope to Examine Biological

Apparatus:
Light microscope

Prepared slides (e.g. onion cells, cheek cells)

Lens tissue

Procedure:
1. Place the slide on the microscope stage and secure it with stage clips.

2. Start with the lowest magnification objective lens.

3. Use the coarse focus knob to bring the specimen roughly into view.

4. Use the fine focus knob to sharpen the image.

5. Adjust the light intensity using the diaphragm if needed.

6. Observe and note any visible cell structures.

Observation:
General shape and layout of cells

Cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus (depending on specimen)

Notes:
Always start with low magnification and increase step by step.

Clean lenses before and after use.

📏 2. Calculating Magnification
Formula:
Magnification = Image Size / Actual Size

Cell Biology & Microscopy 1

 Procedure:
1. Measure the image size (in mm) using a ruler on a printed photomicrograph.

2. Convert mm to µm (1 mm = 1000 µm).

3. Use the scale bar (if given) to find the actual size.

4. Apply the formula above.

Example:
If an image of a cell is 50 mm wide and its actual size is 100 µm:
Magnification = 50,000 µm / 100 µm = 500x

Notes:
Always convert units properly.

Magnification has no units.

🧫 3. Preparing and Staining Animal & Plant Cells

Apparatus:
Microscope

Glass slide and cover slip

Iodine solution (for plant cells)

Methylene blue (for animal cells)

Forceps, dropper, and tissue paper

Onion (for plant cells) or cotton swab (for cheek cells)

Procedure (Onion Cells):

1. Peel a thin epidermal layer from an onion.

2. Place it flat on a glass slide.

3. Add 1–2 drops of iodine solution.

4. Carefully place a cover slip at an angle to avoid air bubbles.

5. Observe under the microscope.

Cell Biology & Microscopy 2

 Procedure (Cheek Cells):
1. Use a sterile swab to scrape the inner cheek.

2. Smear onto the slide.

3. Add 1–2 drops of methylene blue.

4. Place a cover slip gently.

5. Observe under the microscope.

Observation:
Onion cells: Cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm.

Cheek cells: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus (stained blue).

Safety Note:
Handle stains with care.

Dispose of biological material safely.

🖼Photomicrographs
4. Observing Different Cell Structures in

Materials:
Photomicrographs of plant and animal cells (printed or digital)

Ruler and calculator

Procedure:
1. Study the images for organelles like the nucleus, chloroplast, and cell
membrane.

2. Identify the type of cell: plant or animal.

3. Measure structures using a ruler if image has a scale bar.

4. Use the magnification formula to calculate actual sizes.

5. Label visible structures.

Observation:

Cell Biology & Microscopy 3

 Plant cells: Cell wall, large vacuole, chloroplasts, nucleus.

Animal cells: Irregular shape, nucleus, no cell wall or chloroplasts.

✅ Tips for Exam Success:

Always state the full magnification formula.

Know the differences between plant and animal cell structures.

Practice drawing and labelling from microscope observations or

photomicrographs.

Cell Biology & Microscopy 4

 Unassessed Topics
Effect of Different Salt Concentrations on
Osmosis in Red Blood Cells
Aim:
To observe the effects of osmosis on red blood cells placed in solutions of
varying salt concentrations.

Apparatus:
Microscope slides and coverslips

Red blood cell suspension

Solutions of varying salt concentration (e.g., 0.0%, 0.9%, 1.8%)

Dropper

Microscope

Method:
1. Place a drop of red blood cell suspension on a slide.

2. Add a drop of one salt solution (e.g., distilled water, 0.9%, or 1.8% NaCl).

3. Cover with a coverslip and observe under a microscope.

4. Repeat with each salt concentration.

Observation:
Distilled water (0.0% NaCl): Water enters cells by osmosis → cells burst
(lysis).

0.9% NaCl: Isotonic solution → cells remain normal.

1.8% NaCl: Water leaves cells → cells shrink (crenation).

Conclusion:
Osmosis causes water to move in or out of cells based on the surrounding
solution's concentration, affecting cell shape and function.

Unassessed Topics 1
 Effect of Detergent on Cell Membranes
(Beetroot Permeability Test)
Aim:
To investigate how detergent affects the permeability of cell membranes using
beetroot slices.

