MATH 235

Algebra I Tutorial 1 September 9, 2024

1 Recall

1.1 Set Notations

Recall that ∀ means ”for all / for any” and ∃ means ”there exists”.

Definition 1.1. Let A be a set. The cardinality of A, denoted as |A|, is the number of
elements in A.

Definition 1.2. Let A, B be sets. A is a subset of B, denoted as A ⊆ B, if for any x ∈ A,

we have x ∈ B. If further A ̸= B, then A is a proper subset of B, denoted as A ⊊ B.

We say two sets A, B are equal, denoted as A = B, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Definition 1.3. Let Aα be a set for any α. Then

[
ˆ the union of all Aα , denoted as Aα , is the set {x | x ∈ Aα for some α};
α
\
ˆ the intersection of all Aα , denoted as Aα , is the set {x | x ∈ Aα for all α}
α

Definition 1.4. Let A, B be sets. The difference set A\B is defined by

A\B = {x | x ∈ A but x ̸∈ B}

Venn’s diagrams of A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A\B are recommended for basic intuition of the definitions.

Definition 1.5. Let A, B be sets. The product of A and B, denoted by A × B, is defined by

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, B ∈ B}

The following are examples of products of sets:

ˆ {1, 2} × {3, 4}

ˆ {3, 4} × {1, 2} (observe A × B is not necessarily equal to B × A)

ˆ {1, 2} × {1, 2} (observe that the 1 on the left is different from the 1 on the right)

ˆ R2 := R × R

ˆ R3 := R2 × R

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1.2 Common Sets

There are quite a few of sets which the notations worth remembering, since they appear
frequently in mathematics.

ˆ N is the set of natural numbers.

ˆ N+ is the set of positive integers.

ˆ Z is the set of integers.

ˆ Q is the set of rational numbers, i.e. all numbers which can be represented as a fraction
(ratio) of two integers.

ˆ R is the set of real numbers.

ˆ ∅ = { } is the empty set, i.e. for any set S, we have ∅ ⊆ S.

1.3 Proof by Contrapositive and by Contradiction

In order to prove statement q given statement p, there are two types of strategies:

ˆ Proof by Contrapositive: prove that given the negation of q, we have the negation of p;

ˆ Proof by Contradiction: given p and the negation fo q, we derive a contradiction.

1.4 Mathematical Induction

To prove a proposition P (n) for n ∈ N, we can proceed the proof by mathematical induction
by proving the following statements:

ˆ (base case) Prove that P (0) is true.

ˆ (inductive case) For any n ∈ N, suppose P (n) is true, then prove that P (n + 1) is true.

There is another similar (but slightly more powerful) proof method, called strong induction:

ˆ (base case) Prove that P (0) is true.

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ˆ (inductive case) For any n ∈ N, suppose P (k) is true for k ≤ n, then prove that P (n+1)
is true.

1.5 Functions

Let A, B be sets. Let F ⊆ A × B be a subset.

Definition 1.6. We say F is:

ˆ univalent if for any a ∈ A, b1 , b2 ∈ B, if (a, b1 ), (a, b2 ) ∈ R then b1 = b2 .

ˆ total if for any a ∈ A, there is b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ F .

ˆ injective if for any b ∈ A, a1 , a2 ∈ B, if (a1 , b1 ), (a, b2 ) ∈ R then b1 = b2 .

ˆ surjective if for any b ∈ B, there is a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ F .

F is a function if F is univalent and total. F is a bijective function if F is a function, injective

and surjective.

If F ⊆ A × B is a function, we notate an associated f by f : A → B, and we say f (a) = b if

(a, b) ∈ F . The associated f is well-defined because F is univalent; and for any a ∈ A, we
can define f (a) since F is total.

Definition 1.7. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions. We say g ◦ f : A → C is the

composite of f and g and define g ◦ f (a) = g(f (a)) for any a ∈ A.

Proposition 1.8. Let f : A → B be an bijective function. Then there is an inverse function

f −1 : B → A such that

1. f −1 (f (a)) = a for any a ∈ A

2. f (f −1 (b)) = b for any b ∈ B.

Proposition 1.9. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be functions.

ˆ If f and g are both injective, then g ◦ f is injective.

ˆ If f and g are both surjective, then g ◦ f is surjective.

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ˆ If f and g are both bijective, then g ◦ f is bijective.

ˆ If g ◦ f is injective, then f is injective.

ˆ If g ◦ f is surjective, then g is surjective.

Definition 1.10. Let f ∈ A → B be a function. The image of S ⊆ A under f is

f (S) = {b ∈ B : f (s) = b for some s ∈ S}

The range of f is f (A). See Problem ?? for the equivalence between f (A) = B and f being
surjective.

The pre-image of T ⊆ B under f is

f −1 (T ) = {a ∈ A : f (a) ∈ T }

1.6 Relations

Definition 1.11. Let A be a set. A subset R ⊆ A × A is a relation. We write aRb if

(a, b) ∈ R.

ˆ R is reflexive if aRa for all a ∈ A.

ˆ R is symmetric if for any a, b ∈ A, aRb implies bRa.

ˆ R is transitive if for any a, b, c ∈ A, suppose aRb and bRc, then aRc.

