Associated factors

The text discusses the importance of pH and temperature in the suscep�bility of pipeline steels to stress
corrosion cracking (SSC). It explains that as pH decreases, the risk of SSC increases due to an increase in
the concentra�on of hydrogen ions available for cathodic reac�on and the forma�on of atomic
hydrogen. On the other hand, the suscep�bility to SSC decreases as temperature increases upwards
from ambient, with the highest suscep�bility occurring around 25 to 35 oC due to the increased rate of
atomic hydrogen permea�on through the steel, increased rate of combina�on of the atomic hydrogen at
the inner surface, and lower risk of embritlement.

The text also notes that the cri�cal level of stress that can cause SSC has not been completely quan�fied,
but that the principal applied stress arises from the internal pressure of the pipeline, which is limited to
a percentage of the specified minimum yield strength (SMYS). In addi�on, it explains that post-weld heat
treatment is effec�ve in reducing the risk of SSC, and it is common for thick wall pipelines (> 20 mm) to
be post-weld heat treated as part of the weld procedures for sour service. The text also briefly men�ons
that local deforma�on of the steel by cold work must be avoided with pipe for sour service, and that
hydrotes�ng and other manufacturing processes can affect the residual stresses in the pipeline.

Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)

The text describes a phenomenon called hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC), which is caused by atomic
hydrogen migra�ng through steel and combining with inclusions of manganese sulphide in the steel,
forming molecular hydrogen that builds up pressure within the steel and leads to internal cracking. This
type of cracking is not stress-associated, but rather related to the composi�on and morphology of the
pipeline steel, par�cularly the quan�ty, distribu�on, and form of manganese sulphide inclusions. The
text also explains how manganese sulphide is formed and how it tends to aggregate towards the center
of the concast slabs of steel, which can result in mid-wall inclusions in the formed pipes. HIC begins as
isolated blisters that eventually link together and cause internal cracking, with the major hazard being
the propaga�on of cracks towards the inner surface of the pipe. The blisters grow and spread sideways,
causing a tearing and rota�on of the steel microstructure. The text also notes that in pipe fabricated
from rolled plate, HIC damage results in a "pipe within a pipe" for parts of the affected pipe joints.

The con�nua�on of the text explains that although pipelines that have suffered extensive HIC damage
can o�en be operated with low risk of rupture, the risk of further cracking can be reduced by effec�ve
corrosion inhibi�on. The par�al pressure of carbon dioxide is a key factor in determining the severity of
the cracking, and the addi�on of copper to the steel can reduce the volume of atomic hydrogen
migra�ng through the steel, reducing or preven�ng HIC in crude oil pipelines. However, the addi�on of
copper may increase the general internal corrosion and alter the type of corrosion inhibitor required.
The severity of the environment is altered by the pH of the water, and the addi�on of buffering agents
may reduce the risk of HIC. In wet sour gas with high par�al pressures of carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide, it is necessary to alter both the chemistry and the morphology of inclusions in the steel to
prevent HIC. It is important to test candidate inhibitors against the actual pipeline steel.
Avoidance of HIC

The text describes methods to avoid hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) in steel, which is caused by
manganese sulphide inclusions. To minimize the presence of these inclusions, the residual sulphur in the
steel must be reduced to below 0.003%. Steel is produced from selected inputs and is treated with
calcium twice, during the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process and at the ladle stage, to achieve this
low level of sulphur. The calcium reacts with sulphur to form finely dispersed calcium sulphide. The ra�o
of calcium to sulphur is typically between 3 to 4:1. High levels of calcium must be avoided because it can
cause stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking (SOHIC) in the heat-affected zone. The forma�on of
spherical calcium sulphide inclusions reduces the cross-sec�onal area available for migra�ng atomic
hydrogen and makes the steel more resistant to HIC. Magne�c s�rring of the steel during ingot cas�ng
has been used in the past but has been found to be ineffec�ve and is no longer used.

Sour Service Tes�ng

The text discusses the tes�ng of steel for sour service, which refers to the corrosion of steel when
exposed to environments that contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and other sulphur compounds. There are
standard tests available for selec�ng steels for sour service, including NACE TM-0177 and TM-0284. The
test environments given in TM-0177 simulate sour gas and crude oil systems respec�vely, and the
solu�ons are o�en termed the NACE and BP solu�ons. The tests involve exposing small sec�ons of
material to acidified brines saturated with hydrogen sulphide and subjec�ng them to an imposed load,
either tensile or 4-point bending. The samples are then inspected for cracking, and a good material will
have a low Crack Length Ra�o (CLR) value. The text also men�ons electrochemical poten�al and
hydrogen permea�on measurements, which are modern tests that provide kine�c informa�on on
corrosion mechanisms and are useful for screening suitable corrosion inhibitors for a par�cular service.
Full ring tests have been developed to qualify prospec�ve materials, and these involve internally
cleaning a ring of pipe, imposing a tensile stress on the pipe, sealing it and filling it with de-aerated
acidified brine, and then observing the forma�on of cracks using ultrasonic examina�on. The permea�on
of hydrogen through steel can also be studied using small samples of pipe material in electrochemical
cells, which evaluate the hydrogen flux by reducing the hydrogen and measuring the current generated.
This approach allows the ranking of the steel by the cri�cal hydrogen flux that results in cracking.

Stress orientated hydrogen induced cracking (SOHIC)

The text describes a type of cracking in pipes called Stress-Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC).
This type of cracking occurs near welds and is a combina�on of two other types of cracking, SSC and HIC.
SOHIC appears as a stacked array of blisters linked by ver�cal sulphide stress cracks and occurs in the
outer region of the heat-affected zone. The cracking mechanism is not fully understood, but it is believed
to be associated with inadequate control of heat treatments during the fabrica�on of the plate from
which the pipe is formed. This leads to uneven distribu�on of the micro-alloying elements in the
material, which causes stress to be transferred from so�er bands to stronger bands during the welding
process. Hydrogen charging of the segregated areas leads to minor blistering of the so� zones, which
increases local stress and causes SSC of the work hardened bands. Improved heat treatment and �ght
control of calcium addi�ons have resolved the SOHIC discovered in the HFI ERW pipe. Finally, the text
also men�ons that SOHIC is detected in the full ring HIC test, but only by using angled ultrasonic probes
as the SOHIC indica�ons are lost within the signal noise reflected from conven�onal probes
(compression wave) scatered by the weld.