Apparatus:
Beetroot slices

Test tubes

Different concentrations of detergent

Water bath (optional)

Colorimeter (optional)

Method:
1. Rinse beetroot slices to remove surface pigment.

2. Place equal-sized beetroot slices into test tubes with varying

concentrations of detergent.

3. Leave for 15–30 minutes at a constant temperature.

4. Observe color of the solution or use a colorimeter for quantitative analysis.

Observation:
Higher detergent concentration causes more pigment (betalain) to leak
out → deeper red color.

Indicates damage to cell membrane.

Conclusion:
Detergent disrupts the lipid bilayer of membranes, increasing permeability and
allowing pigment to diffuse out.

Unassessed Topics 2
 Effect of Temperature on Diffusion Rates
in Liquid Media
Aim:
To observe how temperature affects the rate of diffusion in a liquid medium.

Apparatus:
Beakers with hot, warm, and cold water

Potassium permanganate crystals (or food dye)

Timer

Method:
1. Fill three beakers with hot, room temperature, and cold water.

2. Simultaneously drop a small crystal or drop of dye into the center of each
beaker.

3. Start the timer and observe the rate at which the color spreads.

Observation:
In hot water, dye spreads fastest.

In cold water, dye spreads slowest.

Conclusion:
Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of molecules, speeding up
diffusion.

Estimating Photosynthesis Rate Using

Bicarbonate Indicator
Aim:

Unassessed Topics 3
 To estimate the rate of photosynthesis by observing CO₂ uptake using
hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) indicator.

Apparatus:
Test tubes

Bicarbonate indicator (pH indicator)

Aquatic plant (e.g., Cabomba or Elodea)

Light source

Stopper or parafilm

Indicator Color Reference:

Yellow = High CO₂ (acidic)

Orange = Normal CO₂ (atmospheric level)

Purple = Low CO₂ (alkaline, due to photosynthesis)

Method:
1. Add bicarbonate indicator to several test tubes.

2. Place equal lengths of aquatic plant in each.

3. Set up under different light conditions (bright light, low light, dark).

4. Observe color change after 30 minutes.

Observation:
Bright light: Turns purple → high rate of photosynthesis, CO₂ used up.

Low light: Little or no change.

Dark: Turns yellow → respiration releases CO₂.

Conclusion:
Bicarbonate indicator color change reflects the CO₂ concentration, allowing
indirect measurement of photosynthesis rate.

Unassessed Topics 4
 Movement of Substances
Experiments Guide
1. Diffusion Experiment (Potassium Permanganate in
Agar)
Objective:
Demonstrate molecular diffusion through a semi-solid medium.

Materials:

Agar plate

Potassium permanganate crystals

Forceps

Ruler

Procedure:

1. Prepare 1% agar plate and allow to solidify

2. Using forceps, place 1 crystal of KMnO₄ at the center

3. Observe every 10 minutes for 1 hour

4. Measure the diameter of the purple diffusion circle

Expected Results:

Purple color spreads radially from crystal

Diffusion rate decreases over time

Scientific Principle:

Molecules move down concentration gradient (high→low)

Brownian motion drives passive diffusion

2. Osmosis Experiments
A. Potato Strip Mass Change
Materials:

Movement of Substances Experiments Guide 1

 Potato cylinders (5cm long)

Sucrose solutions (0.2M, 0.4M, 0.6M)

Electronic balance

Ruler

Procedure:

1. Measure initial mass/length of 3 potato strips

2. Immerse each in different sucrose solutions for 30 mins

3. Re-measure and calculate % change

Expected Results:

Mass increases in hypotonic (<0.3M)

Mass decreases in hypertonic (>0.3M)

B. Dialysis Tubing Demonstration

Materials:

Visking tubing

Starch solution

Iodine solution

Glucose test strips

Procedure:

1. Tie one end of tubing, fill with starch+glucose solution

2. Immerse in water with iodine (yellow)

3. Test surrounding water for glucose after 20 mins

Expected Results:

Iodine stays outside (starch too large to diffuse out)

Glucose detected in water (small molecules pass through)

3. Cell Osmosis Observations

Plant Cells (Onion Epidermis)