ˆ R is anti-symmetric if for any a, b ∈ A, if aRb and bRa then a = b.

2 Problems

Problem 2.1. What is the cardinality of S below?

S = {x ∈ N+ : x is not divisible by 3 and 1 ≤ x ≤ 100}

Problem 2.2. Let (an ) be any sequence in real numbers. Let L ∈ R.

Rewrite the following statements and their negation (opposite meanings of them) with nota-
tions ∀ and ∃:

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(a) for any M > 0, there is N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N , we have an > M .

(b) for any ϵ > 0, there is N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N , we have |an − L| < ϵ.

Problem 2.3. Determine whether the following statements are true. Prove your claim.

(a) {x ∈ N+ : x is a prime}\{2} ⊊ {x ∈ N : x = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ N}

(b) {x ∈ R : x can be represented by a decimal with finitely many digits} ⊊ Q

Problem 2.4. Let S0 = ∅. We define sets Si iteratively as follows:

Si+1 = Si ∪ {Si }

(a) Write down S1 , S2 and S3 .

(b) Prove that Sj+1 = {S0 , S1 , . . . , Sj }.

(c) Prove that Si ∈ Sj for any i < j.

(d) Prove that Si ⊆ Sj for any i ≤ j.

(The main point for this question is to understand the concept of ”set of a set”. Rigorous
proofs involving mathematical induction is not expected.)

See more about this construction here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-theoretic_

definition_of_natural_numbers (not inside the scope of the exam)

Problem 2.5. Let A, B, C be sets. Assume B ⊆ C. Prove that

(A ∩ B) ∪ [C\(A ∪ (C\B))] = B

Reference: Wikibooks Set Theory Exercise 4 Question 2(d) Retrieved from https://en.
wikibooks.org/wiki/Discrete_Mathematics/Set_theory/Exercises on Sep 8, 2022.

Problem\2.6. Let Dn ⊆ Z to be the set of integers which are divisible by n, for n ∈ N+ .

What is Dn ?
n∈N+

Definition 2.7. Let a, b ∈ R. We define (finite-measure) intervals on R as follows:

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ˆ [a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b};

ˆ (a, b] := {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b};

ˆ [a, b) := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b};

ˆ (a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b};

[  1

Problem 2.8. Find 0, 1 − .
+
k
k∈N

Problem 2.9. What is |A × B|, if |A| = 2 and |B| = 3?

Problem 2.10. Let A, B, C, D be sets. Prove that

[A × (C ∪ D)] ∩ [(A ∪ B) × C] = A × C

Problem 2.11. Let A, B, C, D be sets. Prove that

[(A\B) × C] ∪ [A × (C\D)] = (A × C)\(B × D)

Problem 2.12. Let a ∈ Z. Show that if a3 is odd, then a is odd.

Problem 2.13. Let a ∈ Z. Show that if a2 + 37a − 255 is even, then a is even.

Problem 2.14. Prove that there are infinitely many primes (in N).

Problem 2.15. Prove that each positive rational number except 1 can be written as a
12
product of finitely many primes and reciprocals of primes. For example, 35 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 15 · 17 .

Problem 2.16. The Fibonacci sequence is a sequence defined iteratively as follows:

a1 = a2 = 1, and an = an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 3

Prove that for all n ∈ N, we have an ≤ 2n−1 .

Problem 2.17. Determine whether the following are functions or not. If so, (for all questions
except (f)), are they injective or surjective?

(a) f1 : [0, ∞) → R where f1 (x) = log(x)

(b) f2 : {n ∈ N : n ≥ 2} → N+ where f2 (n) is the sum of positive integral factors of n which

are smaller than n.

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(c) f3 : [−1, 1] → R where f3 (x) = arcsin(x).

(d) F4 = {(x, y) ∈ [−1, 1] × R : sin(y) = x}.

(e) F5 = {(x, y) ∈ [−1, 1] × − π2 , π2 : sin(y) = x}.

 

p
(f) F6 = {(x, y) ∈ R × R : [x5 + sin( |x|)]37 + cos(sin(x)) − y = 0}.

(g) F7 = {(x, y) ∈ R+ × R+ : x − y 2 = 0}.

(h) F8 = {(x, y) ∈ Q+ × Q+ : x − y 2 = 0}.

Problem 2.18. Let A be a set and f, g : A → A be two functions.

(a) Suppose f (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A. Prove that f is bijective.

(b) Let k ∈ N+ and suppose g k (x) = x for all x ∈ A. Prove that g is bijective. (Remark: g k
means the composite of g for k times)

Problem 2.19. Determine whether the following relations are reflexive, symmetric, transi-
tive or anti-symmetric?

(a) For all a, b ∈ N+ , aR1 b if and only if a is divisible by b.

(b) For all a, b ∈ N+ , aR2 b if and only if (a is divisible by b or b is divisible by a).

(c) For all a, b ∈ Z, aR3 b if and only if a − b is divisible by 3.

(d) For all a, b ∈ Q, aR4 b if and only if a − b ∈ Z.

(e) For all a, b ∈ Q, aR5 b if and only if there is k ∈ Z such that both ka, kb ∈ Z.

(f) For all a, b ∈ R, aR6 b if and only if a < b.

(g) For all a, b ∈ R, aR7 b if and only if a ≤ b.