Movement of Substances Experiments Guide 2

 Procedure:

1. Prepare wet mounts with:

Distilled water (hypotonic)

0.9% NaCl (isotonic)

5% NaCl (hypertonic)

2. Observe under microscope (400x)

Expected Results:

Hypotonic: Turgid (vacuole expanded)

Isotonic: Flaccid (normal)

Hypertonic: Plasmolysis (membrane pulls away)

Animal Cells (Red Blood Cells)

Procedure:

1. Prepare blood smears with:

0.3% NaCl (hypotonic)

0.9% NaCl (isotonic)

10% NaCl (hypertonic)

Expected Results:

Hypotonic: Lysis (cells burst)

Isotonic: Normal biconcave shape

Hypertonic: Crenation (shriveling)

Safety Precautions:

Wear gloves when handling biological samples

Dispose of KMnO₄ properly (oxidizing agent)

Clean microscope slides after use

Do not ingest any solutions

Movement of Substances Experiments Guide 3

 Food Tests for Biological
Molecules
1. Test for Starch (Iodine Test)
Objective:
Detect the presence of starch in food samples.
Materials:

Iodine solution (potassium iodide)

Test tube

Dropper

Food sample (e.g., potato, bread)

Procedure:

1. Prepare food sample by crushing and mixing with distilled water

2. Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution to the sample

3. Observe immediate color change

Expected Results:

Positive: Deep blue-black color

Negative: Remains yellow/brown

Scientific Principle:

Iodine forms polyiodide complexes with amylose in starch

The helix structure of amylose traps iodine molecules

Safety:

Iodine is toxic if ingested - avoid contact with mouth

2. Test for Reducing Sugars (Benedict's Test)

Objective:
Identify reducing sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, maltose).

Food Tests for Biological Molecules 1

 Materials:

Benedict's reagent (blue)

Water bath (75-80°C)

Test tube holder

Food sample (e.g., fruit juice)

Procedure:

1. Add 2ml food sample + 2ml Benedict's reagent to test tube

2. Heat in water bath for 5 minutes

3. Observe color change

Expected Results:

Negative: Remains blue

Trace: Green

Moderate: Yellow/orange

High: Brick-red precipitate

Scientific Principle:

Reducing sugars donate electrons (reduce Cu²⁺ → Cu⁺)

Forms insoluble copper(I) oxide precipitate

Tip:

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides (except sucrose) are reducing

sugars

3. Test for Proteins (Biuret Test)

Objective:

Detect peptide bonds in proteins.

Materials:

Biuret reagent (NaOH + CuSO₄)

Test tube

Protein sample (e.g., egg white)

Food Tests for Biological Molecules 2

 Procedure:

1. Add 2ml sample + 2ml Biuret reagent

2. Shake gently

3. Wait 5 minutes

Expected Results:

Positive: Violet/purple color

Negative: Remains blue

Scientific Principle:

Cu²⁺ ions form coordination complexes with peptide bonds

Requires ≥2 peptide bonds to react

Note:

NaOH makes solution alkaline - wear gloves

4. Test for Lipids (Emulsion Test)

Objective:

Identify fats and oils.

Materials:

Ethanol (cold)

Distilled water

Test tube

Lipid sample (e.g., vegetable oil)

Procedure:

1. Mix 2ml sample with 2ml ethanol

2. Shake vigorously

3. Add equal volume cold water

Expected Results:

Positive: Milky white emulsion

Negative: Solution remains clear

Food Tests for Biological Molecules 3

 Scientific Principle:

Lipids dissolve in ethanol but precipitate in water

Forms colloidal suspension of fat droplets

Safety:

Ethanol is flammable - no open flames

Use cold ethanol for better results

General Precautions:

1. Always use a control test (distilled water)

2. Clean test tubes thoroughly between tests

3. Record observations immediately

4. For solid foods:

Crush with mortar/pestle

Filter if necessary

Food Tests for Biological Molecules 4

 Enzyme Activity
1. Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity (e.g.,
amylase breaking down starch)
Objective:
To investigate how different temperatures affect the activity of amylase on
starch.
Materials:

Test tubes

Water baths at various temperatures (e.g., 0°C, 20°C, 37°C, 60°C)

Amylase solution

Starch solution

Iodine solution

Spotting tile

Stopwatch

Pipettes

Method:

1. Label test tubes for each temperature.

2. Add equal volumes of starch solution and amylase to each tube.

3. Place the tubes in water baths at different temperatures for 5 minutes.

4. Every 30 seconds, use a pipette to place a drop from each mixture onto a
spotting tile containing iodine.

5. Record the time taken for the iodine to stop turning blue-black, indicating
starch breakdown.

6. Repeat for reliability and calculate average times.

Conclusion:
As temperature increases, enzyme activity typically increases up to an
optimum (usually 37°C), after which the enzyme denatures and activity drops.

Enzyme Activity 1
 2. Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity using Buffer
Solutions
Objective:
To observe how varying pH levels affect enzyme activity.
Materials:

Buffer solutions of different pH values (e.g., 4, 6, 7, 8, 10)

Enzyme solution (e.g., amylase)

Starch solution

Iodine solution

Spotting tile

Stopwatch

Pipettes

Test tubes

Method:

1. Mix starch, buffer solution, and amylase in test tubes for each pH value.

2. Start the stopwatch and place drops on iodine every 30 seconds.

3. Record the time when iodine no longer changes color (no starch present).

4. Repeat and calculate averages.

Conclusion:

Each enzyme has an optimum pH. Outside of this range, enzyme activity
decreases due to denaturation or reduced efficiency.

3. Measuring Rate of Reaction by Observing Time for

a Color Change (Iodine Test)
Objective:
To measure the rate at which amylase breaks down starch by timing the
disappearance of the blue-black iodine-starch complex.

Materials:

Starch solution

Enzyme Activity 2
 Amylase solution

Iodine solution

Spotting tile

Stopwatch

Pipettes

Test tubes

Method:

1. Mix starch and amylase in a test tube.

2. Start the stopwatch and place drops onto iodine at 10-second intervals.

3. Observe and record the time taken for the color to no longer change (no
starch remaining).

4. Repeat the process and calculate an average.

Conclusion:
Shorter time for color change indicates a faster reaction rate. Conditions
affecting the enzyme (e.g., temperature, pH) will influence this rate.

4. Using a Gas Syringe or Inverted Cylinder to

Measure Oxygen Release (Catalase Breaking Down
Hydrogen Peroxide)
Objective:
To measure the rate of oxygen production as catalase breaks down hydrogen
peroxide.

Materials:

Hydrogen peroxide solution

Catalase source (e.g., liver or potato)

Gas syringe or inverted measuring cylinder

Water trough

Delivery tube

Clamp stand

Enzyme Activity 3
 Stopwatch

Test tubes or conical flask

Method:

1. Place hydrogen peroxide in a conical flask.

2. Add catalase and immediately seal the flask with a bung connected to a gas
syringe or inverted cylinder.

3. Start the stopwatch and record the volume of oxygen produced every 30
seconds.

4. Repeat the experiment for different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide or

enzyme.

Conclusion:

The rate of oxygen production reflects enzyme activity. More bubbles or faster
volume increase means higher activity.

Enzyme Activity 4
 Transport in Plants
💧 1. Transpiration Experiment Using a Potometer
Apparatus:
Potometer (e.g., bubble potometer)

Healthy leafy shoot

Beaker of water

Razor blade or scissors

Petroleum jelly (optional)

Stopwatch

Ruler

Procedure:
1. Cut the shoot underwater to prevent air from entering the xylem.

2. Insert the shoot into the potometer underwater and seal any joints using
petroleum jelly to prevent leaks.

3. Remove any bubbles in the capillary tube by briefly lifting it out of water.

4. Introduce a small air bubble into the capillary tube.

5. Measure the distance the bubble travels over a set time (e.g., 5 minutes).

6. Repeat the measurements and calculate the average rate of water uptake.

Observation:
The air bubble moves along the capillary tube as water is taken up by the
shoot.

Result:
Water uptake rate (mm/min) = distance moved by bubble / time taken

Scientific Explanation:
Water is lost through transpiration and replaced by uptake from the roots.

Transport in Plants 1
 The potometer indirectly measures transpiration rate.

🌤️Transpiration
2. Effect of Environmental Factors on
Rate
Apparatus:
Potometer setup (as above)

Desk lamp (for light)

Fan (for wind)

Plastic bag or spray bottle (for humidity)

Stopwatch and ruler

Procedure:
1. Set up the potometer and introduce an air bubble as before.

2. Record the control rate of water uptake (in a neutral environment).

3. Test each factor one by one:

Light: Place a lamp close to the plant.

Wind: Use a fan to blow air gently.

Humidity: Mist the air around the leaves or cover with a plastic bag.

4. Record the bubble movement for each condition over equal time periods.

5. Compare rates to determine how each factor affects transpiration.

Observation & Explanation:

Light: Increases transpiration (stomata open for photosynthesis).

Wind: Increases transpiration (removes water vapor around the leaf).

Humidity: Decreases transpiration (reduces water vapor gradient).

🌈Uptake
3. Observing Xylem Vessels Using Dyed Water
in Celery
Apparatus:

Transport in Plants 2
 Fresh celery stalks with leaves

Beaker

Water with colored dye (e.g., food coloring or eosin)

Knife

Microscope (optional)

Procedure:
1. Fill a beaker with water and add a generous amount of dye.

2. Place a celery stalk in the beaker and leave it for several hours (or
overnight).

3. Observe any color change up the stem or in the leaves.

4. Cut cross-sections of the celery stem and observe the dyed xylem vessels.

5. (Optional) Use a microscope to view xylem structure more clearly.

Observation:
Colored lines appear in the stem and leaves where dye has moved up the
xylem.

Scientific Explanation:
Water moves through xylem by transpiration pull.

The dye travels along with the water and stains the xylem vessels.

🥀 4. Wilting & Turgor Pressure Experiment

Apparatus:
Fresh plant leaves or spinach/celery leaves

Beakers

Distilled water

Salt/sugar solution (hypertonic)

Stopwatch (optional)

Procedure:

Transport in Plants 3
 1. Place one set of leaves in a beaker of distilled water.

2. Place another set in a beaker of concentrated salt/sugar solution.

3. Leave both setups for 15–30 minutes.

4. Observe changes in texture and firmness.

Observation:
In water: Leaves become firm and crisp (turgid).

In salt solution: Leaves become limp and wilted (flaccid).

Scientific Explanation:
In pure water, water enters cells by osmosis, causing them to become
turgid.

In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cells, causing plasmolysis and

wilting.

✅ Tips for Exam Success:

Be clear on the setup and function of a potometer.

Know how each environmental factor affects transpiration.

Understand the movement of dye through xylem vessels.

Explain turgor pressure using osmosis terminology.

Transport in Plants 4
 Respiration & Gas Exchange
🌫️(Limewater
1. Measuring CO₂ Production in Respiration
Test)
Apparatus:
Test tube with limewater

Straw or delivery tube

Stopwatch (optional)

Procedure:
1. Fill a test tube about one-third full with clear limewater (calcium hydroxide
solution).

2. Blow gently through a straw into the limewater for about 30 seconds.

3. Observe any changes in the appearance of the limewater.

Observation:
Limewater turns milky/cloudy if CO₂ is present.

Scientific Explanation:
Exhaled air contains more CO₂ than inhaled air.

CO₂ reacts with calcium hydroxide: Ca(OH)₂ + CO₂ → CaCO₃ (white precipitate) + H₂O

🌡️ 2. Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast

Apparatus:
Boiling tubes

Yeast suspension

Glucose solution

Water bath (or beakers with warm water)

Delivery tube and limewater/test tube or gas syringe

Respiration & Gas Exchange 1

 Thermometer

Stopwatch

Procedure:
1. Mix yeast with glucose solution in a boiling tube.

2. Attach a delivery tube to pass the gas into limewater or a gas syringe.

3. Place the boiling tube in a water bath at different temperatures (e.g. 20°C,
30°C, 40°C).

4. Measure the volume of CO₂ produced over a fixed time (e.g. 5 minutes).

Observation:
CO₂ production increases with temperature until an optimum is reached.

Too high a temperature denatures enzymes, reducing CO₂ production.

Scientific Explanation:
Yeast respires aerobically or anaerobically depending on oxygen.

Respiration rate increases with temperature due to faster enzyme activity.

🎈(Balloon
3. Investigating Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast
Test)
Apparatus:
Boiling tube

Yeast

Glucose solution

Rubber balloon

Warm water bath (optional)

Procedure:
1. Mix yeast and glucose solution in a boiling tube.

2. Stretch a balloon over the mouth of the tube.

Respiration & Gas Exchange 2

 3. Place the setup in a warm location or water bath (~30–37°C).

4. Leave for 15–30 minutes and observe balloon inflation.

Observation:
Balloon inflates due to the release of carbon dioxide.

Scientific Explanation:
In anaerobic conditions, yeast performs fermentation: Glucose → Ethanol + CO₂ +
Energy

The CO₂ inflates the balloon, indicating respiration occurred without

oxygen.

🏃Exercise
4. Measuring Breathing Rate Before and After

Apparatus:
Stopwatch

Yourself or a partner

Quiet space for rest and area for light exercise (e.g. jogging in place)

Procedure:
1. Sit calmly for 2 minutes.

2. Count the number of breaths (inhale + exhale = 1 breath) in 1 minute

(resting rate).

3. Do light exercise for 1–2 minutes (e.g. jogging on the spot).

4. Immediately measure breathing rate again for 1 minute.

5. Repeat and take averages.

Observation:
Breathing rate increases after exercise.

Scientific Explanation:
During exercise, muscles need more oxygen for increased respiration.

Respiration & Gas Exchange 3

 Faster breathing helps to deliver oxygen and remove CO₂ more efficiently.

✅ Tips for Exam Success:

Know the limewater test for CO₂ and how to explain results.

Understand how temperature affects enzymes in yeast respiration.

Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Link increased breathing rate to cellular respiration during activity.

Respiration & Gas Exchange 4

 Nervous System & Response
The nervous system allows organisms to detect changes in the environment
(stimuli) and respond appropriately. It includes:

Receptors: Detect stimuli (e.g., eyes for light, skin for temperature).

Effectors: Muscles or glands that carry out responses.

Neurons: Nerve cells that carry impulses. There are:

Sensory neurons: carry impulses from receptors to CNS.

Relay neurons: connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.

Motor neurons: carry impulses from CNS to effectors.

Reflex actions: Rapid, automatic responses that do not involve conscious

thought. These help in protection.

Reflex Action Experiment: Ruler Drop Test

Aim:
To measure a person’s reaction time using a simple reflex action.

Apparatus:
A 30 cm ruler

A partner

Method:
1. One person sits with their arm resting on a table so only their hand hangs
over the edge.

2. The other person holds the ruler vertically above the test subject’s hand,
aligning the ruler’s 0 cm mark with the top of the thumb.

3. Without warning, drop the ruler.

4. The subject tries to catch it as quickly as possible.

5. Record the point on the ruler where it was caught.

Nervous System & Response 1

 6. Repeat several times and calculate the average.

Results:
Convert the distance fallen to reaction time using the formula:

t = √(2d / g)

Where:

t = reaction time (seconds)

d = distance ruler fell (meters)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)

Conclusion:
Shorter distances indicate faster reaction times. This test measures simple
reflex responses without conscious control.

Tropic Responses in Plants

Plants respond to stimuli using growth movements called tropisms. These
responses are controlled by plant hormones like auxin.

Types of Tropism:
Phototropism: Response to light.

Shoots grow towards light (positive phototropism).

Roots show no or negative phototropism.

Gravitropism (Geotropism): Response to gravity.

Roots grow downwards (positive gravitropism).

Shoots grow upwards (negative gravit

Nervous System & Response 2

 Reproduction & Growth
Reproduction in plants involves the formation of seeds through the process of
pollination, fertilization, and seed germination. This section covers experiments
that explore the conditions required for germination, pollen tube growth, and
identifying reproductive parts of flowers.

Investigating Conditions Required for Seed

Germination
Aim:
To investigate the effect of oxygen, water, and temperature on seed
germination.

Apparatus:
Petri dishes

Cotton wool or filter paper

Seeds (e.g., beans)

Water

Boiled water (for oxygen-free condition)

Fridge (for low temperature)

Oil (to prevent oxygen entry)

Method:
Set up four Petri dishes with seeds under different conditions:

1. A – Water, oxygen, warm temperature ✅ (All conditions present)

2. B – No water (dry cotton wool), oxygen, warm ❌

3. C – Water, no oxygen (boiled and cooled water + layer of oil), warm ❌

4. D – Water, oxygen, cold (in fridge) ❌
Observation:

Reproduction & Growth 1

 Only dish A shows germination.

Other dishes do not germinate due to the absence of one necessary

factor.

Conclusion:
Seeds need water, oxygen, and a suitable temperature to germinate.

Observing Pollen Tube Growth in Sucrose Solutions

Aim:
To observe pollen tube growth in different concentrations of sucrose solution.

Apparatus:
Microscope slides

Coverslips

Pollen grains (from flowers like lily)

Sucrose solutions of different concentrations

Dropper

Microscope

Method:
1. Prepare sucrose solutions (e.g., 5%, 10%, 15%).

2. Place a drop of each solution on separate slides.

3. Add pollen grains to each drop.

4. Cover with a coverslip and leave for 30 minutes.

5. Observe under a microscope.

Observation:
Pollen grains in optimal sucrose concentration grow long pollen tubes.

Very low or very high concentrations may show poor or no growth.

Conclusion:

Reproduction & Growth 2

 Sucrose provides energy and osmotic conditions suitable for pollen tube
growth, which is essential for fertilization.

Dissecting a Flower to Identify Reproductive Parts

Aim:
To identify the male and female reproductive parts of a flower.

Apparatus:
A complete flower (e.g., lily or hibiscus)

Forceps

Scalpel

Magnifying glass

Method:
1. Carefully remove the petals to expose the reproductive parts.

2. Identify:

Stamen (male part): made of anther (produces pollen) and filament.

Carpel (female part): includes stigma, style, and ovary (contains

ovules).

3. Cut open the ovary to observe the ovules inside.

Observation:
Anther contains yellow powdery pollen.

Ovary contains tiny round ovules.

Stigma is often sticky to trap pollen.

Conclusion:
Flowers have clearly distinguishable male and female parts that work together
in sexual reproduction.

Reproduction & Growth 3

 Variation & Genetics
Variation refers to the differences between individuals of the same species. It
can be due to genetic factors, environmental factors, or both. Understanding
variation helps in studying inheritance and biodiversity.

Investigating Continuous & Discontinuous Variation

Aim:
To distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation using real-life
examples.

Definitions:
Continuous variation: Data can take any value within a range (e.g., height,
hand span). Affected by multiple genes and the environment.

Discontinuous variation: Data falls into distinct categories (e.g., eye color,
blood group). Usually controlled by a single gene.

Apparatus:
Ruler or measuring tape

Data recording sheet

Group of students

Method:
1. Continuous variation example – Measure hand span of several individuals
and record values in cm.

2. Discontinuous variation example – Record eye color of each person (e.g.,

brown, blue, green).

3. Plot:

A histogram for hand span (continuous).

A bar chart for eye color (discontinuous).

Observation:

Variation & Genetics 1

 Hand span shows a gradual range with no gaps.

Eye color shows distinct categories with no values in between.

Conclusion:
Different traits can be classified based on how the data is distributed, helping
us understand patterns of inheritance and gene expression.

Using a Quadrat for Sampling Biodiversity

Aim:
To estimate the biodiversity or abundance of species in a habitat using a
quadrat.

Apparatus:
Quadrat (square frame, e.g., 0.5m x 0.5m)

Measuring tape

Field notebook

Identification key for species (optional)

Method:
1. Choose a sampling area (e.g., school field).

2. Lay out a measuring tape and place the quadrat at random points along it
(use random number method or toss method).

3. At each quadrat position:

Count the number of different species.

Record the number of individuals of each species.

4. Repeat in multiple areas for a fair average.

5. Calculate species frequency or percentage cover.

Example Table:
Quadrat No. Dandelions Clover Grass

1 4 2 10

Variation & Genetics 2

 2 3 3 8

... ... ... ...

Conclusion:
Quadrat sampling helps estimate species abundance and compare biodiversity
across different areas, supporting the study of ecological variation.

Variation & Genetics 3